Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela

Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was born July 18, 1918, at the Cape of Good
Hope, in South Africa. He became a militant activist who fought for black rights
against the white-controlled South African government. He spent twenty-eight
years in prison, but eventually was freed and became the country’s first black
president, an office he retained until 1999.
FIGHT AGAINST APARTHEID
For most of Mandela’s life, South Africa had been ruled under a system
called apartheid. Apartheid—which means “apartness” in Afrikaans, the language
of most white South Africans—required that whites, blacks, and other racial
groups be separated as much as possible. In practice, apartheid meant that blacks,
who made up the vast majority of the population, would be forced to be
subservient, and whites, who made up less than 20 percent of the population,
would have the best land, jobs, and lives. Mandela came from a prominent Xhosa
family (the Xhosa comprise one of South Africa’s largest black ethnic groups) and
was able to go to college and law school—a privilege most black South Africans
could only dream of. Mandela, however, did not allow his privileged position to
blind him to the injustice that characterized his country. He was determined to
fight against it. In 1943, Mandela joined the African National Congress (ANC), a
black civil rights group dedicated to ending racial discrimination in South Africa.
Although he supported ANC goals, its approach was too moderate for Mandela
and other young activists. In 1944, they formed the ANC Youth League, which had
a more confrontational approach than the parent body. By 1947 Mandela and his
allies were pushing the ANC to follow their more aggressive style. In 1960,
responding to ANC-inspired antiapartheid protests, South African police fired on
hundreds of unarmed demonstrators at the township of Sharpeville. The resulting
uproar of protest led the whitecontrolled government to ban the ANC.

Mandela was transformed into a rebel. In 1962 he was charged with treason.
At his trial he made a moving four-hour speech criticizing apartheid; the white
court ignored his speech and ordered him imprisoned. He stayed in prison for the
next twenty-eight years.

Mandela spent most of his prison time in Robben Island Prison, a dreary
prison located off the coast of South Africa. In his memoirs, Mandela said: “Robben
Island was without question the harshest, most iron-fisted outpost in the South
African penal system. It was a hardship station not only for the prisoners but for
the prison staff. Gone were the Coloured warders who had supplied cigarettes and
sympathy. The warders were white and overwhelmingly Afrikaans-speaking, and
they demanded a master-servant relationship. They ordered us to call them ‘baas,’
which we refused. The racial divide on Robben Island was absolute: there were no
black warders, and no white prisoners. . . . Robben Island was like going to another
country. Its isolation made it not simply another prison, but a world of its own, far
removed from the one we had come from.”

During his twenty-eight years of captivity, Mandela became one of the most
famous prisoners in the world. The South African government tried to portray him
as a communist revolutionary and troublemaker, but most of the world grew to see
him as a dedicated man fighting for justice and imprisoned for political reasons.
“Free Nelson Mandela” signs, posters, and bumper stickers became commonplace
in many parts of the industrialized world. The prominence of Mandela as a
prisoner helped to make many people aware of the evils of apartheid and
prompted them to support economic sanctions against South Africa. After 1985,
the white regime, recognizing Mandela’s growing influence, tried to defuse his
importance by repeatedly offering him a freedom in return for a promise to cease
his political activities.

Mandela, not wishing to compromise his principles, refused these offers.

Facing growing opposition from both inside and outside the country, the South
African government finally recognized that apartheid had to end, and that
apartheid’s most famous prisoner had to be released. President F. W. de Klerk
released Mandela from prison on February 11, 1990. Mandela was chosen to be the
leader of the ANC, and during the next few years he worked closely with de Klerk,
his former enemy, to bring about a peaceful end to apartheid. The transition from
apartheid to true democracy was marred by violence, much of it white on black,
but Mandela consistently and continuously worked to calm tensions and avoid
violent confrontations. In 1993, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the
Nobel Peace Price. In 1994, Nelson Mandela was elected the first black president of
South Africa. As president, Mandela worked to heal the wounds caused by
apartheid. Rather than seeking revenge, he organized the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission, whose job it was to investigate the crimes that occurred under
apartheid, but not to punish them. Mandela recognized that seeking justice for past
crimes might have led to continued violence in South Africa; it also might have
alienated many white South Africans, whose education and technical skills were
required if the country were to prosper economically. In 1999 he ended his term as
president and retired from political life.

Mandela’s determination, even after years of imprisonment, and his

magnanimity upon his release, marks him as unique among those who have
fought for human rights. Many observers expected South Africa to explode into
violence as apartheid ended; it is probably Mandela’s efforts, motivated by his
respect for human life, that kept this from happening. For most of his life he was
one of the oppressed; when he gained power, he refused to become an oppressor.
He believed in human rights, not only for his people, but for all people.
Universities and Colleges

Colleges and Universities, institutions of higher education that offer

programs beyond the high school level. Colleges and universities provide
necessary training for individuals wishing to enter professional careers. They also
strive to develop students’ creativity, insight, and analytical skills. By acquainting
students with complex ideas in an intellectually stimulating environment, colleges
and universities can provide unique opportunities for personal enrichment while
also preparing students for future careers.

Such diverse professions as engineering, teaching, law, medicine, and

information science all require a college education. Most require training in
graduate or professional school as well. Increasingly, even less specialized jobs
require some postsecondary education. The development of new technologies and
the globalization of the world economy have created high demand for workers
with computer, communications, and other occupational skills that can be acquired
at colleges or universities. For example, computers and other new technologies
have eliminated many low-skilled jobs in a variety of fields, but these same
technologies have created widespread job opportunities for those who have the
proper training. In addition, employers increasingly seek out college graduates
who have gained the critical thinking and problem-solving skills necessary to
adapt to changing economic conditions.

