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Civil Society Exam

PHST-P 301 Historical Contexts and Contemporary Approaches to Philanthropy

Fall 2018

Prof. Hatcher

3. Understanding the role of nonprofit organizations in society.

Question 1

Over the course of the semester, a term that has been continuously brought up is

civil society. Since civil society is a complex term I will use multiple course authors to first cre-

ate shard meaning of the term. I will begin by giving Sievers, O’Connell and Anheier’s perspec-

tives of civil society from their writing, and how it correlates to the nonprofit sector. Next, I will

explain one of Sievers’ institutional structures, private associations, because I find it most signif-

icant in the evolution of civil society. One normative ideal I find most important to maintaining

civil society is tolerance, which I will explain using Sievers’ ideals of contemporary American

society. By explaining why these are important I will display the significance and emergence of

civil society.

To begin by defining civil society, we must look at course authors interpretation of the

term. In Bruce R Siever’s book, Civil Society, Philanthropy, and the Fate of the Commons, he

devotes the entire first chapter to understanding the concept of civil society. In this chapter, Siev-

ers explain civil society to be made up of “seven central strands” that are “mutually supportive

and interdependent” (Sievers, pp. 7). These strands Sievers explains that civil society's institu-

tional structures are organized philanthropy, rule of law, private associations, and systems of free

expression— are the primary vehicles outside the state through which citizens interact and col-
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laborate to achieve common purposes. The three normative elements— commitments to the

common good, individual rights and tolerance—are values animating these institutions” (Sievers,

pp.8). For these seven strands to have meaning, me must define the elusive terms. We can under-

stand philanthropy to be voluntary action for the public good, as defined by Robert Payton and

Kathleen McCarthy (Sievers, pp.4). Public good is interchangeable with the term common good,

which is often referred to be “one constitutive element of civil society” (Sievers 3). Sievers uses

each of these seven strands to portray the complexity and significance of civil society. Another

course author, Brian O’Connell however defines civil society to be “where the various elements

of society come together to protect and nurture the individual and where the individual operates

to provide those same protections and liberating opportunities for others.”(O’Connell, pg. 24) As

one can see, O’Connell’s definition alludes to the individuals civic duty as part of the collective.

Civicus is quoted in another course reading by Anheier to define civil society as “is the arena

outside family, government, and market where people voluntarily associate to advance common

interests, based on civility” (Anheier, pg. 8). As you can see, civil society is a term whose spirit

is of the individual, participating in community with others toward a common interest in civility.

We see by the course reading examples and my given summary how deeply intertwined civil so-

ciety is to the sector that involves nongovernment, nonprofit, charitable, and voluntary action.

It is important to understand Sievers institutional structure of private associations, which

I find to be the most significant institutional structure in creating the historical foundation for

civil society during the colonial era and the formation of the United States. It is important to

open by quoting Sievers as saying “the rise of associational life coincides with the rise of human

society” (Sievers 23). He says “Private voluntary associations have, since ancient times, played a
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vital role in achieving social purposes” (Sievers, pp.6). Sievers explains that the nonprofit sector

alone is not civil society, however he later explains the historic development of associational liv-

ing and the norm of individuals coming together for common mission, lays the path for the civil

society we know today. The association in early form would be comprised of majority men, com-

ing together to discuss scholarly and political opinions in the form of guilds, which “served as

the link between private realm of the family and the higher order of governing bodies, playing a

vital role in medieval hierarchy (Sievers, pp.24). By time of the enlightenment, associations be-

gan to form for all people and purposes from religion to charity. During this period of associa-

tions Alexis de Tocqueville says “Americans of all ages, all condition, and all dispositions form

associations”… ”Wherever at the head of a new undertaking you see the government in France,

or a man of rank in England, in the United States you will be sure to find an association” (Toc-

queville 150). In this piece, Tocqueville is portraying the historical relevance and power of asso-

ciations to represent all groups of people. The foundation of America came about by the states

associating for the common goal of liberation. Tocqueville explains when “inhabitants of the

united states” have an ideal or purpose to achieve they look to one another and “they combine”

to become “a power to be seen from afar” (Tocqueville 152). Sievers explains “a central element

in the rise of civil society in America: the proliferation of private bodies in which citizens freely

associate to achieve common purposes, creating that “Close tie that unites private interest to gen-

eral interest.” It is clear associations are the most important in the colonial era and formation of

the United States as they are quoted to have “formed a pillar of the liberal democratic system in

the United States” (Sievers, pp.27)

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A normative ideal I want to identify that maintains the strength of civil society in con-

temporary America is tolerance. The reason I find tolerance most important is because tolerance

mediates the rights of individuals and pursuit of the common good. The ideal of tolerance creates

a climate of virtue where individual rights and pursuit of the common good can be pursued and

exercised well. Sievers defines tolerance as “the acceptance of coexisting belief systems” (Siev-

ers pp.39). Sievers explains that as the authority between church and state divided and the pro-

gression of the reformation, people became to see themselves as individuals with their own per-

sonal beliefs, and wanted that freedom of individuality protected. Tolerance “reconciles” diversi-

ty of religious belief, political opinion, and overall opposing views of the world (Sievers pp.42).

