Lithos, 32 (1994) 161-168 161

Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam

The ascent of felsic magmas in dykes

N i c k Petford a'l, J o h n R. Lister b a n d Ross C. K e r r c

aDepartment of Earth Sciences, University of Liverpool, PO Box 147, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
blnstitute of Theoretical Geophysics, Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, University of Cambridge,
Silver St, Cambridge CB3 9EW,, UK
CResearch School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
(Revised and accepted October 1, 1993)

ABSTRACT
LITHOS
The results of a thermal and fluid-dynamical analysis are presented that allow geologists to estimate the
critical dyke or fracture width (we) necessary for the transport of felsic magma through the crust without
control by solidification. The principal geological variables required to estimate wc are the magmatic
viscosity (/t), the density and temperature contrasts (zip and AT) between magma and country rock, and
the height of ascent H. The results show that for typical values of/~ and zip, and for transport distances of
20 to 30 km, the critical dyke width is constrained to lie between about 2 and 20 m.

Introduction developed their geometries in situ at emplacement

A proliferation of field-based studies over the last
decade have demonstrated the fundamental control
exerted by crustal discontinuities such as faults and
shear zones on both the ascent and emplacement of
granitic magmas (e.g. Hutton, 1982, 1988; Castro,
1987; Brunet al., 1990; Hutton et al., 1990; Schmidt
et al., 1990; D ' L e m o s et al., 1992; Petford and Ath-
erton, 1992). From a consideration of the recent
literature it seems that several mechanisms, oper-
ating under the wider influence of regional tectonic
activity, are set to replace the older idea of diapir-
ism and provide new paradigms for granitoid as-
cent. Differing only in the regional stress conditions
(compressive or extensional), these mechanisms all
relate to a c o m m o n process whereby felsic magmas
rise through the crust to their final levels of em-
placement by either generating or exploiting faults,
fractures or conduits of some kind. This concept is
not in itself new (see for example: Anderson, 1936;
Pollard and Johnson, 1973; Pitcher, 1979). How-
ever, realization that classic granitic "diapirs" such
as Ardara, Cannibal Creek, Arran and Chindamora
~Present address: School of Geological Sciences, University
of Kingston, Kingston-upon-Thames, KT 1 2EE, England
level through the process of ballooning (Holder,
1979; Bateman, 1985; Ramsay, 1989; see also Cloos,
1925), has highlighted the problems in equating
emplacement mechanisms with those of transport
and ascent. While acknowledging that a fault-con-
trolled emplacement mechanism is not in itself a
posteriori evidence for fault-controlled magmatic
ascent, we show that unlike diapirism, the ascent
through the continental crust of felsic melts via faults
or dykes can be strongly supported on thermal and
fluid-dynamical grounds.
The ascent and emplacement of felsic magmas
From consideration of the literature magmatic
emplacement, and by inference magmatic ascent,
has been thought of as exploiting either pre-existing
faults or fractures by the following mechanisms:
(1) Ascent during net extension + lateral motions:
e.g. Main Donegal (Hutton, 1982); Mortagne
(Guineberteau et al., 1987); Rapakivi granite, S.
Greenland (Hutton et al., 1990); Xanthi pluton, N.
Greece (Koukoukevlas and Pe-Piper, 1991);
Coastal Batholith, Peru (Atherton, 1990); Cordil-

0024-4937/94/$07.00 © 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

SSD10024-4937 (93) E0046-P
162
lera Blanca Batholith, Peru (Petford and Atherton,
1992) and
(2) Ascent during net compression + lateral mo-
tions: e.g. Extremadura batholith (Castro, 1985 );
The Chemehuevi Mountains (John, 1988); Sierra
de Freita, Portugal (Reavy, 1989); Ox Mountains
(McCaffrey, 1992 ); Great Tonalite Sill (Hutton and
Ingram, 1992); Brittany Leucogranites (D'Lemos
et al., 1992); Papoose Flat Pluton (Law et al.,
1992 ); Sierra Nevada (Tikoff and Teyssier, 1992 ).
