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Introduction
In the flow of fluids inside pipes, there are three pressure loss components:
Friction
Hydrostatic
Kinetic energy
Of these three, kinetic energy losses are frequently much smaller than the others, and are usually ignored
in all practical situations.
All the pressure loss procedures calculate the Hydrostatic Pressure Difference and Friction Pressure Loss
components individually, and then add (or subtract) them to obtain the total pressure loss. There are many
published correlations for calculating pressure losses. These fall into the two broad categories of "single
phase flow" and "multi-phase flow".
Single Phase
There exist many single-phase correlations that were derived for different operating conditions or from
laboratory experiments. Generally speaking, they only account for the friction component, i.e. they are
applicable to horizontal flow. Typical examples are :
However, these correlations can also be used for vertical or inclined flow, provided the hydrostatic
pressure drop is accounted for, in addition to the friction component. As a result, even though a particular
correlation may have been developed for flow in a horizontal pipe, incorporation of the hydrostatic
pressure drop allows that correlation to be used for flow in a vertical pipe. This adaptation is rigorous, and
has been implemented into all the correlations used in VirtuWell. Nevertheless, for identification purposes,
the correlation’s name has been kept unchanged. Thus, as an example Panhandle was originally
developed for horizontal flow, but its implementation in this program allows it to be used for all directions of
flow.
where:
1
P=reference pressure (psia) (14.65 psia)
G=gas gravity
? constants
The other type of correlation is based on the definition of the friction factor (Moody or Fanning) and is
given by the Fanning equation:
where:
=density
v=average velocity
g=acceleration of gravity
This correlation can be used either for single-phase gas (Fanning Gas) or for single-phase liquid (Fanning
- Liquid).
The single-phase friction factor can be obtained from the Chen (1979) equation, which is representative of
the Fanning friction factor chart.
where:
f = friction factor
2
k = absolute roughness (in)
Re = Reynold’s number
The single-phase friction factor clearly depends on the Reynold’s number, which is a function of the fluid
density, viscosity, velocity and pipe diameter. The friction factor is valid for single-phase gas or liquid flow,
as their very different properties are taken into account in the definition of Reynold’s number.
v = velocity, ft/s
D = diameter, ft
= viscosity, lb/ft*s
Since viscosity is usually measured in "centipoise", and 1 cp = 1488 lb/ft*s, the Reynolds number can be
rewritten for viscosity in centipoise.
References:Chen, N. H., "An Explicit Equation for Friction Factor in Pipe," Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund. (1979).
PHH = gh
where:
g=acceleration of gravity
For a liquid, the density ( ) is constant, and the above equation is easily evaluated.
For a gas, the density varies with pressure. Therefore, to evaluate the hydrostatic pressure loss/gain, the
pipe (or wellbore) is subdivided into a sufficient number of segments, such that the density in each
segment can be assumed to be constant. Note that this is equivalent to a multi-step Cullender and Smith
calculation.
3
Single Phase Correlations
Single Phase
Gas Liquid
Fanning-Gas * *
Fanning-Liquid * *
Panhandle * *
Modified Panhandle * *
Weymouth * *
Mechanistic * * * *
Multiphase
Multiphase pressure loss calculations parallel single phase pressure loss calculations. Essentially, each
multiphase correlation makes its own particular modifications to the hydrostatic pressure difference and the
friction pressure loss calculations, in order to make them applicable to multiphase situations.
The friction pressure loss is modified in several ways, by adjusting the friction factor (f), the density ( )
and velocity (v) to account for multiphase mixture properties. In the AGA type equations (Panhandle,
Modified Panhandle and Weymouth), it is the flow efficiency that is modified.
The hydrostatic pressure difference calculation is modified by defining a mixture density. This is
determined by a calculation of in-situ liquid holdup. Some correlations determine holdup based on defined
flow patterns. Some correlations (Flanigan) ignore the pressure recovery in downhill flow, in which case,
the vertical elevation is defined as the sum of the uphill segments, and not the "net elevation change".
The multiphase pressure loss correlations used in this software are of two types.
Important Note: These three correlations can give erroneous results if the pipe described deviates
substantially (more than 10 degrees) from the horizontal. For this reason, these correlations are only
available on the Pipe and Comparison pages.
The second type (Beggs and Brill, Hagedorn and Brown, Gray) is the set of correlations based on
the Fanning friction pressure loss equation. These can be used for either gas-liquid multiphase
flow, single-phase gas or single-phase liquid, because in single-phase mode, they revert to the
Fanning equation, which is equally applicable to either gas or liquid. Beggs and Brill is a
multipurpose correlation derived from laboratory data for vertical, horizontal, inclined uphill and
downhill flow of gas-water mixtures. Gray is based on field data for vertical gas wells producing
condensate and water. Hagedorn and Brown was derived from field data for flowing vertical oil
wells.
4
Important Note: The Gray and Hagedorn and Brown correlations were derived for vertical wells and
may not apply to horizontal pipes.
Below is a summary of the correlations available in this program and the connection between the single-
phase and multiphase forms. Note that each correlation has been adapted to calculate both a hydrostatic
and a friction component.
Procedure
(The phrases "pressure loss," "pressure drop," and "pressure difference" are used by different people but
mean the same thing).
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™, the pressure loss calculations for vertical, inclined or horizontal pipes follow the
same procedure:
1. Total Pressure Loss = Hydrostatic Pressure Difference + Friction Pressure Loss. The total pressure loss,
as well as each individual component can be either positive or negative, depending on the direction of
calculation, the direction of flow and the direction of elevation change.
2. Subdivide the pipe length into segments so that the total pressure loss per segment is less than twenty
(20) psi. Maximum number of segments is twenty (20).
3. For each segment assume constant fluid properties appropriate to the pressure and temperature of that
segment.
5. Knowing the pressure at the inlet of that segment, add to (or subtract from) it the Total Pressure Loss
determined in step #4 to obtain the pressure at the outlet.
6. The outlet pressure from step #5 becomes the inlet pressure for the adjacent segment.
7. Repeat steps #3 to #6 until the full length of the pipe has been traversed.
Note: As discussed under Hydrostatic Pressure Difference and Friction Pressure Loss, the hydrostatic
pressure difference is positive in the direction of the earth’s gravitational pull, whereas the friction pressure
loss is always positive in the direction of flow.
The calculation of Hydrostatic Pressure Difference is different for a gas than for a liquid, because gas is
compressible and its density varies with pressure and temperature, whereas for a liquid a constant density
can be safely assumed.
Generally it is easier to calculate pressure drops for single-phase flow than it is for multiphase flow. There
are several single-phase correlations that are available:
Fanning – the Fanning correlation is divided into two sub categories Fanning Liquid and Fanning
Gas. The Fanning Gas correlation is also known as the Multi-step Cullender and Smith when
applied for vertical wellbores.
Panhandle – the Panhandle correlation was developed originally for single-phase flow of gas
through horizontal pipes. In other words, the hydrostatic pressure difference is not taken into
account. We have applied the standard hydrostatic head equation to the vertical elevation of the
5
pipe to account for the vertical component of pressure drop. Thus our implementation of the
Panhandle equation includes BOTH horizontal and vertical flow components, and this equation
can be used for horizontal, uphill and downhill flow.
Weymouth – the Weymouth correlation is of the same form as the Panhandle and the Modified
Panhandle equations. It was originally developed for short pipelines and gathering systems. As a
result, it only accounts for horizontal flow and not for hydrostatic pressure drop. We have applied
the standard hydrostatic head equation to account for the vertical component of pressure drop.
Thus, our implementation of the Weymouth equation includes BOTH horizontal and vertical flow
components, and this equation can be used for horizontal, uphill and downhill flow.
In our software, for cases that involve a single phase, the Gray, the Hagedorn and Brown and the Beggs
and Brill correlations revert to the Fanning single-phase correlations. For example, if the Gray correlation
was selected but there was only gas in the system, the Fanning Gas correlation would be used. For cases
where there is a single phase, the Flanigan and Modified Flanigan correlations devolve to the single-phase
Panhandle and Modified Panhandle correlations respectively. The Weymouth (Multiphase) correlation
devloves to the single-phase Weymouth correlation.
References
Knudsen, J. G. and D. L. Katz (1958). Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New
York.
Chen, N. H., "An Explicit Equation for Friction Factor in Pipe," Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund. (1979).
Panhandle Correlation
The original Panhandle correlation (Gas Processors Suppliers Association, 1980) was developed for
single-phase gas flow in horizontal pipes. As such, only the pressure drop due to friction was taken into
account by the Panhandle equation. However, we have applied the standard equation for calculating
hydrostatic head to the vertical component of the pipe, and thus our Panhandle correlation accounts for
horizontal, inclined and vertical pipes. The Panhandle correlation can only be used for single-phase gas
flow. The Fanning Liquid correlation should be used for single-phase liquid flow.
where:
The Panhandle equation incorporates a simplified representation of the friction factor, which is built into the
equation. To account for real life situations, the flow efficiency factor, E, was included in the equation. This
flow efficiency generally ranges from 0.8 to 0.95. Although we recognize that a common default for the flow
efficiency is 0.92, our software defaults to E = 0.85, as our experience has shown this to be more
appropriate (Mattar and Zaoral, 1984).
6
Panhandle - Hydrostatic Pressure Difference
The original Panhandle equation only accounted for Pf. However, by applying the hydrostatic head
calculations the Panhandle correlation has been adapted for vertical and inclined pipes. The hydrostatic
head is calculated by:
Nomenclature
D = pipe inside diameter (inch)
G = gas gravity
L = length (mile)
References
Gas Processors Suppliers Association, Field Engineering Data Book, Vol. 2, 10th ed., Tulsa (1994)
Mattar, L. and Zaoral, K., "Gas Pipeline Efficiencies and Pressure Gradient Curves," JCPT 84-35-93
(1984)
7
Fanning Correlation
The Fanning friction factor pressure loss ( Pf) can be combined with the hydrostatic pressure difference (
PHH) to give the total pressure loss. The Fanning Gas Correlation (Multi-step Cullender and Smith) is the
name used in this document to refer to the calculation of the hydrostatic pressure difference ( PHH) and
the friction pressure loss ( Pf) for single-phase gas flow, using the following standard equations.
