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Engineering Machanics
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Engineering Machanics

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Engineering Machanics

Experiment No. 1
TO UNDERSTAND THE LAW OF TRIANGLE OF CONCURRENT
FORCE SYSTEM

Objectives

 To develop a practical comprehension of the concept of law of triangle of forces

 To calculate the magnitude of unknown force using law of triangle of forces

Apparatus

Diagram board, Short screws, Pulleys, Knurled Nuts, Set of weights, Ring with three cords,
Weight hooks

Apparatus Diagram

Figure 1: Schematic Diagram

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Theory
Force in mechanics any action that tends to maintain or alter the motion of a body or to distort
it.This law explains about the behavior of forces acting on the same point. The triangle law of
forces can be stated as, if there are three forces acting over a body which is in
equilibrium.Then,the two forces are represented as a two side of a triangle in same order with
scaling their magnitude to a suitable scale then the third side or the closing side of the triangle
would be the resultant in opposite order.

Forces in equilibrium mean that they are balanced. Coplanar forces act in the same
plane. Two balanced forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the other.
We can see easily from the free body diagram that the resultant force is zero.

Triangle of Forces
If we are considering three coplanar forces in equilibrium, use the triangle of forces
rule: If 3 forces acting at a point can be represented in size or direction by the sides of
a closed triangle, then the forces are in equilibrium, provided their directions can form
a closed triangle.
This means that the forces can follow each other round a triangle

This is what the three forces look like when acting on a single point:

This means that the system is in equilibrium.

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These forces can be find by using Given formulas and whole idea will be cleared from the
figure:

By knowing the one force we can find out the others two forces by this law. Angles are
measured by protector Or we can also calculate angles by using these formulas on the basis
of observed values: M1sin a°=M/2 & M2sin b°= M/2

M1 and M2 are observed values & a° is the angle which the M1 makes with horizontal line
and b°is the angle which M2 makes with horizontal line. A° is the angle which M1 makes
with perpendicular and B° which M2 makes with perpendicular.
The real angles A° and B° can be find by Subtracting a°& b° from 90° respectively.
After measuring all the angles inside the triangle use law of sines to calculate the real
estimated weights M1&M2.You can also draw the graph by measuring angles with protector
and specifying length with of side of triangle with mass find M1&M2.

Procedure

 The diagram board was positioned and secured with screws and knurled nuts through holes
on the mounting panel.
 The three Pulleys were positioned as shown in the figure and were secured with nuts.
 A sheet of paper was clipped to the drawing board.
 Two of the ring cord was passed over the rim of the pulleys and the weight hooks were
attached to the end of them.
 Another weight hook was attached to the third pulley and that was hung freely.
 Weight was added to the chord to achieve 0.491N, 0.981N and 0.296N respectively.
 The ring was released and the weight was let settled freely.
 The position of three cords were marked with pencil dots in the paper.
 The paper was removed, the lines representing the three cords have been drawn, and the
weight supported by each cord has been written.
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 Repeat the experiment by changing the place of weights.

Observations & Calculations

Sr. No. Force description Angles Magnitude

1. F1 142 0.147

2. F2 69 0.147

3. F3(unknown) 149 0.294

GRAPH:

FI = 15g/1000*9.8=0.147N

F2

Results:

Comments: _________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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Experiment No. 2
TO DETERMINE THE RESULTANT OF TWO FORCES USING
PARALLALOGRAM OF FORCES
Objectives:

 To develop a practical comprehension of the concept of law of parallelogram of

forces
 To calculate the magnitude of unknown force using law of parallelogram of forces

Apparatus

Diagram board, Short screws, Pulleys, Knurled Nuts, Set of weights, Ring with three cords,
Weight hooks

Apparatus Diagram
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Figure 2: Schematic Diagram

Theory:

Law of Parallelogram of forces

Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition states that when two vectors are represented by two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram by direction and magnitude then the resultant of these vectors is
represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram starting from the same
point.

Figure 3: Law of Parallelogram of Forces

Procedure

 Set up the apparatus with its board vertical and fix the white sheet of paper on the board.
 Put a thread over the rims of the pulleys and attach some weights P and Q at its ends.
 Tie another thread at the middle of the thread passing over the pulleys and attach a known
weight S in such a way that the knot is nearly in the middle.
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 Mark the position of the junction as O.