Sievers says himself that “tolerance is an often over-looked but essential pillar of modern liberal

democracy. With respect to the American polity, Michael Walzer states the case succinctly: ‘Po-

litical principles, maxims of tolerations: these constitute our only stable and common commit-

ment. Democracy and liberty fix the limits and set the ground rules for American

pluralism’” (Sievers pp.43). Though individual protected rights and society’s commitment to is-

sues of the commons (collective needs), tolerance maintains the peace, and is a core virtue that

allows for voices to not only be vocal, but heard.

By reflecting on our course readings, we can understand the complexity and value of the

term civil society, and it’s relevance to the nonprofit sector. Though Sievers explained multiple

institutional structures I argue that private associations are most important in creating the histori-

cal foundation for civil society during the colonial era and the formation of the United States. I

then argued that toleration is the most important normative ideal that Sievers introduces in main-

taining the strength of civil society in contemporary American society.

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Question 2

In the 1830’s, the Frenchman Alexis de Tocqueville came to America to study our prison

system, but ended up being captivated by how defined America was by associations and volun-

tary action in their democracy. His argument was that voluntary action through factions and as-

sociations played a vital role in supporting and enacting liberal democracy. By using course read-

ings I will describe three distinct roles of associations and nonprofit organizations and how each

of those roles have helped to enact the ideals of a liberal democracy in the United States across

time.

The first role that I want to explain associations and nonprofit organizations is the uniting

and engaging individuals of common interest. Tocqueville explains that independent people with

independent rights can only go so far, but “the right of associating in this fashion almost merges

with the freedom of the press, but societies thus formed possess more authority than the press.

When an opinion is represented by a society, it necessarily assumes a more exact and explicit

form. It numbers its partisans and engages them in its cause; they on the other hand become ac-

quainted with one another, and their zeal is increased by their number. An association unites into

one channel the efforts of divergent minds and urges them vigorously towards the one end which

clearly points out” (Tocqueville pp.144). Since associations bring divergent minds together to-

ward common purposes, and therefore merges their networks, they become likely to support one

another and collaborate toward their convictions. this coming together of people from different

backgrounds under common purposes increases a nations ability to be pluralistic and tolerant,

which is the base to a liberal democracy. Suddenly an independent opinion, no matter how un-
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derrepresented, has the ability to gain power and mobility, which is required in a liberal democ-

racy.

The second role an association plays is reserving space for diversity. This role is vital be-

cause it respects the independence of each person, and their ability to create and offer new solu-

tions to their view of the commons. It contributes to the competition of public goals, while also

creating representation in a legal and protected way that is crucial to the liberal democracy (Toc-

queville, pp. 146-148). Associations give the legal space to create social mission to solve collec-

tive issues that may be overseen by the majority. This role of associations gives voice to those

not in majority and activates the importance of every individual to become politically and volun-

tarily engaged. If an association becomes the path individuals may be represented, representation

is dependent on voluntary action of the individual. O’Connell says it best “We are the only coun-

try in the world where giving and volunteering are pervasive characteristics of so much of the

population” (O’Connell, pp.57). The virtue of volunteerism and civic participation is intrinsic to

an associations role of providing space for diversity. By the preservation of this diversity, we en-

sure the ability to become pluralistic as O’Connell explains diversity is a precondition to plural-

ism (O’Connell 32). Therefore the toleration and pluralism amongst the diversity of the United

States can be considered a virtue enacted by the presence of associations.

The third role of associations I want to discuss is it’s role is reinforcing individual rights.

Associations are able to be formed by the rights enacted in a civil democratic nation. Rights such

as freedom of assembly and freedom of expression are preconditions for associational life. Siev-

ers says “Individual rights thus become a normative cornerstone of the emerging concept of civil

society, and central to those rights is the notion of the right to a free exercise of
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conscience” (Sievers, pp.39) These rights also span to the right to question the current political

system and lobby for better policy and representation in the political sphere. Sievers says “The

individual’s fundamental right to judge the legitimacy of a political system, and to resist if neces-

sary, lies at the heart of this structure” (SIevers pp.39). This is used because associations became

the platform to have a political voice if you are the minority. By the exercising of free speech,

individuals of common goals come together and form associations, reaffirming their validity in

new ideas and goals. Therefore, I would say associations create a tangible presence of individual

rights, and encourage individuals to exercise their rights by engagement with one another toward

common goods. This role enacts the ideal of trust in the institutional structures in place, and rein-

forces the individuals free agency to make change. This role also reinforces the very ideal of lib-

erty, and contributes to the overall spirit of liberation in a liberal democracy.

Alexis de Tocqueville was captivated by how intrinsic associations and voluntary action

was to the life of Americans. Using the course reading I explained three roles of associations;

uniting and engaging individuals of common interest, reserving space for diversity, and reinforc-

ing individual rights. Then I explained how those roles helped to enact ideals of a liberal democ-

racy in the United States across time by applying content from course authors.
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Works Cited

Anheier, H. K. (2005). Nonprofit organizations: Theory, management, policy. Routledge:

London.

O,Connell, B. (1999). Civil society: The underpinnings of American democracy. Tufts

University, University Press of New England, Hanover, NJ.

Sievers, B.R. (2010). Civil Society, Philanthropy, and the Fate of the Commons. Medford, MA:

Tufts University Press.

Tocqueville, Alexis de. Political Associations in the United States. 1835. Print.