This formulation for pressure drop is applicable to pipes of all inclinations. When applied to a vertical
wellbore it is equivalent to the Cullender and Smith method. However, it is implemented as a multi-
segment procedure instead of a 2 segment calculation.
The method for calculating the Fanning Friction factor is the same for single-phase gas or single-phase
liquid.
Roughness
Flow Efficiency
Since G varies with pressure, the calculation must be done sequentially in small steps to allow the
density to vary with pressure.
8
The method for calculating the Fanning friction factor is the same for single-phase gas or single-phase
liquid.
Since does not vary with pressure, a constant value can be used for the entire length of the pipe.
Nomenclature
D = pipe inside diameter (inch)
L = length (ft)
Re = Reynold’s number
V = velocity (ft/s)
z = elevation change
References
Chen, N. H., "An Explicit Equation for Friction Factor in Pipe," Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund. (1979).
Cullender, M. H. and R. V. Smith (1956). Practical Solution of Gas-Flow Equations for Wells and Pipelines
with Large Temperature Gradients, Trans., AIME, 207, 281-287.
Gas Processors and Suppliers Association, Engineering Data Book. Vol. 2, Sect. 17, 10th ed., 1994.
9
Knudsen, J. G. and D. L. Katz (1958). Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New
York.
Weymouth Correlation
This correlation is similar in its form to the Panhandle and the Modified Panhandle correlations. It was
designed for single-phase gas flow in pipelines. As such, it calculates only the pressure drop due to
friction. However, we have applied the standard equation for calculating hydrostatic head to the vertical
component of the pipe, and thus our Weymouth correlation accounts for HORIZONTAL, INCLINED and
VERTICAL pipes. The Weymouth equation can only be used for single-phase gas flow. The Fanning Liquid
correlation should be used for single-phase liquid flow.
where:
The Weymouth equation incorporates a simplified representation of the friction factor, which is built into the
equation. To account for real life situations, the flow efficiency factor, E, was included in the equation. The
flow efficiency generally used is 1. Our software defaults to this value as well (Mattar and Zaoral, 1984).
Nomenclature
D = pipe inside diameter (inch)
G = gas gravity
L = length (mile)
10
P1 =upstream pressure (psia)
References
Gas Processors Suppliers Association, Field Engineering Data Book, Vol. 2, 10th ed., Tulsa (1994).
Mattar, L. and Zaoral, K., "Gas Pipeline Efficiencies and Pressure gradient Curves." JCPT 84-35-93
(1984).
Multiphase Flow
The presence of multiple phases greatly complicates pressure drop calculations. This is due to the fact that
the properties of each fluid present must be taken into account. Also, the interactions between each phase
have to be considered. Mixture properties must be used, and therefore the gas and liquid in-situ volume
fractions throughout the pipe need to be determined. In general, all multiphase correlations are essentially
two phase and not three phase. Accordingly, the oil and water phases are combined, and treated as a
pseudo single liquid phase, while gas is considered a separate phase. The following is a list of general
concepts inherent to multiphase flow. Click on each of them for a brief overview.
11
Multiphase Flow Correlations
Many of the published multiphase flow correlations are applicable for "vertical flow" only, while others apply
for "horizontal flow" only. Other than the Beggs and Brill correlation, there are not many correlations that
were developed for the whole spectrum of flow situations that can be encountered in oil and gas
operations; namely uphill, downhill, horizontal, inclined and vertical flow. However, we have adapted all of
the correlations (as appropriate) so that they apply to all flow situations. The following is a list of the
multiphase flow correlations that are available.
1.- Gray: La Correlación Gray (1978) fue desarrollada para el flujo vertical en fluyo gas
humedo. Lo hemos modificado a fin de que se aplice al flujo en todas las direcciones
calculando la diferencia hidrostática de presión usando unicamente la elevación vertical
del segmento de la tubería y la perdida de presión debido a la fricción esta basada en la
longitud total de la tubería.
1. Gray: The Gray Correlation (1978) was developed for vertical flow in wet gas wells. We have
modified it so that it applies to flow in all directions by calculating the hydrostatic pressure
difference using only the vertical elevation of the pipe segment and the friction pressure loss
based on the total pipe length.
2.-Hagedorn y Brown: La correlacion Hagedorn y Brown (1964) fue desarrollada para el flujo
vertical en pozos de petróleo. También lo hemos modificado a fin de que se aplice al flujo en todas
las direcciones para el calculalo de la diferencia hidrostática de presión usando unicamente la
elevación vertical del segmento de la tubería y la presión de fricción que esta basada en la
longitud total de la tubería.
2. Hagedorn and Brown: The Hagedorn and Brown Correlation (1964) was developed for vertical
flow in oil wells. We have also modified it so that it applies to flow in all directions by calculating
the hydrostatic pressure difference using only the vertical elevation of the pipe segment and the
friction pressure loss based on the total pipe length.
3.- Beggs y Brill: La Beggs y Correlación Beggs (1973) es uno de los menos publicados
correlaciones capaces de manejar en todos los direcciones de flujo. Fue desarrollado
usando secciones de tubería que estan inclinó en cualquier ángulo.
3. Beggs and Brill: The Beggs and Brill Correlation (1973) is one of the few published correlations
capable of handling all of the flow directions. It was developed using sections of pipe that could
be inclined at any angle.
12
Flanigan multiphase correlation is also applied to the Panhandle and Weymouth correlations. It is
recommended that this correlation not be used beyond +/- 10 degrees from the horizontal.
Each of these correlations was developed for it’s own unique set of experimental conditions, and
accordingly, results will vary between them.
For multiphase flow in essentially horizontal pipes, the available correlations are Beggs and Brill, Gray,
Hagedorn and Brown, Flanigan, Modified-Flanigan and Weymouth (Multiphase). All of these correlations
are accessible on the Pipe page and the Comparison page.
Multiphase Flow
For multiphase flow in essentially vertical wells, the available correlations are Beggs and Brill, Gray, and
Hagedorn and Brown. If used for single-phase flow, these three correlations devolve to the Fanning Gas or
Fanning Liquid correlation.
When switching from multiphase flow to single-phase flow, the correlation will default to the Fanning. When
switching from single-phase flow to multiphase flow, the correlation will default to the Beggs and Brill.
Important Notes
The Flanigan, Modified-Flanigan and Weymouth (Multiphase) correlations can give erroneous
results if the pipe described deviates substantially (more than 10 degrees) from the horizontal.
The Gray and Hagedorn and Brown correlations were derived for vertical wells and may not apply
to horizontal pipes.
In our software, the Gray, the Hagedorn and Brown and the Beggs and Brill correlations revert to
the appropriate single-phase Fanning correlation (Fanning Liquid or Fanning Gas. The Flanigan,
Modified-Flanigan and Weymouth (Multiphase) revert to the Panhandle, Modified Panhandle and
Weymouth respectively. However, they may not be used for single-phase liquid flow.
Multiphase
Gas Liquid
13
Fanning-Gas
*
Fanning-Liquid
Panhandle
Modified Panhandle
Weymouth
* * * *
Beggs & Brill
*
Gray
*
Hagedorn & Brown
*
Flanigan
*
Modified-Flanigan
*
Weymouth
(Multiphase)
* * * *
Mechanistic Model
Mechanistic Model
14
Dispersed Bubble Flow
Exists if
where
and if
Stratified Flow
Exists if flow is downward or horizontal ( 0)
15
where
and
fL from
where
16
fi from
where
where
where
Geometric Variables:
17
Solve for hL/D iteratively.
where
18
and
if
where
and
where
19
and
(1)
20
fi from
(2)
where
where
Geometric Variables:
21
Solve for iteratively.
where from
22
Bubble Flow
Bubble flow exists if
(3)
where:C1 = 0.5
= 1.3
db = 7mm
(4)
where:
Intermittent Flow
Intermittent flow exists if
23
where:
If EL > 1, EL = CL
and:
for fm < 1, fm = 1
24
if
6. Froth Flow
If none of the transition criteria for intermittent flow are met, then the flow pattern is designated as Froth,
implying a transitional state between the other flow regimes.
Footnotes
25
2. ,
where: ρ C (lb/ft3), VC (ft/s), DC (ft), (dyn/cm)
4. , where: ρ L (lb/ft3), ρ
G (lb/ft3), (dyn/cm)
5. ,
where: D (ft), ρ L (lb/ft3), ρ G (lb/ft3), (dyn/cm)
6. ,
where: ρ L (lb/ft3), ρ G (lb/ft3), (dyn/cm)
Nomenclature
A = cross sectional area
L = length
P = pressure
Re = Reynolds number
26
S = contact perimeter
= pipe roughness
= Angle of inclination
= viscosity
= density
= shear stress
= dimensionless quantity
Subscripts
b = relating to the gas bubble
i = relating to interface
m = relating to mixture
27
References
Petalas, N., Aziz, K.: "A Mechanistic Model for Multiphase Flow in Pipes," J. Pet. Tech. (June 2000), 43-55.
Petalas, N., Aziz, K.: "Development and Testing of a New Mechanistic Model for Multiphase Flow in Pipes,"
ASME 1996 Fluids Engineering Division Conference (1996), FED-Vol 236, 153-159.
Gomez, L.E. et al.: "Unified Mechanistic Model for Steady-State Two-Phase Flow," Petalas, N., Aziz, K.: "A
Mechanistic Model for Multiphase Flow in Pipes," SPE Journal (September 2000), 339-350.
