Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Electronics to Power
Transmission & Distribution
Systems
Arindam Ghosh
Dept. of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur,
India
E-mail: aghosh@iitk.ac.in
Lecture Schedule
• Day 1: Problems with bulk power transmission
& shunt compensation of transmission
systems.
• Day2: Series compensation of transmission
systems & other FACTS controllers.
• Day 3: Power quality, custom power &
network reconfiguring devices.
• Day 4: Distribution STATCOM, Dynamic
Voltage Restorer (DVR) & Unified Power
Quality Conditioner (UPQC)
2
Power Transmission Line
Characteristics
Transmission lines are represented by:
• Lumped parameter short lines (up to
50 mi).
• Medium lines represented by nominal-
π or nominal-T models.
• Long lines represented by distributed
parameter models.
3
Lossless Line Representation
~ ~
VS = Source Voltage, VR = Receiving Voltage,
~
VM = Midpoint Voltage, X = Total line reactance
4
Power Flow Over
Transmission Line
~ ~
Let VS = V∠δ and VR = V∠0 ο
~ V (cos δ − 1) + jV sin δ
Then I S =
jX
We then have
~ ~∗ V sin δ + jV (1 − cosδ )
2 2
PS + jQS = VS I S =
X
5
Power Flow Over
Transmission Line
Similarly
~ ∗ ~ V sin δ − jV (cos δ − 1)
2 2
PR − jQR = VR I S =
X
The real power over the line is
V sin δ
2
Pe = PS = PR =
X
6
Power Flow Over
Transmission Line
7
Power-Angle Curves
2
V
It is assumed that Pmax = = 1 pu
X 8
Midpoint Voltage Sag
( 2 )∠(δ 2 )
VM = V cos δ
~
9
Ferranti Effect
~
VR =
(2 Y ) V~
(2 Y ) − X S
10
Ferranti Effect
11
Voltage Stability
• Voltage stability is the ability of the power
system to return to the nominal (pre-fault)
voltages of all buses following a disturbance
in the system.
• In addition, the system shall also be able to
maintain the nominal voltage at buses in the
steady state.
• Conversely, the voltage instability occurs
when the voltages at different buses drop
continuously following a disturbance or load
change.
12
Voltage Stability
~ 1 ~ ο
VR = pu when VS = 1∠0
1 + Z ratio ∠(θ L − θ R )
13
Voltage Stability
PR =
2Z 2
ratio {1 + cos(θ R − θ L )}
1+ Z 2
ratio + Z ratio cos(θ R − θ L )
The transmission line impedance is fixed for a
given line. Therefore Zratio decreases as the
load impedance increases. The maximum
power occurs when the load and line
impedances are same. The power decreases
after that and the voltage monotonically
decreases.
14
Voltage Stability
15
Voltage Stability
16
Angle Stability
• Pm = Mechanical power
• Pe = Electrical power
17
Multimachine Stability
18
Multimachine Stability
20
Power System Stabilizer (PSS)
• An AVR regulates the generator terminal
voltage and also reduces the peak of the first
swing following any disturbance.
• However, its high gain contributes to negative
damping to the system and this results in the
low frequency oscillations in the system.
• These oscillations are the results of the
periodic interchange of kinetic energy between
different generator rotors.
• A PSS provides positive damping to these small
oscillations through negative feedback of the
changes in rotor kinetic energy.
21
Subsynchronous
Resonance (SSR)
XC Complement frequency
fn = f0
X = f0 − fn
f0 being the nominal system frequency
22
Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR)
23
Shunt Compensation of
Transmission Systems
A device that that is connected in parallel with a
transmission line is called a shunt compensator.