( 1 ) and (2) are of course end-members, and al-
though there is some disagreement between the
transtensionists (1) and the slightly more contro-
versial transpressionists (2) as to exactly how a
magma can rise through the crust while under
compression, there seems to be good field evidence
that this can indeed be the case (D'Lemos et al.,
1992; Hutton and Ingram, 1992; Tikoff and Teys-
sier, 1992).
Dykes and diapirs
In a recent paper, Clemens and Mawer (1992) have
shown that the transport of felsic magmas in dykes
or fractures is an extremely efficient mechanism that
can result in magmatic ascent rates up to five orders
of magnitude faster than diapiric rise. These au-
thors provide an excellent overview of the relative
merits of diapirism versus dyke propagation and
only the salient points that distinguish these pro-
cesses from each other in fluid-dynamic terms are
reviewed here. As a helpful reminder, typical trans-
port distances of granitoid magmas are generally
thought to be in excess of 20 km (Miller et al., 1988;
Clemens and Mawer, 1992).
In an extensive numerical study of diapirism,
Marsh (1982) used a modified form of Stokes law:
V:.- 2gApd2 ( 1)
9 ltc
to model diapiric ascent. He showed that the ascent
rate (V) is controlled principally by the viscosity of
the country rock (/to) and, to a lesser extent, by the
radius of the softened zone or thermal aureole (d)
surrounding the rising diapir. The effect of the vis-
cosity of the magma itself was found to be negligi-
ble, but even for the two limiting cases of zero and
infinite magmatic viscosity, the change in the nu-
N. PETFORD ET AL.
merical factor in Eq. ( 1 ) varies only between 1/3
and 2/9 (Batchelor, 1967, eq. 4.9.30).
In stark contrast to diapiric rise, the ascent of fel-
sic magmas through dykes had received little atten-
tion until the recent discussion by Clemens and
Mawer ( 1992 ). This is surprising given the amount
of work that has been done to model the flow of ba-
saltic magma in dykes (e.g. Delaney and Pollard,
1981; Wilson and Head, 1981; Bruce and Huppert,
1990; Spence and Turcotte, 1990; Lister and Kerr,
1991 ). Simple pipe-flow equations for magma in a
tabular dyke show that the average velocity (Vave)
of the flow will take the general form:
gApw 2
Vave= 1-'~fl
m (2)
where w is the width of the dyke or fracture. Writ-
ten in this way, Eq. (2) appears similar to Eq. ( 1 ),
with the buoyancy contrast (gAp) between magma
and country rock acting as the driving force for both
diapiric and dyke-controlled magmatic ascent.
However, these expressions differ fundamentally in
that the viscosity/tc in Eq. ( 1 ) is that of the country
rock, while in Eq. (2) ~m relates specifically to the
magma within the dyke. Thus, the more viscous the
magma, the slower the ascent rate.
Melt viscosity, H20 and volatiles
The assumption that granites rise as crystaMaden
mushes, or even solids, with viscosities close to that
of the crust itself (ca. 1015-1019 Pa.s) has often been
used to argue that granitic magmas are simply too
viscous to move through dykes (e.g. Kukowski and
Neugebauer, 1990). However, the estimated vis-
cosity range of hot (~900-1000°C) crystal-free
tonalitic to rhyolitic liquids is l 0 4 t o 10 8 Pa.s (Car-
michael et al., 1974; McBirney, 1984; Bacon, 1992 ),
many orders of magnitude less than the values com-
monly used in numerical models of granitic diapir-
ism. Recent experimental results suggest that even
these values may be further reduced if water and
other volatile elements are present in the melt phase.
For crystal contents less than approximately 30%
(Shaw, 1965; Arzi, 1978 ), the main controls on the
magmatic viscosity are temperature, Si content and
H20, along with B, F and P205 (for a review see
Dingwall et al., 1993). In particular, the strong re-
duction in melt viscosity with increasing wt.% HzO
T H E ASCENT OF FELSIC MAGMAS IN DYKES
demonstrated by Shaw (1965) has important im-
plications for dyke transport ofgranitoid melts, and
is discussed further below.