For multiphase flow, many of the published correlations are applicable for "vertical flow" only, while others
apply for "horizontal flow" only. Not many correlations apply to the whole spectrum of flow situations that
may be encountered in oil and gas operations, namely uphill, downhill, horizontal, inclined and vertical
flow. The Beggs and Brill (1973) correlation, is one of the few published correlations capable of handling all
these flow directions. It was developed using 1" and 1-1/2" sections of pipe that could be inclined at any
angle from the horizontal.
The Beggs and Brill multiphase correlation deals with both the friction pressure loss and the hydrostatic
pressure difference. First the appropriate flow regime for the particular combination of gas and liquid rates
(Segregated, Intermittent or Distributed) is determined. The liquid holdup, and hence, the in-situ density of
the gas-liquid mixture is then calculated according to the appropriate flow regime, to obtain the hydrostatic
pressure difference. A two-phase friction factor is calculated based on the "input" gas-liquid ratio and the
Fanning friction factor. From this the friction pressure loss is calculated using "input" gas-liquid mixture
properties.
If only a single-phase fluid is flowing, the Beggs and Brill multi-phase correlation devolves to the Fanning
Gas or Fanning Liquid correlation.
The flow type can then be readily determined either from a representative flow pattern map or according to
the following conditions, where
SEGREGATED flow
28
if
and
Or
and
INTERMITTENT flow
if and
or and
DISTRIBUTED flow
if and
or and
TRANSITION flow
if and
SEGREGATED
INTERMITTENT
DISTRIBUTED
29
IV.TRANSITION
Where
Once the horizontal in situ liquid volume fraction is determined, the actual liquid volume fraction is obtained
by multiplying EL(0) by an inclination factor, B( ). i.e.
where
is a function of flow type, the direction of inclination of the pipe (uphill flow or downhill flow), the liquid
velocity number (Nvl), and the mixture Froude Number (Frm). Nvl is defined as:
SEGREGATED
INTERMITTENT
30
DISTRIBUTED
Once the liquid holdup (EL( )) is calculated, it is used to calculate the mixture density ( m). The mixture
density is, in turn, used to calculate the pressure change due to the hydrostatic head of the vertical
component of the pipe or well.
otherwise,
where:
Note: Severe instabilities have been observed when these equations are used as published. Our
implementation has modified them so that the instabilities have been eliminated.
31
is the no-slip friction factor. We use the Fanning friction factor, calculated using the Chen equation.
The no-slip Reynolds Number is also used, and it is defined as follows:
Finally, the expression for the pressure loss due to friction is:
Nomenclature
CL = liquid input volume fraction
32
L = liquid density (lb/ft3)
Reference
Beggs, H. D., and Brill, J.P., "A Study of Two-Phase Flow in Inclined Pipes," JPT, 607-617, May 1973.
Source: JPT.
Flanigan Correlation
The Flanigan correlation is an extension of the Panhandle single-phase correlation to multiphase flow. It
was developed to account for the additional pressure loss caused by the presence of liquids. The
correlation is empirical and is based on studies of small amounts of condensate in gas lines. To account
for liquids, Flanigan developed a relationship for the Flow Efficiency term of the Panhandle equation as a
function of liquid to gas ratio. Since the Panhandle equation applied to essentially horizontal flow, Flanigan
also developed a liquid holdup factor to account for the hydrostatic pressure difference in upward inclined
flow. For downhill, there is no hydrostatic pressure recovery.
As noted previously, the Flanigan correlation was developed for essentially horizontal flow. Consequently,
it is not applicable in vertical flow situations such as vertical wellbores. Therefore, the Flanigan correlation
is only available on the Pipe and Comparison pages. Care should be taken when applying the Flanigan
correlation to situations other than essentially horizontal flow. The effects of using the Flanigan correlation
can be investigated using the Comparison module.
In this program , the Flanigan correlation has been applied to the Panhandle, Modified Panhandle and
Weymouth correlations in the same way, by adjusting the hydrostatic pressure difference using the
Flanigan holdup factor and by using the appropriate efficiency (E) for multiphase flow.
where:
33
Flanigan – Friction Pressure Loss
In the Flanigan correlation, the friction pressure drop calculation accounts for liquids by adjusting the
Panhandle/Weymouth efficiency ( ) according to the following plot.
Notice that when there is mostly gas (the liquid to gas ratio is very small), the Panhandle efficiency is
around 0.85 (close to the single-phase default for gas) and as the quantity of liquids increases, the
efficiency decreases.
Modified-Flanigan Correlation
The Modified-Flanigan is equivalent to the Flanigan correlation applied to the Modified Panhandle single-
phase correlation. The Flanigan correlation was developed as a method to account for the additional
pressure loss caused by the presence of liquids. The correlation is empirical and is based on studies of
small amounts of condensate in gas lines. To account for liquids, Flanigan developed a relationship for the
Flow Efficiency term of the Panhandle equation as a function of liquid to gas ratio. In addition, Flanigan
developed a liquid holdup factor to account for the hydrostatic pressure difference in upward inclined flow.
For downhill, there is no hydrostatic pressure recovery.
As noted previously, the Flanigan correlation was developed for essentially horizontal flow. Consequently,
it is not applicable in vertical flow situations such as vertical wellbores. Therefore, the Flanigan correlation,
and hence the Modified-Flanigan correlation, is only available on the Pipe and Comparison pages. Care
should be taken when applying the Modified-Flanigan correlation to situations other than essentially
horizontal flow. The effects of using the Modified-Flanigan correlation can be investigated using the
Comparison module.
In this program , the Flanigan correlation has been applied to the Panhandle, Modified Panhandle and
Weymouth correlations in the same way, by adjusting the hydrostatic pressure difference using the
Flanigan holdup factor and by using the appropriate efficiency ( ) for multiphase flow.
34
where:
Nomenclature
E = Panhandle/Weymouth efficiency
35
PHH = pressure loss due to hydrostatic head (psi)
Reference
Flanigan, O., "Effect of Uphill Flow on Pressure Drop in Design of Two-Phase Gathering Systems", O&GJ,
Vol. 56, No. 10, p. 132, March (1958).
Gray Correlation
The Gray correlation was developed by H.E. Gray (Gray, 1978), specifically for wet gas wells. Although this
correlation was developed for vertical flow, we have implemented it in both vertical, and inclined pipe
pressure drop calculations. To correct the pressure drop for situations with a horizontal component, the
hydrostatic head has only been applied to the vertical component of the pipe while friction is applied to the
entire length of pipe.
First, the in-situ liquid volume fraction is calculated. The in-situ liquid volume fraction is then used to
calculate the mixture density, which is in turn used to calculate the hydrostatic pressure difference. The
input gas liquid mixture properties are used to calculate an "effective" roughness of the pipe. This effective
roughness is then used in conjunction with a constant Reynolds Number of to calculate the Fanning
friction factor. The pressure difference due to friction is calculated using the Fanning friction pressure loss
equation. For a more detailed look at each step, make a selection from the following list:
where:
36
where:
Once the liquid holdup (EL) is calculated it is used to calculate the mixture density ( m). The mixture
density is, in turn, used to calculate the pressure change due to the hydrostatic head of the vertical
component of the pipe or well.
Note: For the equations found in the Gray correlation, is given in lbf/s2. We have implemented them
using with units of dynes/cm and have converted the equations by multiplying by 0.00220462.
(0.00220462dynes/cm = 1lbf/s2)
if then
if then
where:
The effective roughness (ke) must be larger than or equal to 2.77 10-5.
37
The relative roughness of the pipe is then calculated by dividing the effective roughness by the diameter of
the pipe. The Fanning friction factor is obtained using the Chen equation and assuming a Reynolds
Number (Re) of 107. Finally, the expression for the friction pressure loss is:
Note: The original publication contained a misprint (0.0007 instead of 0.007). Also, the surface tension ( )
is given in units of lbf/s2. We used a conversion factor of 0.00220462 dynes/cm = 1 lbf/s2.
Nomenclature
CL = liquid input volume fraction
38
Reference
American Petroleum Institute,API Manual 14B, "Subsurface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valve Sizing
Computer Program ", Appendix B, Second Ed., Jan. (1978)
Experimental data obtained from a 1500ft deep, instrumented vertical well was used in the development of
the Hagedorn and Brown correlation. Pressures were measured for flow in tubing sizes that ranged from 1
" to 1 ½" OD. A wide range of liquid rates and gas/liquid ratios were used. As with the Gray correlation, our
software will calculate pressure drops for horizontal and inclined flow using the Hagedorn and Brown
correlation, although the correlation was developed strictly for vertical wells. The software uses only the
vertical depth to calculate the pressure loss due to hydrostatic head, and the entire pipe length to calculate
friction.
The Hagedorn and Brown method has been modified for the Bubble Flow regime (Economides et al,
1994). If bubble flow exists the Griffith correlation is used to calculate the in-situ volume fraction. In this
case the Griffith correlation is also used to calculate the pressure drop due to friction. If bubble flow does
not exist then the original Hagedorn and Brown correlation is used to calculate the in-situ liquid volume
fraction. Once the in-situ volume fraction is determined, it is compared with the input volume fraction. If the
in-situ volume fraction is smaller than the input volume fraction, the in-situ fraction is set to equal the input
fraction (EL = CL). Next, the mixture density is calculated using the in-situ volume fraction and used to
calculate the hydrostatic pressure difference. The pressure difference due to friction is calculated using a
combination of "in-situ" and "input" gas-liquid mixture properties. For further details on any of these steps
select a topic from the following list:
Various combinations of these parameters are then plotted against each other to determine the liquid
holdup.