 Keeping mirror strip length wise under each thread, mark the position of the ends the image
of thread in the mirror, covering the image by the thread ( this removes parallax error).The
positions are P1, P2 for thread of weight P, Q1 and Q2 for the thread of weight Q and S1, S2
for thread of weight S.
 Remove paper from the board.
 Draw lines through points P1 to P2 represent P, through points Q1 and Q2 to represent Q and
through points S1 and S2 to represent S. These lines must meet at point O.
 Taking a suitable scale, represent P and Q, complete parallelogram OACB and join OC. It
represents R.
 Calculate the magnitude of the resultant vector and weight of the body.
 Repeat the experiment with unequal weights on both sides.

Observations & Calculations

Sr. No. Force description Direction Magnitude

1.

2.

3.

Results: __________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Comments: ________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________
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EXPERIMENT NO 3
DETERMINE THE REACTIONS ON A SIMPLY SUPPORTED

BEAM SUBJECTED TO MULTIPLE LOADS

PROBLEM STATEMENT
A spring balance or spring scale is a type of weighing scale. It utilizes the relationship
between the applied load and deformation of a spring. It is used to weighing trucks, and
material carried on a conveyer belt. The upper end is of the helical springs are attached
to the casing and the lower end to the cross bar that can move relative to the casing and
to which load is applied. The pinion to which indicating pointer is attached is pivoted in
the casing and meshes with the rack, which is pivotally connected to the crossbar and is
pressed into the contact with the pinion by the rack spring.
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Objective
The objective of this experiment is as follow:
 To determine the effect of force acting on a simply supported
wheel when loads are applied.
 To know about the law of moment of force which basically deals
with torque.
Sum of clockwise torque = Sum of anticlockwise torque

Apparatus
 A wooden beam
 Two spring balances
 Meter rod
 Hangers
 weights
 Spirit level
 Thread

Diagram

Figure : simply supported beam

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Theory

Spring balance:

‘’ A spring balance or spring scale or Newton meter is a type

of weighing scale. A spring balance measures the weight of the object by opposing the
force of gravity acting with the force of an extended spring. ‘’

It works by Hook’s law which states that:

The force needed to extend a spring is

proportional to the distance that spring is extended from its rest position. Therefore the
scale markings on the spring scale is equally spaced. A spring scale can not measure
mass, only weight.

F=-kx

When a force is applied to the spring it extends, the larger the force, the greater the
extension[1]. If two spring scales are hung one below the other in series, each of the
scales will read the weight of the body hung on the lower scale. The scale on the top
would read slightly heavier due to being stretched by the weight of the lower scale.
Spring balances can be used in physics but its main uses are industrial especially related
to weighing heavy loads.

The spring undergo elastic deformation when stress or load is applied. Elasticity can be
defined as ‘’The ability of the object or material to resume its normal shape after being
stretched or compressed[2].’’Solid objects will deform when adequate forces are
applied on them if the material is elastic the object will return to its original shape and
size when these forces are removed. The physical reasons for elastic behavior can be
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quite different for different materials. In metals, the atomic lattice changes size and
shape when forces are applied (energy is added to the system). When forces are
removed, the lattice goes back to the original lower energy state. For rubbers and other
polymers, elasticity is caused by the stretching of polymer chains when forces are
applied. The graph between force and extension in a spring is given below

[5]

Beam

Beam is a construction member which offers the resistance depending under the
application of transverse load.[3] Transverse load is defined as the load applied
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a member. Transverse loading causes the
member to bend and deflect the from its original position , with internal tensile and
compressive strains accompanying the change of curvature. When a transverse load is
applied on a beam, it deforms and tension develop within it. Therefore, bending
movements are created by transverse load once applied to the beams.

Types of beam

The types of beam are as follow:

 Overhanging beam
 Continues beam
Continues supported beam

If more than two sports are provided to the beam then it is

called continuously supported beam.
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Overhanging beam

When one or both end of a beam overhang it is called overhanging

beam. This beam is supported by roller support between two ends.[4]

Procedure

 First measure the distance of hangers from the spring balance with the
help of meter rod which gives the lengths 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 and 𝑙3 .
 Add known weights on the hanger, in this way spring balances show
deflection from its original position.
 Note the deflection of spring balances which gives 𝑅𝑎 and 𝑅𝑏 .
 Change the weight on hangers and note the deflection given by spring
balance for each change in weight
 Then find the theoretical values of 𝑅𝑎 and 𝑅𝑏 . By using formulas which
are as follow:
𝑅𝑏 × L - 𝑊1 ×𝑙1 - 𝑊2 × 𝑙2 - 𝑊3 × 𝑙3

𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3

Observation and calculation:

Sr. Weights Lengths Reactions %age error
no 1
(N) (cm)

W1 W2 W3 L1 L2 L3 L Experimental Theoretical

Ra Rb Ra Rb

1 1.5 1.5 1 5 13 21 24 2 2 2 2 0% 0%
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2 1.5 2 1 11.4 30.4 51.4 61 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.1 4.5% 0%

3 1.5 1.0 1.5 5 13 21 24 2 2.5 1.8 2.2 10% 12%

4 2.5 2 2.5 5 13 21 24 3 4 3.2 3.8 6% 5%

5 2.5 2.5 2.5 5 13 21 24 3.5 4.5 3.4 4.1 2% 2%

Specimen Calculations

Ʃ Ma = 0

Rb ×L - w1×l1 - w2×l2 - w3×l3 = 0

Then ,

Rb = w1×l1 + w2×l2 + w3×l3 / L

And

Ra = w1 + w2 + w3 - Rb

Now ,

Rb = 2.5 ×5 + 2.5 ×13 + 2.5 × 21 / 24

Rb = 4.1

Ra = 2.5 + 2.5 + 2.5 - 4.1

Ra = 3.4

%age error =2 %

Result :
It is concluded that the percentage error is maximum for 1.5N, 1N, 1.5N loads having error
Ra = 10% and Rb = 12%.and the reaction forces on simply supporte beam is known.
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Comments

The experimental calculation shows that there is very minor error between the
experimental and theoretical values.and the clockwise torque is equal to the
anticlockwise torque.

References

 [1] units.wikki.com
 [2] www.corrosionpedia.com
 [3] www.wikkipedia.com
 [4] mech4study.com
 [5] www.freedictionary.com
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Experiment # 4
TO DETERMINE THE COFFICIANT OF FRICTION ON A FLAT BELT IN CONTACT
WITH CAST IRON PULLEY

Objective
To find of coefficient of friction between flat belt in contact with an iron pulley at different
contact angle.

Diagram

Fig (1) Flat Belt Apparatus

Apparatus

1. Belt Friction Apparatus.

2. Flat Leather Belt.
3. Spring Balance.
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4. Hangers.
5. Weights.

Theory
Flat belts pulley are used in transmission system that are driven by flat belts , typically high-
speed , low – power applications in textiles , paper making , and office machinery such as computer
printers. Flat belts are also used for conveyors. Compared to plied belt of equal horse – power, flat belts
are thinner by 25 or more , which allows flat belt pulley to be smaller than V-belts pulleys. Flat belts are
also less expensive than belts used in a serpentine belt pulley. One safety factor is that in over torque
situations ,the belts can slip , preventing damage to equipment other than the belt itself, Flat belts require
flat pulleys and flat pulley idlers. They do not necessarily required grooved flat belt pulleys. A flat pulley
idlers can also be used for the back side of a conventional V-belt. Flat belt drive pulleys apply motive
power to the belts

Friction
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material
elements sliding against each other.

Types of Friction
Following are the types of friction.

1. Static friction

2. Dynamic friction

3. Dry friction

4. Lubricated friction

5. Internal friction

6. Skin friction

7. Fluid friction

1. Static Friction
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It is the type of friction, experienced by a body, when the body is at rest.

2. Dynamic Friction

It is the friction, experienced by a body, when in motion. The dynamic friction is

also called kinetic friction, and is less than the static friction.

It is also of following two types:

(a) Sliding friction

It is the friction, experienced by a body, when it slides over another body.

(b) Rolling friction

It is the friction, experienced between the surface which has ball or roller
interposed between them.

3. Dry Friction

It resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction is
subdivided into static friction between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction between moving
surfaces.

4. Lubricated Friction

It is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces.

5. Internal Friction
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It is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material
while it undergoes deformation.

6. Skin Friction

When solid passes through liquid, then frictional force is called skin friction.

7. Fluid Friction

It describes the friction between layers within a viscous fluid that are moving relative to
each other.

Pulley
A wheel with a grooved rim around which a cord passes, which acts to
change the direction of a force applied to the cord and is used to raise heavy
weights.

Types of Pulley:
Following are the types of pulleys.