Critical dyke width
A simple mathematical analysis of dyke flow is given
in the Appendix. Here the results ofEq. ( 7 ) are pre-
sented in a form that can be used to estimate the
critical m i n i m u m dyke width, Wc, needed for felsic
m a g m a to ascend through the crust without freez-
ing. The analysis suggests that the dyke width plays
a fundamental role in controlling magmatic ascent
and that small changes in Wc will easily counteract
order-of-magnitude changes in the magmatic vis-
cosity. The critical dyke width for melt ascent is:
-- --3/4-- --1/4
Wc= 1.5 Sm /ocH (3)
where x is the thermal diffusivity, H is the height of
the fault or dyke and Sm and S~ are Stefan numbers
defined by Eqs. (5b) and (6b) of the Appendix.
Given reasonable estimates of commonly observed
density and temperature contrasts within the con-
tinental crust, and a typical range of calc-alkaline
granitoid viscosities of 104-10 s Pa.s, we find that
wc is constrained to lie between about 2 and 20 m.
This result is shown in a simple way in Fig. 1
where values of wc for a variety of granitoids from
different tectonic settings are compared. Crystal-free
magmatic viscosities and melt densities of these
rocks have been estimated using the methods of
Shaw (1972) and Bottinga et al. (1983). Where
possible, quoted liquidus temperatures, emplace-
ment pressures and water contents have been in-
cluded in the viscosity calculations. For simplicity
of presentation, however, we have used the com-
mon values H=30 km, Tf-Too=350°C,
T i - Tf= 150¢'C, c = 1.2 J g - I ° C - l , L = 300 j g - I and
x = 8 × 10- 7 m2s- ~ since the computed values of wc
are relatively insensitive to these parameters (Pet-
ford et al., 1993).
As an example, the Flamanville granite in north-
ern France is representative of a plutonic body con-
sidered to have been inflated in situ by felsic melts
that traversed at least 15 km of continental crust
along a steeply dipping pre-existing fault ( B r u n e t
al., 1990). Taking an estimated magmatic viscosity
163
Wc ( m )
500
2.5 3.5 5 10 14
300
20
E
Q_
100
50
104 105 106 107 108
(Pa s)
Fig. 1. Plot of density contrast between magma and country
rock (Ap) as a function of magmatic viscosity over a range of
typical calc-alkaline granitoid viscosities from differing tec-
tonic settings where there is some estimate of the mean crus-
tal density from geophysical studies. Numbered contour lines
represent the critical dyke width (we) required for magmatic
ascent, calculated using Eq. (3). As wc is a function only of
the 1/4 power of Ap and/x in Eq. (3), it is constrained to lie
in a relative narrow range of between ca. 2 and 16 m for the
indicated viscosities. CBB, Cordillera Blanca Batholith
(Couch et al., 1981, Petford, 1990 ); PRDI, PRD2 Puscao Ring
Dykes, Peru (data from Bussell, 1988); CTG, Central Chil-
ean Tertiary granitoids (data from Lopez Escobar et al., 1979;
Omarini and Gotze, 1991 ); WPRB, Peninsular Ranges Bath-
olith, (data from Silver and Chappell, 1988; Couch and Rid-
dihough, 1989 ); GTS, Great Tonalite Sill, Alaska (data from
Roddick, 1983; Hutton and Ingram, 1992); MGG, Mount
Givens Granodiorite, Sierra Nevada (data from Bateman and
Nokleburg, 1978, Dodge and Bateman, 1988); MD, main
Donegal (data from Pitcher and Berger, 1972; Young, 1974);
F, Flamanville alkali granite (data from Brunet al., 1990);
M, Mortagne granite, France (data from Guineberteau et al.,
1988); SM, St Malo leucogranites (data from Brown and
D'Lemos, 1991); BB, Baltoro granite, central Karakoram
(data from Searle et al., 1992; Verma and Prasad, 1987).
of 10 6 Pa.s and a density difference of 200 kg m - 3 ,
Eq. (3) gives an estimated critical width wc ~ 7 m.
(Fig. 1 ).