It is referred to as a compensator since it
compensates for the reactive power in the ac
system. It can
• Improve the voltage profile
• Improve the power-angle characteristics
• Improve the stability margin
• provide damping to power oscillations
24
Ideal Shunt Compensator
2
It is assumed that V = 1 pu
X 29
Reactive Power
Requirement
31
Improvement of Stability
Margin
32
Power Swing Damping
The swing equation is given by
2H d δ
( )
2
~
= Pm − Pe δ , VM
ω s dt 2
ω s ∂Pe
2 H ∂δ
35
Power Swing Damping
Let us vary the midpoint voltage according to
~ d∆δ
∆ VM = K M
dt
We therefore get
2 H d 2 ∆δ ∂Pe d∆δ ∂Pe
+ ~ KM + ∆δ = 0
ω s dt 2
∂ VM dt ∂δ
This is the equation of a 2nd order system in which
~
2 H ω s > 0, ∂Pe ∂ VM > 0, ∂Pe ∂δ > 0
Therefore a stable solution is guaranteed if
KM > 0
36
An Example
~ ~
VS = 1∠40 pu , VR = 1∠0ο pu , ω = 100π rad/s
ο
39
Example (Continued)
~
( ~
) ( ~
)
VF = K P 1 − VM + K I ∫ 1 − VM dt + C P
d∆δ
dt
The last term adds damping to the system.
40
Example (Continued)
43
VI Curve
45
Components of SVC
The building blocks of an SVC are
• Saturated Reactor
• Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
• Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)
• Thyristor Switched Reactor
• Thyristor Controlled Transformer
An SVC is made of the combination of one or
more than one of the above components and
fixed capacitor banks.
46
Thyristor Switched
Capacitor (TSC)
In a TSC a capacitor is connected in series
with two opposite pole thyristors. A
current flows through the capacitor when
the opposite poled thyristors are gated.
47
TSC - Equivalent Reactance
1
X eq = − j , k = 0,1, Κ , n
kω C
where k is the number of TSCs conducting.
48
TSC - Transient-free Switching
50
TSC - Transient-free Switching
52
TCR - VI Relationship
53
TCR - VI Relationship
54
TCR - VI Relationship
55
TCR - Fundamental Reactance
i Lf =
Vm
(σ − sin σ )sin (ω t − 90°)
π XL
56
TCR - Fundamental Reactance
57
TCR - Fundamental Reactance
58
TCR - Harmonics
59
TCR - Harmonics
60
Typical SVC Scheme
61
SVC VI Characteristics
62
SVC VI Characteristics
63
SVC VI Characteristics
64
Synchronous Voltage
Source (SVS)
65
SVS - Voltage Waveforms
66
12-Step SVS
68
Multi-Step SVS
• In a similar way 6n-step output voltage can
be obtained by connecting n basic 6-step
inverters and by providing phase shift
through transformer connections.
• For example, a 24-step inverter can be
constructed by phase shifting each of the
four 6-step inverters by 15º.
• Similarly a phase shift of 7.5º between 8
basic inverter output will produce a 48-
step output waveform.
69
Multi-Step SVS
70
24-Step Output Waveform
and Harmonic Spectrum
71
3-Level Inverter
72
5-Level Inverter
73
STATCOM
• A STATCOM consists
of a SVS that is
supplied by a dc
storage capacitor Cdc.
• The SVS is connected
in shunt with the ac
system bus through a
coupling transformer
with a leakage
reactance of XT.
74
STATCOM - VAr Generation
75
STATCOM - DC Capacitor Control
77
STATCOM - Control
78
STATCOM - VI
Characteristics
79
Comparison Between SVC
and STATCOM
80
For Further Reading
Flexible AC Transmission Systems
The following book mainly deals with thyristor based FACTS devices like SVC and TCSC.
[3] R. M. Mathur and R. K. Varma, Thyristor Based FACTS Controllers for Electric Power
Transmission Systems, IEEE Press and Wiley Interscience, New York, 2002.
The following book is a classic. It discusses most of the early thyristor based technology.
[4] T. J. E. Miller (ed), Reactive Power Control in Electric Systems, John Wiley, New York,
1982.
The following book covers some of the aspects of shunt and series compensation and in general
is a good reference book on Power Systems
[5] P. S. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994.
[6] R. C. Dugan, M. F. McGranaghan and H. W. Beaty, Electric Power Systems Quality, 2nd
ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2003.
[7] J. Arrillaga, N. R. Watson and S. Chen, Power Quality Assessment, John Wiley, New York,
2000.
Voltage sag and interruptions problems have been discussed in great detail in the following
book.
[8] M. J. Bolen, Understanding Power Quality Problems: Voltage Sags and Interruptions,
IEEE Press, 2000.
[9] A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich, Power Quality Enhancement using Custom Power Devices,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, 2002.