Fixed Pulley
A fixed pulley has an axle mounted in bearings attached to a supporting structure. A fixed pulley
changes the direction of the force on a rope or belt that moves along its circumference. Mechanical
advantage is gained by combining a fixed pulley with a movable pulley or another fixed pulley of a different
diameter.

Movable Pulley
A movable pulley has an axle in a movable block. A single movable pulley is supported by
two parts of the same rope and has a mechanical advantage of two.

Compound Pulley
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A combination of fixed and movable pulleys forms a block and tackle. A block and
tackle can have several pulleys mounted on the fixed and moving axles, further increasing the mechanical
advantage.

Belts
The belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means
of pulleys which rotate at the same speed or at different speed. The amount of power transmitted
depends upon following factors:

1. The velocity of the belt.

2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulley.
3. The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley.

Types of Belt Drives

The belt drives are usually classified into the following three
groups:

1. Light drives
2. Medium drives
3. Heavy drives

1. Light drives

These are used to transmit small powers at belt speeds up to 10 m/s, as in agricultural machines
and small machine tools.

2. Medium drives

These are used to transmit medium power at belts speeds over 10 m/s but up to 22 m/s, as in
machine tools.
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3. Heavy drives

These are used to transmit large powers at belt speeds above 22 m/s, as in compressors and
generators.

Material used for Belts

The materials used for these belts includes:
1. Rubber
2. PVC
3. Neoprene
4. Nylon
5. Polyester
6. Leather
7. Nitrile and others.

Types of belts
Though there are many types of belts used these days, yet the following are important
from the subject point of view:

1. Flat belt
The flat belt is a simple system of power transmission that was well suited for its day. It
delivered high power for high speeds (500 hp for 10,000 ft/min), in cases of wide belts and large
pulleys.

Flat belts were traditionally made of leather or fabric.

Specifications:

Specifications for flat belt pulleys include:

1. belt width

2. outside diameter
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3. bore size

4. hub diameter

2. Round belt
Round belts are a circular cross section belt designed to run in a pulley with a 60 degree
V-groove. Round grooves are only suitable for idler pulleys that guide the belt, or when (soft) O-
ring type belts are used.

3. V-belt
Vee belts (also known as V-belt or wedge rope) solved the slippage and alignment problem.
It is now the basic belt for power transmission. They provide the best combination of traction, speed of
movement, load of the bearings, and long service life. Optimal speed range is 1000–7000 ft/min. They are
mostly used in factories and workshops, where a moderate amount of power is to be transmitted..

4. Circular belt or rope

The circular belt is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a great
amount of power is to transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are more
than 8 meters apart.

Procedure

1. Adjust apparatus at a certain angle with the help of screw.

2. Note the reading of the spring balance without hanging weights in weight pans.
3. Attach the hanger to the lower side of the belt and put slotted weight in it.
4. The weight of hanger plus slotted weight gives the value of T2.
5. Now rotate the pulley in the clockwise direction and note the value of spring balance. This gives
T1.
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6. Now repeated the experiment to get three readings. Repeat the procedure for 30, 600, 900, 120,
1800 .
7. Then we used the formula driven below to find the value of coefficient of friction.
µ = (lnT1/T2) / α

Observation & Calculation:

Weight of hanger = w = 0.25lb

Zero error = 0.4

Obs. Angle of contact Tension (lbs.) Mean

Degree Radian T1 = W1+W2 T2 lnT2/T1 µ=(lnT2/T1)/α

(weight of (tension
hanger) in spring
balance)

1. 30 0.52 1.25 1.1 0.127 0.24

2. 60 1.047 1.25 0.6 0.73 0.697

3. 90 1.57 2.5

Mean Value:

Specimen Calculation
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Ln (T1/T2)

= Ln (1.1/1.25)

= 0.127

µ=Ln (T1/T2)/α

= 0.127/0.52

= 0.24

Result

The value of Coefficient of flat leather belt is

Comments
As we can see there is a big difference in theoretical and observed values, this difference
has occurred due to many reason behind it some major reasons among them are listed below:

1. Apparatus is quite old which could not be free of fault.

2. There are always some chances of human error.

3. Spring balances were not out of error.

4. There was zero error in the spring balance.

5. Moreover by passage of time, iron pulley friction also increases.

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References

1. https://me-mechanicalengineering.com/belt-drives/
2. http://saygilirulman.com.tr/belt-pulley-calculation
3. http://www.perpetualindustries.com/xyo-balancer-blog/type-of-belt-
drives
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Experiment:5
To determine the coefficient of friction of a v-shaped belt in contact
with an iron pully
Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to find out the coefficient of friction of a
v-shape belt by angle of contact and their tension forces on both end.