The positions of the various granitoid bodies in
Fig. 1 can be related in a broad sense to their known
tectonic settings. For example, all of the Cordil-
leran or magmatic-arc granitoids (tonalites and
granodiorites of the Andes and Western US) plot
together on the left-hand side of the diagram. This
is a direct result of the relatively low viscosities of
these melts and the high density contrasts that char-
acterize Cordilleran belts underlain by deep mafic
roots. The granitoids of northern France and Do-
negal plot in the centre of the diagram. These higher
164
m"~'xx
10 ~"
Y
I0/ ] * P ' r I ' I '
0 2 4 6 8 10
wt.~ H:O
Fig. 2. Plot s h o w i n g the viscosity reducing effect o f w t . % H 2 0
on a hypothetical granitic melt (72 wl.% SiO2), a n d t h e ac-
c o m p a n y i n g decrease in wc based on a d e n s i t y difference
zip=200 kg m -3. T h e o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s are as given in the text.
silica (higher viscosity) melts were generated and
emplaced during periods of regional deformation
and are regarded as classically syntectonic. Finally,
the highest viscosities of all are found in the two
mica leucogranites of Brittany and the central Ka-
rakoram, both of which represent, in the broadest
sense, melts associated with tectonic thickening of
the continental crust. However, the important con-
clusion, despite the variations between different
tectonic environments, is that large volumes of
magma can be rapidly transported through the crust
to their level of emplacement in dykes that are of
order a few metres in width.
Figure 1 also shows that increased magmatic vis-
cosities require somewhat larger critical dyke widths
to sustain flow and prevent freezing. As discussed
above, the viscosity and hence the critical dyke
width are dependent on the volatile content of the
magma. This relationship is shown in Fig. 2, where
wc is plotted as a function of viscosity and water
content for a hypothetical granitic melt with a SiOz
content of 72 wt.% and a dry liquidus temperature
of 900°C. The effect of increasing the water content
from 0 to 10 wt.% is to produce a drop in melt vis-
cosity at 900°C of over 6 orders of magnitude, from
8.1 log Pa.s at 0% H20 to 1.9 log Pa.s at 10 wt.%
HeO. The variation in the critical dyke width is very
much less.
Granite dykes in the field
Supporting field evidence for the existence of
narrow ( ~ 1-5 m) but laterally persistent acid dykes
N. PETFORD ET AL.
as feeders for laccolith intrusions is given by Corry
(1988). Leucogranite dykes of the order of 10 to
100 cm in width, often intruding subvertically along
normal faults, have been reported by Reddy et al.
( 1993 ) from the Langtang Valley, Nepal. Although
generally high in SiO2 ( > 70 wt.%), many are tour-
maline-bearing, which suggests that the narrow ob-
served widths may be due to the viscosity-reducing
effects of boron. An extensive network of granite
dykes is also found in the vicinity of the Himalayan
Manaslu leucogranite (LeFort, 1981 ). The sheeted
complexes described recently from the Ox moun-
tains and Great Tonalite Sill, Alaska (Hutton and
Ingrain, 1992; McCaffrey, 1992) also provide some
field constraints on We, especially since sheeting it-
self has been taken as a means of magmatic ascent
(Hutton, 1992). In the Ox Mountains, the steeply
inclined sheets that make up the intrusion have
lengths in excess of 2000 m and widths of between
ca. 1 and 3 m (McCaffrey, 1992). Similarly, the
Great Tonalite Sill is comprised of sheets with
widths of 50 m or less (Hutton and Ingram, 1992).
Given the relatively low viscosities of tonalitic
magmas, these field data are not inconsistent with
an estimated wc of less than 2.5 m (GTS, Fig. 1).
The values are, however, substantially less than the
kilometre-sized dyke widths envisaged by D'Lemos
et al. (1992) for the Hercynian leucogranites in the
Armorican Massif.
When making comparisons with field observa-
tions, it is worth considering the possibility that the
final solidified dyke may well be much narrower
than the original width during active flow. Follow-
ing a cessation of supply from its source, a dyke will
drain upwards and thin until the width is small
enough for solidification to trap the remaining
magma. We note, however, that since draining times
increase and solidification times decrease with de-
creasing width, the dyke can never drain completely.