For the purposes of program ming, these curves were converted into equations. The first curve provides a
value for CNL. This CNL value is then used to calculate a dimensionless group, . can then be
39
obtained from a plot of vs. . Finally, the third curve is a plot of vs. another dimensionless
group of numbers, . Therefore, the in-situ liquid volume fraction, which is denoted by EL, is
calculated by:
where:
Note: In the Hagedorn and Brown correlation the mixture viscosity is given by:
where:
Modifications
We have implemented two modifications to the original Hagedorn and Brown Correlation. The first
modification is simply the replacement of the liquid holdup value with the "no-slip" (input) liquid volume
fraction if the calculated liquid holdup is less than the "no-slip" liquid volume fraction.
40
if
then
The second modification involves the use of the Griffith correlation (1961) for the bubble flow regime.
If the calculated value of is less than 0.13 then is set to 0.13. If the flow regime is found to be
bubble flow then the Griffith correlation is applied, otherwise the original Hagedorn and Brown correlation
is used.
The pressure drop due to friction is also affected by the use of the Griffith correlation because enters
into the calculation of the Reynolds Number via the in-situ liquid velocity. The Reynolds Number is
calculated using the following format:
The single phase liquid density, in-situ liquid velocity and liquid viscosity are used to calculate the
Reynolds Number. This is unlike the majority of multiphase correlations, which usually define the Reynolds
Number in terms of mixture properties not single phase liquid properties. The Reynolds number is then
used to calculate the friction factor using the Chen equation. Finally, the friction pressure loss is calculated
as follows:
41
The liquid density and the in-situ liquid velocity are used to calculate the pressure drop due to friction.
Nomenclature
CL = input liquid volume fraction
42
= (lb/ft3)
References
Economides, M.J. et al, Petroleum Production Systems. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., 1994.
Hagedorn, A.R., Brown, K.E., "Experimental Study of Pressure Gradients Occurring During Continuous
Two-Phase Flow in Small Diameter Vertical Conduits", JPT, p.475, April. (1965)
Turner Correlation
R. G. Turner, M. G. Hubbard and A. E Dukler first presented the Turner correlation at the SPE Gas
Technology Symposium held in Omaha, Nebraska, September 12 and 13, 1968. The correlation (SPE
paper 2198) calculates the minimum gas flow rate required to lift liquids out of a wellbore and is often
referred to as The Liquid Lift Equation or Critical Flow Rate Calculation for Lifting Liquids. In F.A.S.T.
Virtuwell™, this correlation is used to test for stable wellbore flow.
Theoretical Background
The Turner correlation assumes free flowing liquid in the wellbore forms droplets suspended in the gas
stream. Two forces act on these droplets. The first is the force of gravity pulling the droplets down and the
second is drag force due to flowing gas pushing the droplets upward. If the velocity of the gas is sufficient,
the drops are carried to surface. If not, they fall and accumulate in the wellbore.
The correlation was developed from droplet theory. The theoretical calculations were then compared to
field data and a 20% fudge factor was built-in. The correlation is generally very accurate and was
formulated using easily obtained oilfield data. Consequently, it has been widely accepted in the petroleum
industry. The model was verified to about 130 bbl/MMscf.
The Turner correlation was formulated for free water production and free condensate production in the
wellbore. The calculation of minimum gas velocity for each follows:
From the minimum gas velocity, the minimum gas flow rate required to lift free liquids can then be
calculated using:
43
where:
G = gas gravity
k = calculation variable
P = pressure (psia)
T = temperature (R)
The Turner correlation incorporates separate equations for water and condensate. The liquid lift rate
calculated on the Gas AOF/TPC pages will be the rate associated with the heaviest liquid in the wellbore.
For example, if the flow through the wellbore includes gas, condensate and water, the liquid lift rate will be
calculated for water. If there is no liquid flow in the wellbore, the liquid lift rate is also calculated for water.
Important Notes
If both condensate and water are present, use the Turner correlation for water to judge behaviour
of a system.
It is very important to note that the Turner correlation utilizes the cross-sectional area of the flow
path when calculating liquid lift rates. For example, if the flow path is through the tubing, the
minimum gas rate to lift water and condensate will be calculated using the tubing inside diameter.
When the tubing depth is higher in the wellbore than the mid-point of perforations (MPP) in a
vertical well, the Turner correlation does not consider the rate required to lift liquids between the
MPP and the end of the tubing. Ultimately, the liquid lift rate calculations are based on the inside
diameter (ID) of the tubing or the area of the annulus and not on the casing ID unless flow is up
the "casing only".
44
where:
G = gas gravity
k = calculation variable
P = pressure (psia)
T = temperature (R)
where:
As pressure increases, so does the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate. Therefore, to determine
the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate in a wellbore, it is recommended that the highest
pressure in the wellbore be used. This is typically the flowing sandface pressure. In his original work,
Turner (1969) recommends that the wellhead pressure be used. In our research also supported by Lea Jr.
(1983), we have found that generally, if the sandface pressure is known, it and not the wellhead pressure
should be used to calculate the minimum gas rate to lift liquids.
where:
G = gas gravity
k = calculation variable
45
P = pressure (psia)
T = temperature (R)
where:
As pressure increases, so does the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate. Therefore, to determine
the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate in a wellbore, it is recommended that the highest
pressure in the wellbore be used. This is typically the flowing sandface pressure. In his original work,
Turner (1969) recommends that the wellhead pressure be used. In our research also supported by Lea Jr.
(1983), we have found that generally, if the sandface pressure is known, it and not the wellhead pressure
should be used to calculate the minimum gas rate to lift liquids.
References
Lea Jr., J.F.and Tighe, R.E., "Gas Well Operation With Liquid Production," SPE Paper No. 11583,
presented at the 1983 Production Operation Symposium, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, February 27 – March
1, 1983.
46
Choke Sizing
Single-Phase Flow
Gas Mass Flow
The relationship which describes the mass flow of a single-phase gas through a choke can be generically
written as:
where
With the gas density at standard conditions, the gas mass flowrate is readily converted into a daily
standard volumetric flowrate.
47
This equation applies only at the critical pressure ratio, . The critical pressure ratio can be calculated
from
Single-phase liquids flowing through a restriction almost never reach the critical velocity, which is many
times that for single-phase gas. The flowrate can be related to the pressure drop across the restriction with
the following relationship:
where
The choke flow coefficient is a function of the Reynolds number in the choke throat and so the solution is
necessarily iterative, but convergence is quite rapid.
Rawlins-Schellhardt
Rawlins and Schellhardt give us a form of the equation for gas flow through chokes under critical flow
conditions which is dependent only on the upstream pressure. Rawlins and Schellhardt based their
equation on ideal gas at a standard pressure of 14.4 psia. Correction for non-ideality and for a standard
pressure other than 14.4 psia is included in the following equation:
where
Szilas
Szilas gives us an alternate form of the gas mass flow equation and with constants and conversion factors
for field units, as:
48
where
This equation applies both at and above the critical pressure ratio, .
Multiphase Flow
Ashford-Pierce
Ashford and Pierce developed a correlation specifically describing multiphase flow through safety valves
and tested it against field data. Their correlation has the form:
with
and where
49
This relationship applies both at and above the critical pressure ratio, .
where
The Ashford-Pierce relationship cannot directly be applied here because oil may or may not be one of the
flowing phases. However, their relationship for the fluid velocity downstream of the choke gives rise to an
alternative approach which is amenable to solution with gas plus one or more liquid phases present:
where
50
Assuming critical flow in the choke throat, the downstream pressure and fluid velocity can be calculated,
and with the latter plus the produced fluid ratios, the mass flowrate of each phase is obtainable.
Achong
Achong updated Gilbert’s relationship on the basis of data from oil wells in the Lake Maracaibo field of
Venezuela. The rate of multiphase flow through a choke and the upstream pressure are, according to
Achong, correlated by the following relationship:
where
Baxendell
Baxendell’s correlation linking the rate of multiphase flow through a choke and the upstream pressure –
and fundamentally an update of the Gilbert correlation – is:
where
Gilbert
51
Gilbert developed a generalized correlation based on data from flowing oil wells in the Ten Section field of
California. The rate of multiphase flow through a choke and the upstream pressure can be correlated,
according to Gilbert, by the following relationship:
where
Omana et al.
Omana et al. carried out field experiments in the Tiger Lagoon field of Louisiana with natural gas and water
flowing through restrictions. Carrying out a dimensional analysis, Omana derived the following correlation:
with
and where
Reliable use of Omana’s correlation is limited to an upstream pressure range of 400 – 1000 psig, 800 bbl/d
maximum liquid flowrate, and choke sizes from 4/64" to 14/64". It should be applicable for both bottomhole
and surface chokes.
Ros
52
The rate of multiphase flow through a choke and the upstream pressure are, according to Ros on the basis
of Gilbert’s and other prior work, correlated by the following relationship:
where
References
Achong, I., "Revised Bean Performance Formula for Lake Maracaibo Wells", internal co. report,
Shell Oil Co., Houston, TX, Oct 1961
Ashford, F.E. and Pierce, P.E., "Determining Multiphase Pressure Drops and Flow Capacities in
Down-Hole Safety Valves", SPE Paper No. 5161, J. Pet. Tech., Sep 1975, 1145
Baxendell, P.B., "Bean Performance – Lake Maracaibo Wells", internal co. report, Shell Oil Co.,
Houston, TX, Oct 1967
Gilbert, W.E., "Flowing and Gas-Lift Well Performance", Drill. & Prod. Practice, 1954, 126
Omana, R., Houssiere, C. Jr., Brown, K.E., Brill, J.P., and Thompson, R.E., "Multiphase Flow
Through Chokes", SPE Paper No. 2682, paper presented at Annual Fall Meeting of the SPE of
AIME, Denver, CO, Sep 28 – Oct 1, 1969
Ros, N.C.J., "An Analysis of Critical Simultaneous Gas-Liquid Flow Through a Restriction and Its
Glossary
Absolute Open Flow (AOF)
The Absolute Open Flow potential of a well is the rate at which the well would produce against zero
sandface backpressure. Flow into a well depends on both the reservoir characteristics and the wellbore
flowing pressure. The relationship of inflow rate to bottomhole flowing pressure is called the IPR (Inflow
Performance Relationship). For gas wells, this may also be called the AOF curve. F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™
presents this relationship in the form of a pressure versus flow rate graph. From this graph, the well’s flow
potential can be determined at various flowing sandface pressures. As well, the operating point (flow rate
and pressure) of a particular wellbore configuration can be determined from the intersection of the AOF
curve and the Tubing Performance Curve (TPC).