Apparatus:
 Vee belt apparatus
 Hanger
 Weight
 Spring balance
 Vee belt

Equipment picture:

Fig.V-shaped belt
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Theory:
A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more
rotating shafts mechanically, most often parallel. Belts may be used as a
source of motion, to transmit power efficiently, or to track relative
movement. Belts are looped over pulleys and may have a twist between
the pulleys, and the shafts need not be parallel.
In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys normally in one
direction (the same if on parallel shafts), or the belt may be crossed, so that
the direction of the driven shaft is reversed (the opposite direction to the
driver if on parallel shafts). As a source of motion, a conveyor belt is one
application where the belt is adapted to carry a load continuou

sly between two points.

Belt friction
Belt drives depend on friction to operate, but excessive friction wastes
energy and rapidly wears the belt. Factors that affect belt friction include
belt tension, contact angle, and the materials used to make the belt and
pulleys.

Belt tension
Power transmission is a function of belt tension. However, also increasing
with tension is stress (load) on the belt and bearings. The ideal belt is that
of the lowest tension that does not slip in high loads. Belt tensions should
also be adjusted to belt type, size, speed, and pulley diameters. Belt
tension is determined by measuring the force to deflect the belt a given
distance per inch of pulley. Timing belts need only adequate tension to
keep the belt in contact with the pulley.
Specifications
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To fully specify a belt, the material, length, and cross-section size and
shape are required. Timing belts, in addition, require that the size of the
teeth be given. The length of the belt is the sum of the central length of the
system on both sides, half the circumference of both pulleys, an d the
square of the sum (if crossed) or the difference (if open) of the radii. Thus,
when dividing by the central distance, it can be visualized as the central
distance times the height that gives the same squared value of the radius
difference on, of course, both sides. When adding to the length of either
side, the length of the belt increases, in a similar manner to the
Pythagorean theorem.

V belts

Belts on a Yanmar 2GM20 marine diesel engine

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A multiple-V-belt drive on an air compressor

V belts (also style V-belts, vee belts, or, less commonly, wedge rope)
solved the slippage and alignment problem. It is now the basic belt for
power transmission. They provide the best combination of traction, speed
of movement, load of the bearings, and long service life. They are generally
endless, and their general cross-section shape is
roughly trapezoidal (hence the name "V"). The "V" shape of the belt tracks
in a mating groove in the pulley (or sheave), with the result that the belt
cannot slip off. The belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the load
increases—the greater the load, the greater the wedging action—
improving torque transmission and making the V-belt an effective solution,
needing less width and tension than flat belts. V-belts trump flat belts with
their small center distances and high reduction ratios. The preferred center
distance is larger than the largest pulley diameter, but less than three times
the sum of both pulleys. Optimal speed range is 1,000–7,000 ft/min (300–
2,130 m/min). V-belts need larger pulleys for their thicker cross-section
than flat belts.
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For high-power requirements, two or more V-belts can be joined side-by-

side in an arrangement called a multi-V, running on matching multi-groove
sheaves. This is known as a multiple-V-belt drive (or sometimes a
"classical V-belt drive").
V-belts may be homogeneously rubber or polymer throughout, or there may
be fibers embedded in the rubber or polymer for strength and
reinforcement. The fibers may be of textile materials such as
cotton, polyamide (such as Nylon) or polyester or, for greatest strength, of
steel or aramid (such as Twaron or Kevlar).
When an endless belt does not fit the need, jointed and link V-belts may be
employed. Most models offer the same power and speed ratings as
equivalently-sized endless belts and do not require special pulleys to
operate. A link v-belt is a number of polyurethane/polyester composite links
held together, either by themselves, such as Fenner Drives' PowerTwist, or
Nu-T-Link (with metal studs). These provide easy installation and superior
environmental resistance compared to rubber belts and are length-
adjustable by disassembling and removing links when needed.