Discussion
In their analysis of granitic magma transport by
fracture propagation, Clemens and Mawer (1992)
point out that batholiths may well be fed by a num-
ber of dykes delivering relatively small amounts of
melt in discrete batches. This mechanism of bath-
olith construction accounts well for the geochemi-
cal and isotopic heterogeneities that characterize
THE ASCENT OF FELSIC MAGMAS IN DYKES
many plutonic systems (e.g. Coastal Batholith of
Peru, Pitcher et al., 1985; Lenister granite, Mohr,
1991 ) as well as some radiometric cooling age rela-
tions (e.g. the Himalayan Manaslu leucogranite,
Copeland et al., 1990). If flow were continuous then
batholith filling times based on wc and the mag-
matic ascent rate Eq. (2) would be as short as a few
hundred years for batholith volumes of several
thousand km 3 (Petford et al., 1993). These short
timescales and large volumes suggest that the dura-
tion of each period of active flow is limited by the
amount of magma present in the source region. As
the available melt is drained by the dyke, the flow
rate will drop and the dyke width will narrow until
freezing occurs. One can envisage relatively brief
periods during which the dykes or conduits contain
rapidly ascending magma, followed by longer pe-
riods of quiescence during which the dyke or fault
system is closed. The primary evidence for the du-
ration of magma passage through such dykes would
be the presence and width of a metamorphic au-
reole close to the vicinity of the conduit (cf. the cor-
dierite-bearing shear zones of the North Armorican
Massif, D'Lemos et at., 1992). Even this may not
be present if the periods of active flow are suffi-
ciently brief, or the wall rocks are unable to develop
high-temperature aureole assemblages due to their
composition.
An important open question is why the majority
of ascending felsic melts apparently become trap-
ped and emplaced within the upper crust to crystal-
lize as plutons, while a few appear able to traverse
the crust and erupt as ash-flow ruffs without any ap-
preciable residence time in shallow magma cham-
bers (Stormer and Whitney, 1985). Similar ques-
tions arise concerning the eruption or emplacement
of mafic magmas (e.g. Walker, 1989; Rubin, 1990;
Lister et al., 1991 ). The traditional argument used
to explain the transition between magmatic ascent
and magmatic emplacement appeals to the concept
of neutral buoyancy. This simple consideration must
be modified to take account of the facts that any
magma chamber of significant vertical extent must
straddle its equilibrium level (Lister and Kerr,
1991 ) and that the level of neutral equilibrium can
be shifted from the density crossover by vertical
gradients in the regional stress (Rubin, 1990). Other
controls on the height of magmatic ascent such as
intersection with existing magma bodies, freely
165
slipping joints or dilational jogs in shear zones are
worth further investigation.
A second open question is why many granitoid
plutons become emplaced and subsequently de-
formed within fault zones. An obvious focusing
mechanism, and one in keeping with the majority
of recent field studies, is the intersection of ascend-
ing melts with active shear zones (Clemens and
Mawer, 1992). This is all the more likely if the ris-
ing melt is exploiting a fault plane, which may itself
be responsible for initiating partial melting through
decompression. These considerations suggest the
following scenario. Partial melting at depth is fol-
lowed by rapid dyke ascent. The ascending melt in-
tersects a dilational jog in an active fault zone in the
upper crust, where it becomes trapped and subse-
quently cools and crystallizes. In situ deformation
of the crystallizing magma results in the range of
magmatic to solid state fabrics commonly associ-
ated with granitoid emplacement.
Summary
The ascent of felsic magmas through the conti-
nental crust along deeply penetrating discontinui-
ties, whether they are called dykes, conduits, chan-
nels, fractures or faults, is an extremely efficient
tranport mechanism. Felsic melts from a variety of
tectonic environments can be transported without
control by solidification to their level of emplace-
ment along dykes of order a few metres in width.
The diagram shown in Fig. 1, or the more general
Eq. (3), can be used to estimate the critical (mini-
mum) dyke width for dyke-controlled ascent of a
given granitoid body from the magmatic viscosity
and the thermal and crustal density contrasts. The
great rapidity of granitic ascent by dyke flow may
seem counter-intuitive to those accustomed to the
traditional picture of granitic magmas as vast, sticky,
unrooted blobs that move against their better
judgement from source to emplacement like the
weary Sisyphus rolling his rock to the hilltop. Per-
haps a better analogy is to imagine ascending gran-
ite as the fated rock rolling speedily back to rest!