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ uses the simplified analysis approach to determine AOF’s. This approach is based on
the following equation:
53
where
P = shut-in pressure (in the case of a Sandface AOF, this is the static reservoir pressure (psia, kPaA)
C = a coefficient which describes the position of the stabilized deliverability line (MMcfd/(psi2)n, 103m3/d/
(kPa2)n)
N = an exponent to describe the inverse of the slope of the stabilized deliverability line (n varies between
1.0 for completely laminar flow and 0.5 for fully turbulent flow.)
This equation applies to both sandface and wellhead AOF’s. If a sandface AOF is being calculated, all
components of the equation refer to the sandface and vice-versa with wellhead AOF calculations. The Gas
AOF/TPC page requires sandface AOF’s for its calculations. If only a wellhead AOF is known, a sandface
AOF may be calculated using the SF/WH AOF page. Care must be taken here when dealing with multi-
phase flow as instabilities can occur.
Note: In order to represent a reservoir which is depleting due to pressure loss, several AOF curves may be
drawn on the Gas AOF/TPC page. Each successive AOF curve will have a consistent n and c with a
declining reservoir pressure. In order to model rate decline caused by wellbore liquid problems, the
reservoir pressure and n may be kept constant, and the AOF or C varied to account for the effects of
liquids.
For oil wells, there is no AOF, so instead a similar concept is used. AOFP (absolute open flow potential)
represents the maximum value of oil flow as the pressure approaches zero. This is analogous to AOF
(absolute open flow) with a gas well.
Angle
A calculated angle of the wellbore that is based on entered values of MD and TVD.
This is the exponent found in the Absolute Open Flow (AOF) equation.
It describes the inverse of the slope of the stabilized deliverability line. "n" varies between 1.0 for
completely laminar flow and 0.5 for fully turbulent flow.
It is generally accepted that "n" at wellhead is less than or equal to "n" at sandface. This condition is
enforced when the SF/WH AOF module is converting an equation from sandface to wellhead or vice versa
in single phase flow. However, in multiphase flow situations, the interaction of friction and hydrostatic
pressure effects is much more complicated, and this relationship of wellhead to sandface "n" is not
enforced. However, to conform to standard practice, the limits of 1.0 and 0.5 are honoured. Thus in a
multiphase flow test, it is possible for the wellhead "n" to be larger than the sandface "n"
The procedure for calculating the wellhead AOF curve, and the wellhead AOF equation, is described below
for a multiphase situation:
54
2. Divide into 100 equally spaced rate points
3. For each of these, convert the sandface pressure to a wellhead pressure using the specified tubular
configuration and fluid properties.
4. Draw the calculated wellhead AOF curve by joining these calculated points. For single phase flow, the
curve will look very similar to the sandface curve, but for multiphase flow, the calculated wellhead points
could form a curve with a region that represents UNSTABLE rates. This unstable region is characterized
by a maximum or discontinuities or the limiting liquid lifting rate determined from the Turner Correlation.
Any calculated points to the left of this are considered to be in unstable flow (and the well will eventually kill
itself), and the curve is generally drawn as a dashed line to indicate this.
5. From the calculated shut-in wellhead pressure (assuming a static column of gas in the wellbore) and the
calculated wellhead pressures in the STABLE portion of the wellhead curve, the wellhead AOF equation
(AOF and "n") is determined. These values are copied onto the Option line and plotted as a continuous
simplified AOF equation. The user can modify this generic option curve at will.
6. The conversion of a wellhead AOF curve to a sandface AOF curve follows the same procedure, but it is
much more prone to irregularities. For example, sometimes the calculated flowing pressure can be higher
than the specified reservoir pressure when the combination of specified rates and tubulars is unrealistic. It
is very hard to guard against situations like this in a computer program with a wide range of applications.
The user is warned to ensure that the calculated AOF curve is meaningful, and if not, to over-ride with a
specified curve using the "option" entry.
The Bubble Point Pressure is defined as the pressure at which the oil is saturated with gas. Above this
pressure the oil is undersaturated, and the oil acts as a single phase liquid. At and below this pressure the
oil is saturated, and any lowering of the pressure causes gas to be liberated resulting in two phase flow.
The Bubble Point affects the Inflow Performance Relationship Curve (IPR) curve. Above this pressure, the
IPR is a straight line, of slope equal to the inverse of productivity index. Below the bubble point pressure,
the IPR is a curve based on "Vogel’s" equation. The straight line and the curve are tangential at the bubble
point pressure, where they meet.
C, Sandface Coefficient
This is the coefficient found in the Absolute Open Flow (AOF) equation.
It describes the position of the stabilized deliverability line. Wellhead and sandface C values for a given
system are usually different.
Note: Care must be taken when converting ‘C’ from field to metric units or vice-versa. This is because the
units of ‘C’ are dependent on ‘n’. In order to avoid these problems, both ‘n’ and ‘C’ should be entered
before changing units.
55
Casing
Casing ID
The Casing ID is the Inside Diameter of the wellbore casing. This value is used to calculate the area of
flow when production is through the casing or along with the Tubing OD to calculate the area of flow when
production is directed through the annulus. This value will also be required when flow is through the tubing
if the Mid-Point of Perforations(MPP) or the Datum is below the End of Tubing Depth (EOT).
For horizontal wellbores, three casing ID’s, one for each of the Vertical, Deviated and Horizontal sections
of the wellbore are requested.
The casing ID is also used to represent the inside diameter of the wellbore in the event of an openhole
completion. There is no differentiation made between flow through openhole and flow through casing.
Note: In the petroleum industry the nominal casing size refers to the outside diameter of the casing. The ID
depends on the OD and the weight (linear density) of the casing.
Casing OD
Casing OD is the outside diameter of the casing. This value is not used in any calculations but will appear
on printed reports.
The compressibility of any substance is the change in volume per unit volume per unit change in pressure.
The oil compressibility is a source of energy for fluid flow in a reservoir. In an undersaturated reservoir it is
a dominant drive mechanism, but for a saturated reservoir it is over-shadowed by the much larger gas
compressibility effects. The oil compressibility is a component in the calculation of total compressibility,
which is the value used in the determination of skin effect, dimensionless time and all material balance
considerations in the fluid flow calculations.
There is a significant discontinuity at the bubble point pressure. Above this pressure, the oil is a single
phase liquid (consisting of oil and dissolved gas). The compressibility of this liquid can be measured in the
laboratory, and it is a weak function of pressure. At and below the bubble point pressure, if the pressure is
decreased, gas comes out of solution and contributes to the compressibility of the system. This apparent
oil compressibility is calculated by including a "dRs / dp" component, to account for the change in solution
gas-oil ratio with pressure.
56
The correlations that can be used to calculate the Oil Compressibility are:
This is the condensate to gas ratio produced at surface. It is typically known from direct measurements. If
the daily condensate rate is known, it must be divided by the daily gas rate to obtain the Condensate-Gas
Ratio. The CGR is used to calculate the Recombined Gas Gravity and the Recombined Gas Rate which
are used in the wellbore pressure drop calculations.
Datum (MD)
The datum is a reference point for calculations. Calculations are either done from the sandface to the
datum or from the datum to the wellhead.
This is the user-defined Measured Depth (MD) in a well. In the wellbore, the pressure drop is calculated
from the specified Datum to the wellhead. The user may define the Datum to be located at any point in the
horizontal section that allows the flexibility to calculate the pressure drop from any desired location.
57
Density
The method for calculating depends on whether flow is compressible or incompressible (multiphase or
single-phase). It follows that:
For a single-phase liquid, calculating the density is easy, and 1 is simply the liquid density.
For a single-phase gas, 1 varies with pressure (since gas is compressible), and the calculation
must be done sequentially, in small steps, to allow the density to vary with pressure.
For multiphase flow, the calculations become even more complicated because 1 is calculated
from the in-situ mixture density, which in turn is calculated from the "liquid holdup". The liquid
holdup, or in-situ liquid volume fraction, is obtained from one of the multiphase flow correlations,
and it depends on several parameters including the gas and liquid rates, and the pipe diameter.
Note that this is in contrast to the way density is calculated for the friction pressure loss.
Density, Condensate
Condensate Density is the specific gravity in API of condensate at stock tank conditions. It ranges from 60
API to 40 API. The API Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory oil analysis. It is a fixed property of
the condensate.
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™, this variable is used to calculate the Recombined Gas Gravity and the Recombined
Gas Rate which are then used in single-phase pressure drop calculations.
The conversion from API Gravity (field units) to Stock Tank Oil Density (metric units) is:
Density, Gas
The density of a gas varies with the in-situ conditions of pressure and temperature along a pipe. The gas
density is calculated from the "real gas" law :
58
where:
G = Gas Gravity
P = Pressure (psia)
Z = supercompressibility factor
T = temperature (R)
The gas density is used in calculating the pressure drops caused by friction and by hydrostatic head.
Density, Mixture
The mixture density is a measure of the in-situ density of the mixture, and is defined as follows:
Note: The mixture density is defined in terms of in-situ volume fractions (EL), whereas the no-slip density is
defined in terms of input volume fractions (CL).