Coefficient of friction
The coefficient of friction (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter µ,
is a dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of
friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together. The
coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for example, ice on
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steel has a low coefficient of friction, wcoefficient of friction. Coefficients of

friction range from near zero to greater than one.
For surfaces at rest relative to each other , where is the coefficient of static
friction. This is usually larger than its kinetic counterpart.
For surfaces in relative motion , where is the coefficient of kinetic friction.
The Coulomb friction is equal to , and the frictional force on each surface is
exerted in the direction opposite to its motion relative to the other surface.
Arthur Morin introduced the term and demonstrated the utility of the
coefficient of friction.] The coefficient of friction is an empirical
measurements – it has to be measured experimentally, and cannot be
found through calculations.rougher surfaces tend to have higher effective
values. Both static and kinetic coefficients of friction depend on the pair of
surfaces in contact; for a given pair of surfaces, the coefficient of static
friction is usually larger than that of kinetic friction; in some sets the two
coefficients are equal, such as teflon-on-teflon.
Most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient values between
0.3 and 0.6. Values outside this range are rarer, but teflon, for example,
can have a coefficient as low as 0.04. A value of zero would mean no
friction at all, an elusive property. Rubber in contact with other surfaces can
yield friction coefficients from 1 to 2. Occasionally it is maintained that µ is
always < 1, but this is not true. While in most relevant applications µ < 1, a
value above 1 merely implies that the force required to slide an object
along the surface is greater than the normal force of the surface on the
object. For example, silicone rubber or acrylic rubber-coated surfaces have
a coefficient of friction that can be substantially larger than 1.
While it is often stated that the COF is a "material property," it is better
categorized as a "system property." Unlike true material properties (such as
conductivity, dielectric constant, yield strength), the COF for any two
materials depends on system variables
like temperature, velocity, atmosphere and also what are now popularly
described as aging and deaging times; as well as on geometric properties
of the interface between the materials. For example, a copper pin sliding
against a thick copper plate can have a COF that varies from 0.6 at low
speeds (metal sliding against metal) to below 0.2 at high speeds when the
copper surface begins to melt due to frictional heating. The latter speed, of
course, does not determine the COF uniquely; if the pin diameter is
increased so that the frictional heating is removed rapidly, the temperature
drops, the pin remains solid and the COF rises to that of a 'low speed' test.
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When the mass is not moving, the object experiences static friction. The
friction increases as the applied force increases until the block moves. After
the block moves, it experiences kinetic friction, which is less than the
maximum static friction.
Static friction is friction between two or more solid objects that are not
moving relative to each other. For example, static friction can prevent an
object from sliding down a sloped surface. The coefficient of static friction,
typically denoted as μs, is usually higher than the coefficient of kinetic
friction.
The static friction force must be overcome by an applied force before an
object can move. The maximum possible friction force between two
surfaces before sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of static
friction and the normal force: . When there is no sliding occurring, the
friction force can have any value from zero up to . Any force smaller
than attempting to slide one surface over the other is opposed by a
frictional force of equal magnitude and opposite direction. Any force larger
than overcomes the force of static friction and causes sliding to occur.
The instant sliding occurs, static friction is no longer applicable—the friction
between the two surfaces is then called kinetic friction.
An example of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from
slipping as it rolls on the ground. Even though the wheel is in motion, the
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Engineering Machanics

patch of the tire in contact with the ground is stationary relative to the
ground, so it is static rather than kinetic friction.
The maximum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is
sometimes referred to as limiting friction, although this term is not used
universally.
Angle of friction
For the maximum angle of static friction between granular materials, see

For certain applications it is more useful to define static friction in terms of

the maximum angle before which one of the items will begin sliding. This is
called the angle of friction or friction angle. It is defined as:

where θ is the angle from horizontal and µs is the static coefficient of

friction between the objects.This formula can also be used to
calculate µs from empirical measurements of the friction angle.
Belt friction
Belt friction is a physical property observed from the forces acting on a belt
wrapped around a pulley, when one end is being pulled. The resulting
tension, which acts on both ends of the belt, can be modeled by the belt
friction equation.
In practice, the theoretical tension acting on the belt or rope calculated by
the belt friction equation can be compared to the maximum tension the belt
can support. This helps a designer of such a rig to know how many times
the belt or rope must be wrapped around the pulley to prevent it from
slipping. Mountain climbers and sailing crews demonstrate a standard
knowledge of belt friction when accomplishing basic tasks.
Devices such as wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, and air cushion or
other types of fluid bearings can change sliding friction into a much smaller
type of rolling friction.
Many thermoplastic materials such as nylon, HDPE and PTFE are
commonly used in low friction bearings. They are especially useful because
the coefficient of friction falls with increasing imposed load. For improved
wear resistance, very high molecular weight grades are usually specified
for heavy duty or critical bearings.
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Engineering Machanics
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Engineering Machanics