Et Sec. 15.4 Introduction 670 Selection ofa aeopinte mail is ily t be ita farina ee. seoitve design Eginewing meals wed in gh person caste ey ee lying lens such chomium, neke aad coe oh ie eae em tspemive mtr resting wil impersiesune Te ee ee by shr-time erep dts in Figure 151. New tpn cenane nec ered Cie enrol eff, teh 35 oxidation snd envionmenal aking, ae Time-Dependent example. the resistance 1 ondaton inst and cepa alos ae ea Fo Behavior: factors are no read inthis chapter they never ay neces ne onmmetal ' design or hghsemperstire sevice Anahercomplon tht ies eve ee Creep and Damping sation eye ang combined wih tme-apendedetaaion & heen ee fnigu nercton tat accelerates he age procs ca tewee one the asipaton fre sing fom neoprene dune ees Caled mutrale damping: maybe hese ang ee 18.1 INTRODUCTION 2 Boearat ie aocae ee eee eee Tonpotve. °F ore= Tie Dependenl Betaver eee rDanpeg hans oxoaron | aeperee. | vom TS? pga Terperaure a Sy EB, | wend ee 90} uss. Qa © Ost sraener 0 500 7000 1500 Temperature or 40 MPa crass rupture apy 48005 nous.°C Figure 15.2 Relative creep and eaiduion resistance of various clases of ‘engineering mets. cAdapied feo [Sims 7X: aed with permission ‘The engineering methods that have been developed for analyzing and predicting treep hehvior provide 1001s that can be used in design to avoid failures due to creep, One concer is excessive deformation. Another is creep rupture, which is a separation (fracture) of the material that can occur as a result of the creep process. In what follows, we will ist consider creep testing and physical mechanisms, hich topics provide needed introductory information prior to emphasizing engineering methods in the remainder of the chapter 15.2 CREEP TESTING ‘The most common method of creep testing is simply to apply a constant axial load, eiter in tension or compression, 10 a bar or cylinder of the material of interest, Since the lad is to be held constant for long periods of time. simple dead weights and a lever system may be used as shown in Fig. 15.3. The creep strain is measured with time, and che time at ruptute is recorded if this occurs during the test. Tests on a given material a zeneally Gone at various stresses and temperatures, and test durations can range frm less than one minute 10 several years 15.2.1 Behavior Observed in Creep Tests ‘The behavior observed on a graph of strain versus time is usually similar to Fig. 184. ‘There is an intial nearly instantaneous occurrence of elastic and perhaps also plastic strain, followed by the gradual accumulation of creep strain, The sain rae. ¢ = de. hhence the slope of the € v5.1 plot, is at first relatively high. However, é decreases and ‘often becomes approximately constant, at which point the primary ot transient stage of «Stain See. 152 rove ade. Creep Testing Vy es Pana spot a me Ei ows fal = | euoing oon] Oe CoH eee > Pamary (aradnn | Tenay | 1 (onetabe + sacogany ‘Sessytite) | Figure 18.3 Schematic of «excep testing machine. tom [Evans 8) 3% used with permission.) P Figure 184 Strain vs. time behavior during creep under consort load hence constant engineering ses, and the ize wage of creep.682 Time-Dependent Behavior: Creep ang Damping Chap. 15 «reep i said to end, andthe secondary or steady-state stage 10 begin. At he end of the Secondary stage, ¢ increuses in an unstable manner as rupture failure approaches, wi, this portion being called the revtary stage. In this final stage, the deformation becomes localized by the formation of a neck as in a tension test. or voids may form inside the ‘material, oF both may occur. Some creep data for a metal in the form of strain versus time records are shown in Fig. 15.5. As might be expected, higher stain rates occur for higher siesses. These ata are from the work of Andrade. a notable early investigator of cteep who was aeune ‘around 1910, and were obtained under constant true ses, rather than constant loa, ‘using the apparatus shown in Fig. 15,6. No teniary stage occurs in the data of Fig. 155, probably as @ result of the consiant true stress. Note thatthe usual tertiary acceleration of creep isin at least some cases due not to aay change inthe behavior of the maternal itself, but rather due to the decreasing cross-sectional area under constant load, which ‘causes the tue stress to increase, hence also causing 10 increase 18.2.2 Representing Creep Test Results ‘The results ofa single cteep test can be summarized by giving the following four quant lies: stress, temperature T. steady-state creep rate é,. and time to rupture fA vanity of altematives exist for presenting the data from a series of tess at various stresses and ‘emperatures, For example, sires versus strain rate, @ vers é,. can be plotted for each bo ES SORTS: Tine —2 Figure 185 Creep curves for lead at 17°C from the eatly work of Andrade, Where 1 pcm? = 0.981 MPa. (From [Andcade Ish; ysed win perminion) Sec. 152 Creep Testing 683 Figure 186 Apparat wed by Andrade for creep testing under consant re sess. The mane His taped acorn to vo and s suspended ina id of mass fens ps0 thatthe force decreas ‘ith strain to main consant te fess daring ufo eho non (From [Andrade TO} wed with Permission) of several temperatures as illustrated in Fig. 15.7. Another useful presentation is to plot stress versus life, @ versus ¢, for various temperatures as itustated by Fig. 158. Ae seen in these examples, logarithmic scales are often used. Ao versus r. plot is analogous to an S-N curve fo fatigue, except thatthe life is 4 rupture time rather than a numberof cycles. Sitss-life data are also often represented by plouing «vs. T with lines for different times to failure ,. Some curves plotted on this basis for thee tempers of an alloy steel are shown in Fig. 15.9. A plo ofthis type is of course simply an altemative means of presenting the same information as a plot similar to Fig. 15.8, In additich to the rupture life, the life to reach a particular value of stain may be of interest. Stress-life plots for three values of sain, and also for rupture all for a single temperature, are shown fora polymer in Fig. 15.10, Suressstrain curves for various constant values of time, called isochronous stress. strain curves, are often needed. These are constructed from strain versus time. data