Density, No-Slip
The "no-slip" density is the density that is calculated with the assumption that both phases are moving at
the same in-situ velocity. The no-slip density is therefore defined as follows:
L = liquid density
NS = no-slip density
59
Note: The no-slip density is defined in terms of input volume fractions (CL), whereas the mixture density is
defined in terms of in-situ volume fractions (EL).
This is the total vertical depth from the wellhead to a given point. In other words, a depth that is
independent of the orientation of tubing in the wellbore. The following picture demonstrates the difference
between TVD and MD.
Elevation
This is the elevation of the pipe over which the pressure drop is calculated. A positive elevation represents
flow uphill. A negative elevation represents downhill flow. An elevation of zero (0) represents a horizontal
pipe.
Erosional Velocity
When fluid flows through a pipe at high velocities, erosion of the pipe can occur. Erosion can occur when
the fluid velocity through a pipe is greater than the calculated erosional velocity.
60
where:
L - liquid density
G - gas density
where:
Vm - mixture velocity
Flow, %
This is the amount of the total flow that enters a particular set of perforations.
Flow Efficiency
Flow efficiency is a tuning parameter used to match calculated pressures to measured pressures. These
two often differ as most calculations involve unknowns, approximations, assumptions, or measurement
errors. When measured pressures are available for comparison with calculated values, the Flow Efficiency
can be used to obtain a match between the two.
If measured pressures are not available for comparison, then the default value (100%) should be used.
Flow Efficiency adjusts the correlation such that decreasing the flow efficiency increases the pressure loss.
Efficiencies greater than 100% are possible. Low efficiencies could be a result of roughness caused by
61
factors such as corrosion, scale, sulfur or calcium deposition and restrictions. Restrictions in a wellbore
may be caused by downhole equipment, profiles, etc. Low efficiencies could also be the result of liquid
loading. Flow efficiencies less than 50% or greater than 150% should be treated with caution.
The flow efficiency is applied to both the hydrostatic and friction components of the pressure loss equation.
Under static (no-flow) conditions the flow efficiency is not applied to the correlations. In this case, a match
between measured and calculated pressures may be obtained by adjusting the fluid gravity or
temperatures, as appropriate.
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ divides the whole length of pipe into many segments (see Pressure Loss Calculation
Procedure). The flow efficiency is applied to each segment and affects the inlet/outlet pressure of that
segment, and hence the in situ fluid densities. Therefore, a simple one step application of the flow
efficiency to the pressure loss over the whole length of pipe will not produce the same results as those of
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™.
This is defined as the ratio of the volume of oil at operating conditions to that at stock tank conditions. This
factor is used to convert the flow rate and the density of oil (both normally reported at stock tank
conditions) to in-situ conditions. Thus,
Oil Flow Rate (in-situ Barrels) = Oil Flow Rate (Stock Tank Barrels) * Oil Formation Volume Factor
And Oil density (in-situ) = Oil Density (Stock Tank Conditions) * Oil Formation Volume Factor
In the equations used in F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ the oil rate and the oil density should be expressed at in-situ
conditions, because the equations apply to the pressure and temperature conditions inside the pipe.
However, the oil flow rate is generally measured at the surface, in stock tank barrels. Therefore, this rate is
multiplied by the oil formation volume factor to convert it to in-situ conditions. Similarly, it is the in-situ
density that counts, and that is obtained from the API Gravity (Stock Tank Oil Density) and the Formation
Volume Factor
Below the bubble point pressure, the oil formation volume factor increases with pressure. This is because
more gas goes into solution as the pressure is increased and this causes the oil to swell. Above the bubble
point pressure, the oil formation volume factor decreases as the pressure is increased, because there is
no more gas available to go into solution, and the oil is being compressed.
The value of the oil formation volume factor is generally between 1 and 2 RB/STB (m3/m3). It is readily
obtained from laboratory PVT measurements, or it may be calculated from correlations such as "Vasquez
and Beggs".
In the correlations that are being used to calculate the oil formation volume factor, the Solution Gas-Oil
Ratio is the most significant variable.
This is obtained from multi-phase flow correlations (see Beggs and Brill under multi-phase flow). This
correlation depends, in part, on the gas and liquid flow rates, but also on the standard Fanning (single
phase) friction factor charts. When evaluating the Fanning friction factor, there are many ways of
calculating the Reynold’s number depending on how the density, viscosity and velocity of the two-phase
mixture are defined. For the Beggs and Brill calculation of Reynold’s number, these mixture properties are
calculated by prorating the property of each individual phase in the ratio of the "input" volume fraction and
not of the "in-situ" volume fraction.
62
For a single phase liquid, equals the liquid density.
For a single phase gas, varies with pressure, and the calculation must be done sequentially in small
steps to allow the density to vary with pressure.
For multi-phase flow, is the mixture density, which is calculated by prorating the density of each
individual phase in the ratio of the "input" volume fraction and NOT of the "in-situ" volume fraction. Note
that this is in contrast to the way the mixture density was defined for the hydrostatic pressure difference.
This is obtained from the Chen (1979) equation which represents the Fanning friction factor chart. It
depends on the Reynold’s number which is a function of the fluid density, viscosity, velocity and pipe
diameter. It is valid for single phase gas or liquid flow, as their very different properties are taken into
account in the definition of Reynold’s number.
In pipe flow, the friction pressure loss is the component of pressure loss caused by viscous shear effects.
The friction pressure loss is ALWAYS positive IN THE DIRECTION OF FLOW. It is combined with the
hydrostatic pressure difference (which may be positive or negative depending on the whether the flow is
uphill or downhill) to give the total pressure loss.
The friction pressure loss is calculated from the Fanning friction factor equation as follows:
where:
63
= in-situ density
g = acceleration of gravity
In the above equation, the variables f, Rho and V2 require special discussion, as follows
This is the gas to oil ratio produced at surface. It is typically known from direct measurements. If the daily
gas rate is known, it must be divided by the daily oil rate to obtain the Gas-Oil Ratio.
The compressibility factor (Z), of a natural gas is a measure of its deviation from ideal gas behavior. Its
value is usually between 0.8 and 1.2, but it can be as low as 0.3 and as high as 2.0. It is used in the
calculation of gas density, and in converting gas volumes and rates from standard conditions to reservoir
conditions (and vice-versa).
References:
Dranchuck, P.M., R. A. Purvis and D. B. Robinson (1974). Computer Calculation of Natural Gas
Compressibility Factors Using the Standing and Katz Correlations, Inst. Of Pet. Tech., IP-74-008.
Gas Rate
This is the daily gas rate. It is typically known from direct measurements. If the gas-oil ratio (GOR) is
known, it must be multiplied by the daily oil rate in order to calculate the daily gas rate. The rate must be at
standard conditions (14.65 psia, 60 F / 101.325 Pa, 15 C).
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ treats all flow within the vertical wellbore as originating from the MPP (Mid Point
Perforations). In a horizontal well, the flow is divided so that it enters at ten (10) equally spaced points in
the horizontal portion of the wellbore.
Even though the gas flow rate is quoted at Standard Conditions, all calculations in F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ use
the volumetric flow rate at the "in-situ" conditions of pressure and temperature at which the pipe segment
is operating. Also, when both gas and oil are flowing in a pipe or wellbore, the gas flow rate is continuously
adjusted to account for "gas coming out of solution from the oil".
Gas, CO2
Molar Concentration of Carbon Dioxide in the gas stream. It has an effect on the calculation of
compressibility (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of CO2 must be between 0% and 80% to be
within the limits of the correlations for the z-factor, and between the limits of 0 and 15% for the viscosity
64
correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ will still complete the calculations,
however results should be used with caution.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
Gas, H2S
Molar Concentration of Hydrogen Sulfide in the gas stream. It has an effect on the calculation of
compressibility (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of H2S must be between 0% and 80% to be
within the limits of the correlations for the z-factor and between the limits of 0 and 15% for the viscosity
correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ will still complete the calculations,
however results should be used with caution.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
Gas, N2
Molar Concentration of Nitrogen in the gas stream. It has an effect on the calculation of compressibility (z-
factor) and viscosity. The concentration of Nitrogen must be between 0% and 15% to be within the limits of
the correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ will still complete the calculations,
however results should be used with caution.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
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Liquid Density: 805 kg/m³
API Gravity is the specific gravity (density) of oil at stock tank conditions. It ranges from 60 °API
(condensate) to 45 °API (light oil) to 20 °API (medium density) to 10 °API (heavy oil). The API Gravity is
readily obtained from any laboratory oil analysis. It is a fixed property of the oil, and is independent of the
operating pressure or temperature, unlike the in-situ oil density that is very dependent on operating
pressure and temperature conditions.
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™, this variable is the primary variable used for calculating the oil properties at the
required pressures and temperatures. API Gravity affects four variables namely oil viscosity, solution gas-
oil ratio, oil formation volume factor and in-situ oil density.
The primary effect of API Gravity is on the in-situ oil density. The density affects the friction pressure drop
to some extent, but it affects the hydrostatic pressure drop DIRECTLY.
The conversion from API Gravity (field units) to Stock Tank Oil Density (metric units) is:
The API Gravity must be between 16 °API and 58 °API to be within the range of the correlations. When the
parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
UNITS: °API (kg/m 3 ) DEFAULT: None LIMITS: 16 °API < G < 58 °API
Gravity, Condensate
API Gravity is the specific gravity (density) of condensate at stock tank conditions. It ranges from 60 °API
to 40 °API. The API Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory oil analysis. It is a fixed property of the
condensate.
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™, this variable is used to calculate the Recombined Gas Gravity and the Recombined
Gas Rate which are then used in single-phase pressure drop calculations.
The conversion from API Gravity (field units) to Stock Tank Oil Density (metric units) is:
Gravity, Gas
Gas Gravity is the molar mass (molecular weight) of the natural gas divided by the molar mass of air
(28.94).