Students who live away from home during their college or university years
typically experience a major turning point in their lives that has little to do with
academics or professional training. For example, college offers many recent high
school graduates their first opportunity to live on their own. Most first-year
students welcome this increased independence, although many also find that
living away from home, family, and friends can introduce unexpected challenges.
Campus residence halls provide common settings for students to form new bonds
with peers who share similar experiences. Other students form social networks by
joining student organizations or by participating in extracurricular activities.

TYPES OF COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES

In the United States and Canada the terms college and university can describe
a variety of institutions. A college may form one major division of a university,
offering programs in a specific academic field that lead to undergraduate or
graduate degrees, or both. Colleges may also be independent of a university,
offering four-year programs of general education that lead to a bachelor’s degree in
the liberal arts and sciences. Some independent colleges offer a limited number of
graduate programs, but usually their primary mission is to provide undergraduate
education. Community colleges offer two-year programs of general education or
vocational education.

Universities generally comprise various colleges and professional schools that

make up the academic divisions of the institution. For example, a university may
include a college of arts and sciences in addition to professional schools of
education, law, medicine, and engineering. Universities provide higher education
leading to a bachelor’s degree as well as professional and graduate programs
leading to master’s and doctoral degrees. Colleges and universities in the United
States and Canada may be public institutions supported by federal, state,
provincial, or municipal governments, or they may be private (independent)
institutions.

The most prominent types of colleges and universities in the United States
and Canada include community colleges, state or provincial universities, liberal
arts colleges, professional schools, military academies, and proprietary institutions.
Other types include technical colleges, agricultural colleges, teachers’ colleges, and
colleges affiliated with religions.

Community Colleges
Community colleges typically offer the first two years of general
undergraduate education. Most also offer adult educational programs, vocational
education, and technical training. Community colleges confer associate degrees for
successful completion of most two-year programs. Many students in community
colleges complete the first two years of their college education in these institutions
and then transfer the credits to a four-year college. Other community college
students pursue vocational, technical, and other preprofessional programs.
Because community colleges typically have lower tuition rates than four-year
colleges and universities, they offer significant advantages to many students.

Public Colleges and Universities

Aside from a few four-year colleges supported by municipal governments or
the federal government, most public colleges and universities in the United States
are state institutions. In most cases, state boards of higher education provide funds
for these schools and oversee their programs of instruction. Most state
governments establish systems of higher education, such as the State University of
New York System or the University of California System, which comprise groups
of interconnected college or university campuses.

State colleges and universities have diverse origins. Although some four-year
institutions were originally established as state colleges and universities, many
originated in the early 19th century as two-year teacher-training institutions
known as normal schools. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries these schools
were reorganized and expanded into four-year teachers’ colleges. Later in the 20th
century, another reorganization changed many teachers’ colleges into
comprehensive colleges and universities that offer a wide range of academic
programs. Many other state educational institutions are land-grant colleges,
established with funds from the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890. These institutions
were originally founded to offer education in agriculture, science, and engineering,
but most later expanded their curriculums to become large multipurpose
universities.

Federally supported higher education in the United States is mainly

associated with branches of the armed services. Federal military colleges include
the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York; the United States
Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland; and the United States Air Force
Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado. These institutions provide
comprehensive undergraduate programs in addition to defense training for
prospective military officers. The federal government also operates the United
States Coast Guard Academy in New London, Connecticut, and the United States
Merchant Marine Academy in Kings Point, New York.

In Canada, provincial governments establish boards of higher education

responsible for allocating funds to provincial universities and overseeing their
programs of instruction. In addition, the federal and provincial governments
provide substantial funds for all institutions of higher education, including private
colleges and universities. This public funding dramatically reduces costs for
students.

Independent Colleges and Universities

Independent colleges and universities are private, nonprofit institutions.
Many independent colleges and universities originated as church-related
institutions, although a majority of these are no longer affiliated with religious
groups. The most common independent colleges and universities include (1)
liberal arts institutions that offer comprehensive undergraduate education, (2)
technical or specialized institutions that prepare students in engineering,
performing arts, music, nursing and other fields, and (3) large universities that
include undergraduate programs in addition to graduate and professional schools.

Graduate and Professional Schools

Professional schools are typically divisions of large universities. They offer
specialized education in a variety of professional fields, such as education,
business, medicine, law, social work, agriculture, journalism, architecture, fine arts,
nursing, engineering, and music. Some professional schools offer four- or five-year
programs leading to a bachelor’s degree, as well as graduate programs leading to
master’s and doctoral degrees. Other professional schools—such as schools of
medicine, law, and library science—usually offer only graduate study. For
example, Harvard University offers undergraduate courses related to the study of
law, but the Harvard Law School offers courses for study in professional degree
programs. Many large universities include graduate schools that offer master’s or
doctoral degree programs for advanced study in such liberal arts and science fields
as history, chemistry, physics, and literature.

Proprietary Institutions
Proprietary institutions are private, for-profit, postsecondary institutions.
They generally focus on preparing students for specialized careers in fields such as
business, performing arts, commercial art, travel, music, fine arts, computer
technology, and electronics. For example, the DeVry Inc./Keller Graduate School of
Management operates several campuses of the DeVry Institute of Technology, a
for-profit institution that offers courses of study in accounting, business, computer
information systems, electronics, and telecommunications. Proprietary institutions
often employ practicing professionals as part-time or adjunct instructors to offer
training directly related to the field of specialization.