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Mike Atherton, Mike
Cheadle and Richard D'Lemos for stimulating dis-
166
cussions on granitic ascent mechanisms, and Allan
Rubin, Christian Teyssier and Gail Mahood for en-
couraging reviews of an earlier version of the man-
uscript. This work was supported by Royal Society
Research Fellowships (NP, JRL) and a grant from
the British Council (RCK).
Appendix
Magmatic ascent in a dyke is taken to be driven by
a vertical pressure gradient due to the density dif-
ference between the magma and the crust. The vis-
cous (laminar) flow in a dyke or fault conduit of
width w will have a parabolic profile that varies from
zero at the walls to a maximum velocity
Vmax=3 VavJ2 at the centre of the dyke, where Vav~
is given by Eq. (2) (e.g. Tritton, 1988). The tem-
perature of the magma is governed by the equation:
OT O2T
~-f+u'VT=K ox 2 (4)
where the second term represents advection of heat
by the fluid velocity u and the third term represents
cross-stream conduction into the surrounding cold
crust. Initially, the temperature gradients at the flow
margins are steep, the conductive cooling is domi-
nant and the flow starts to solidify. However, the
conductive losses decrease with time as the wall rock
warms up and, provided the flow has not already
frozen, the continuous advective resupply of heat
by hot magma from below will eventually dominate
and the flow margins will start to melt back. A de-
tailed numerical investigation of this competition
between freezing and meltback was presented by
Bruce and Huppert ( 1989, 1990).
Bruce (1989) suggested the following simple
scaling analysis of this process. When conduction is
dominant a balance between the first and second
terms of Eq. (4) leads to a thermal boundary-layer
thickness proportional to (Kt)a/z, and the rate of so-
lidification is approximately given by:
Ow ~c 1
Ot ~: S~ (xt) j/2 (5a)
L Anderson, E.M., 1936. The dynamicsof the formationofco-
where S~ - c ( Tr- T~)' (5b)
L is the latent heat, c the specific heat capacity, Tf
the freezing temperature of the magma and To the
N. P E T F O R D E T A L .
far-field crustal temperature. Conversely, when ad-
vection is dominant a balance between the second
and third terms of Eq. (4) leads to a thermal
boundary-layer thickness at height z proportional to
(wzx/Vavo) 1/3, and the rate of meltback is approxi-
mately given by:
-- .1/3
Ow ~c [V, ve~ L
dt °C~m~,~--~ZX,] w h e r e S m - c ( T i - T f ) (6b)
and Ti is the initial magmatic temperature. From
Eq. (5a) the timescale for freezing in the absence of
advection is proportional to (wSoo)2/x, at which
time the rate of freezing due to conduction alone
would have decreased to of order x/wS~. Bruce ar-
gued that an ad hoc estimate of the criterion for the
flow to continue without complete solidification is
that this rate of freezing should be less than the rate
of meltback at the top of the conduit due to advec-
tion as determined from Eq. (6a). After substitu-
tion from Eq. (2) and a little rearrangement, this
criterion can be expressed in the form:
__ _3/4-- --1/4
.._ram"~ [ ].llfH'~
(7)
where C is a constant.
It should be noted that the proportionality of wc
to the group (l~KH/gAp) 1/4 is exact, as can be shown
by dimensional analysis. The dependence on the
Stefan numbers, however, is an approximation both
because the superposition of the separate solutions
for solidification and meltback neglects the com-
plex nonlinear interaction between heat transport
and flow and because Eqs. (5a) and (6a) are large-
Stefan-number approximations. Nevertheless, the
more rigorous results of Bruce and Huppert (1989,
1990) can be reproduced to within 15% by choos-
ing the value C= 1.5 in Eq. (7). Thus the uncertain-
ties introduced by the approximation are much less
than those in the values of the physical parameters
and the critical dyke width can be well-estimated by
the easily calculated form of Eq. (3).
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