It ranges from 0.55 for dry sweet gas (mostly methane) to approximately 1.5 for wet, sour gas (includes
CO2 and H2S concentration). The Gas Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory gas analysis.
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™, Gas Gravity affects three variables namely compressibility (z-factor), Gas viscosity
and gas density.
The effects on supercompressibility and viscosity are not very significant. However, the effect on density is
significant in two ways. It affects the friction pressure drop to some extent, but it affects the hydrostatic
pressure drop directly – i.e. doubling the Gas Gravity doubles the density and therefore doubles the
hydrostatic pressure drop.
66
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
The following table shows some gas gravities of some common gasses.
Molar Mass
Gas type Gas Gravity of
(g/mol) Pure Gas
This is the Gas Gravity used for pressure drop calculations in gas-condensate systems. It is a function of
Condensate-Gas Ratio, Condensate Gravity, Gas Gravity, Separator Temperature and Separator
Pressure.
The calculated Recombined Gas Gravity can be found on the printout when a gas-condensate system is
being modeled.
Gravity, Water
Specific Gravity is defined as the density of the liquid divided by the density of water at standard conditions
(62.3 lb/ft3, 1000 kg/m3). The gravity of pure water is therefore 1.0. Often oilfield waters are saline and
have a specific gravity slightly greater than 1.0.
The primary effect of water gravity is on the density of water, which in turn affects the hydrostatic pressure
difference.
This is the MD or TVD depth from the wellhead to the heel of the horizontal well (i.e.: where the horizontal
portion of the well begins). The measured and total vertical depth of the heel are used to determine the
angle of the deviated portion of the well from vertical.
The hydrostatic pressure difference is the component of pressure loss (or gain) attributed to the earth’s
gravitational effect. It is of importance only when there are differences in elevation from the inlet end to the
outlet end of a pipe segment. This pressure difference can be positive or negative depending on the
67
reference point (inlet higher vertically than outlet, or outlet higher than inlet). UNDER ALL
CIRCUMSTANCES, irrespective of what sign convention is used, the contribution of the hydrostatic
pressure calculation must be such that it will tend to make the pressure at the vertically-lower end higher
than that at the upper end.
where:
g = acceleration of gravity
gc = conversion factor
In the equation above, the problem is really determining an appropriate value for Rho, as discussed below:
For a single phase liquid, this is easy, and equals the liquid density.
For a single phase gas, varies with pressure, and the calculation must be done sequentially in small
steps to allow the density to vary with pressure.
For multi-phase flow, is calculated from the in-situ mixture density, which in turn is calculated from the
"liquid holdup". The liquid holdup is obtained from multi-phase flow correlations, such as Beggs and Brill,
and depends on the gas and liquid rates, pipe diameter, etc...
Flow into a well depends on both the reservoir characteristics and the sandface flowing pressure. The
relationship of inflow rate to bottomhole flowing pressure is called the IPR (Inflow Performance
Relationship). F.A.S.T. Virtuwell™ presents this relationship in the form of a pressure versus flow rate
graph. From this graph, the well’s flow potential can be determined at various flowing sandface pressures.
As well, the operating point (flow rate and pressure) of a particular wellbore configuration can be
determined from the intersection of the IPR curve and the Tubing Performance Curve (TPC).
In calculating oil well production it was assumed that producing rates were proportional to drawdown.
Using this assumption a well’s behaviour can be described by its productivity index as follows:
PI = Productivity index
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q = flow rate
This relationship was developed from Darcy’s law for the steady state radial flow of a single,
incompressible liquid.
Vogel IPR
Vogel showed that as depletion proceeds in a solution-gas drive reservoir the productivity of a typical well
decreases, primarily because the reservoir pressure is reduced and because the increasing gas saturation
causes greater resistance to oil flow.
The IPR for water is a straight line, whose slope is the inverse of the Productivity Index. The IPR for oil is a
straight line above the Bubble Point Pressure, and a curve below that. The curve is generated using
Vogel’s (1968) equation. Vogel’s IPR equation can be written as follows:
69
qo(max) = maximum oil flow rate (STB/d, m3/d)
q* = calculation variable
The inflow into a well often consists of both oil and water. If values for both are entered into the IPR Data
section, the IPR generated is for the total fluids (oil and water). If all of the TPC curves are removed, the
IPR curve will break down into its oil and water components.
Reference
Vogel, J. V.: "Inflow Performance Relationship for Solution-Gas Drive Wells," JPT, (Jan. 1968).
Note: QL is the liquid rate at the prevailing pressure and temperature. Similarly, QGBg is the gas rate at the
prevailing pressure and temperature.
70
The input volume fractions, CL and CG, are known quantities, and are often used as correlating variables in
empirical multiphase correlations.
The in-situ volume fraction, EL (or HL), is often the value that is estimated by multiphase correlations.
Because of "slip" between phases, the "holdup" (EL) can be significantly different from the input liquid
fraction (CL). For example, a single-phase gas can percolate through a wellbore containing water. In this
situation CL = 0 (single-phase gas is being produced), but EL > 0 (the wellbore contains water). The in-situ
volume fraction is defined as follows:
where:
The dead oil interfacial tension at temperatures of 68 F and 100 F is given by:
If the temperature is greater than 100 F, the value at 100 F is used. If the temperature is less than 68 F, the
value at 68 F is used. For intermediate temperatures, linear interpolation is used.
As pressure is increased and gas goes into solution, the gas/oil interfacial tension is reduced. The dead oil
interfacial tension is corrected for this by multiplying by a correction factor.
The interfacial tension becomes zero at miscibility pressure, and for most systems this will be at any
pressure greater than about 5000 psia. Once the correction factor becomes zero (at about 3977 psia), 1
dyne/cm is used for calculations.
71
where = interfacial tension at 74 F (dynes/cm)
= interfacial tension at 280 F (dynes/cm)
p = pressure (psia)
If the temperature is greater than 280 F, the value at 280 F is used. If the temperature is less than 74 F, the
value at 74 F is used. For intermediate temperatures, linear interpolation is used.
This is the depth from the wellhead to the Kick Off Point of the horizontal well (i.e.: where the well begins to
deviate away from vertical).
When two or more phases are present in a pipe, they tend to flow at different in-situ velocities. These in-
situ velocities depend on the density and viscosity of the phase. Usually the phase that is less dense will
flow faster than the other. This causes a "slip" or holdup effect, which means that the in-situ volume
fractions of each phase (under flowing conditions) will differ from the input volume fractions of the pipe.
This is the user-defined measured depth (MD) in a well. The MD is a scalar quantity that represents the
sum of all horizontal, vertical and deviated lengths. To demonstrate the difference between measured
depth and Total Vertical Depth (TVD) see the picture below.
72
UNITS: Feet (m) DEFAULT: none
The in-situ oil density should not be confused with the API Gravity (Stock Tank Oil Density). The in-situ oil
density varies with pressure and temperature, but more so with the amount of dissolved gas contained in
the oil (Solution Gas-Oil Ratio), whereas the API gravity is a fixed property of the particular oil,
independent of operating conditions. The in-situ oil density is obtained by multiplying the density at stock
tank conditions by the Formation Volume Factor at the in-situ pressure and temperature conditions. Thus:
Oil density (in-situ) = Oil Density (Stock Tank Conditions) * Oil Formation Volume Factor
The oil density affects the Hydrostatic Pressure Loss and the Friction Pressure Loss.
Pipe
ID
Pipe ID is the Inside Diameter of the pipe. This value is used to calculate the area of flow through the pipe.
In the petroleum industry the nominal pipe size refers to the average diameter of the pipe. The inside
diameter (ID) and the outside diameter (OD) depend on the weight (linear density) of the pipe.
Length
This is the length of the pipe over which the pressure drop is calculated. A length equal to the elevation
represents a vertical pipe.
Plugged Back Total Depth (PBTD) defines the total vertical well depth, relative to the wellhead. This depth
is not used for any calculations but may be entered for completeness of presentation.
Perforations, Bottom
This is the bottom of a perforated zone. This is measured from the wellhead to the perforation by
measured depth.
A perforation is a method of making holes through the casing opposite a producing formation to allow the
oil or gas to flow into a well.
MPP is the depth from the wellhead to the Mid-Point of the Perforated interval. F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ treats
all flow within the vertical wellbore as originating from this depth. When a "wellhead pressure" is converted
to a "sandface pressure" calculations are in fact done from the wellhead to MPP. The reverse is also true,
when a "sandface pressure" is converted to a "wellhead pressure" calculations are done from MPP to the
wellhead.
In a horizontal well, the total flow is divided so that it enters at ten (10) equally spaced points in the
horizontal portion of the wellbore. The pressure drop is calculated from the specified datum to the
Wellhead.
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UNITS: Feet (m) DEFAULT: none
Perforations, Top
Top - This is the top of a perforated zone. This is measured from the wellhead to the perforation by
measured depth.
Pressure, Inlet
This is the pressure at the inlet to the pipe. It can be measured directly and used to calculate an outlet
pressure, or it can be calculated from a known outlet pressure. All pressures are in absolute (not gauge).
Note: If all necessary information has been entered and no inlet pressure has been calculated, parts of the
information may be invalid. For example, the outlet pressure may be too low to compensate for the
pressure drop in the pipe and may cause the inlet pressure to be less than 0 – which is physically
impossible. For such a situation the inlet pressure will be left blank.
This is the pressure at which the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate calculated. All pressures are
in absolute (not gauge).
Hint: As pressure increases, so does the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate. Therefore, to
determine the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate in a wellbore, it is recommended that the
highest pressure in the wellbore be used. This is typically the flowing sandface pressure. In his original
work, Turner (1969) recommends that the wellhead pressure be used. In our research also supported by
Lea Jr. (1983) we have found that generally, the sandface pressure and not the wellhead pressure should
be used to calculate the minimum gas rate to lift liquids.
Pressure, Outlet
This is the pressure at the outlet of the pipe. It can be measured directly and used to calculate the
pressure at the inlet to the pipe, or it can be calculated from a known inlet pressure. All pressures are in
absolute (not gauge).
Note: If all necessary information has been entered and no outlet pressure has been calculated, parts of
the information may be invalid. For example, the inlet pressure may be too low to support the pressure
drop in the pipe and may cause the outlet pressure to be less than 0 – which is physically impossible. For
such a situation the outlet pressure will be left blank.
Pressure, Reservoir
The stabilized shut-in pressure in the reservoir. This pressure is used to construct the Inflow Performance
Relationship (IPR) in the case of an oil well and the Absolute Open Flow (AOF) in the case of a gas well.
On both curves, the reservoir pressure corresponds to a flow rate of zero. For a well that is recently on
production, the current reservoir pressure may be taken to equal the initial pressure of the reservoir. For a
well that has been on production for a long time, the current reservoir pressure is less than the initial
reservoir pressure. It may be determined from a buildup test by extrapolating the shut-in pressures and
taking into account the reservoir shape.
Pressure, Sandface
This is the pressure at the sandface (MPP) for a vertical well or at the Datum for a horizontal well. It is a
flowing pressure if the well is flowing and a shut-in pressure if the well is not flowing. It can be measured
directly and used to calculate a wellhead pressure, or it can be calculated from a known wellhead
pressure. All pressures are in absolute (not gauge).
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UNITS: psia (kPaA) DEFAULT: 0
Pressure, Separator
The separator pressure is the pressure in the separator or at wellhead. It is used in the recombination
calculations to calculate the vapour equivalent of the condensate, the recombined gas rate and the
recombined gas gravity.
Pressure, Shut In
This is the shut-in pressure at the wellhead or the sandface. This corresponds to the pressure when there
is no flow through the wellhead.
Pressure, Test
Often, an AOF is not available for a well. However, test flow rates and the corresponding flowing pressures
are easily obtainable. The SF/WH AOF page in F.A.S.T. Virtuwell™ will calculate an AOF given a test rate
and pressure (either at sandface or at the wellhead). Also necessary is the shut-in pressure of the well
(from a Static Gradient) and a value for n. The flowing test pressure must be in absolute (not gauge).
Pressure, Wellhead
This is the pressure at the wellhead. It is flowing pressure if the well is flowing and a shut-in pressure if the
well is not flowing. It is typically known from direct measurements or can be calculated from sandface. If
known, it is used to calculate the sandface pressure as well as to construct tubing performance curves. All
pressures are in absolute (not gauge).
Note: If all necessary information has been entered and no wellhead pressure has been calculated, parts
of the information may be invalid. For example, the sandface pressure may be too low to support the
pressure drop in the well and may cause the wellhead pressure to be less than 0 – which is physically
impossible. For such a situation the wellhead pressure will be left blank.
The Productivity Index is the flow rate per unit pressure drop. For example, if a well flows at 1000 STBD
with a flowing Sandface Pressure of 1500 psi, and the average reservoir pressure is 2000 psi, then the
productivity index is given by:
The productivity index serves as an indication of the production potential of a well. For a well in an under-
saturated reservoir, the flow rate of the well can be estimated very simply from the productivity index as
follows:
where
For wells in saturated reservoirs or for gas wells, the relationship is not as straight forward, and the simple
relationship described above does not apply. Instead, for oil wells, we have to use the Inflow Performance
Relationship (IPR) formulation and for gas wells the Absolute Open Flow (AOF) deliverability equation.
75
Rate, Oil
This is the daily oil or condensate rate. It is typically known from direct measurements. If the Gas-Oil Ratio
or condensate-gas ratio is available, it must be multiplied by the known daily gas rate to calculate the daily
oil or condensate rate. The oil rate is at stock tank conditions.
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ treats all flow within the vertical wellbore as originating from the MPP (Mid Point
Perforations). In a horizontal well, the total flow is divided so that it enters at ten (10) equally spaced points
in the horizontal portion of the wellbore.
This is the Gas Rate used for pressure drop calculations in gas-condensate systems. It is a function of
Condensate-Gas Ratio, Condensate Gravity, Gas Gravity, Separator Temperature and Separator
Pressure.
Rate, Test
Often, an AOF is not available for a well. However, test flow rates and the corresponding flowing pressures
are easily obtainable. The SF/WH AOF page in F.A.S.T. Virtuwell™ will calculate an AOF given a test rate
and pressure (either at sandface or at the wellhead). Also necessary is the shut-in pressure of the well
(from a Static Gradient) and a value for n. The gas rate must be at standard conditions (14.65 psia, 60 F /
101.325 Pa, 15 C).
In order to enter a test rate and pressure on the SF/WH AOF page, the Test Rate/Pressure radio button
must be selected.
Recombination
Most gas-condensate wells are in reality single-phase in the reservoir and in the majority of the wellbore.
The condensation of condensate from the gas takes place either at the separator or very near the
wellhead. The recombination is a calculation procedure which takes the volume of condensate, vapourizes
it, adds it to the gas volume to obtain the raw gas as it existed in the reservoir and the wellbore. For
calculation purposes, this program treats the wellbore calculations as single-phase calculations using the
recombined gas gravity and the recombined gas rate.
where
76
Veq = vapor equivalent of stock tank liquid, scf/STB
where
The total wellstream gas flow rate, representing all gas and liquid produced at the surface can be
calculated as follows:
where:
qRec = total wellstream gas flow rate (recombined gas rate), MMscfd
Reference:
Lee, John and Wattenbarger, Robert A.: Gas Reservoir Engineering, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.,
Richardson, TX, 1996, 11-15.
This is the Recombined Gas Rate divided by the original gas rate. It can be found on the printouts when a
gas-condensate system is being modeled.
Roughness
This is defined as the distance from the peaks to the valleys in pipe wall irregularities. Roughness is used
in the calculation of pressure drop due to friction. For clean, new pipe the roughness is determined by the
method of manufacture and is usually between 0.00055 to 0.0019 inches (0.01397mm to 0.04826mm)
(Cullender and Binckley, 1950, Smith et al. 1954, Smith et al. 1956). For new pipe or tubing used in gas
wells the roughness has been found to be in the order of 0.00060 or 0.00065 inches (0.01524 mm to
0.01651 mm).
Roughness can be used to tune the correlations to measured conditions in a similar way to the Flow
Efficiency. Changes in roughness only affect the friction component of the calculations while the Flow
Efficiency is applied to the friction and hydrostatic components of pressure loss. Roughness does not
affect the calculations for static conditions. In this case, a match between measured and calculated
pressures may be obtained by adjusting the fluid gravity or temperatures, as appropriate.
77
DEFAULT: 0.0006 inches (0.01524 mm)
This is the amount of gas dissolved in the oil at any pressure. It increases approximately linearly with
pressure. It is a function of the oil and gas composition. A heavy oil contains less dissolved gas than a light
oil. In general, the solution gas-oil ratio varies from 0 (dead oil) to approximately 2000 SCF/Bbl (very light
oil). The solution gas-oil ratio increases with pressure until the bubble point pressure is reached, after
which it is a constant, and the oil is said to be under-saturated.
The solution gas-oil ratio has a significant influence on the oil formation volume factor and the oil viscosity.
When a mixture of gas and oil is flowing in a pipe or wellbore, the actual quantity of "free gas" that is
flowing increases as the pressure of the gas-oil system decreases. This is due to gas "coming out of
solution from the oil" and becoming free gas, thus increasing the gas flow rate, and decreasing the oil flow
rate. In the F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ program, the solution gas-oil ratio is used for accounting for the changes in
the in-situ gas rate along the pipe or wellbore.
The solution gas-oil ratio is readily obtained from laboratory PVT measurements, or as is done in the
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ program, it may be calculated from correlations such as "Vasquez and Beggs".
Static Conditions
Under single-phase conditions, pressures calculated for static (no flow) cases will be dependent only on
the fluid’s gravity and temperature. Multi-phase systems at static conditions make the assumption that only
one fluid is present. If the system contains gas, at static conditions it is assumed that the only fluid present
is gas. Thus a multi-phase static system containing gas will give the same results as a single-phase gas
system. In an oil/water system at static conditions (zero flow rates), the program will not calculate a
pressure drop. In order to simulate static conditions in this case, one fluid must be chosen preferentially
over the other and modeled in a single-phase system.
The Flow Efficiency and Roughness are not applied to static conditions. In this case, a match between
measured and calculated pressures may be obtained by adjusting the dominant fluid gravity or
temperatures for the case being considered.
Surface Tension
The surface tension (interfacial tension) between the gas and liquid phases has very little effect on two-
phase pressure drop calculations. However a value is required for use in calculating certain dimensionless
numbers used in some of the pressure drop correlations. Empirical relationships for estimating the gas/oil
interfacial tension and the gas/water interfacial tension were presented by Baker and Swerdloff1, Hough2
and by Beggs3.
Temperature Gradient
A straight line temperature gradient is assumed for all calculations. This is considered to be a very
reasonable assumption in most circumstances.
Temperature, Inlet
This is the temperature at the inlet to the pipe. It is used in conjunction with the outlet temperature to
calculate the average temperature within the pipe. This has an effect on fluid density and viscosity,
however the calculated pressure drops are not very sensitive to small changes of this parameter. No
distinction is made between flowing and shut in temperatures.
78
This is the fluid temperature used when the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate is being
calculated.
Temperature, Outlet
This is the temperature at the outlet of the pipe. It is used in conjunction with the Inlet Temperature to
calculate the average temperature within the pipe. This has an effect on fluid density and viscosity,
however the calculated pressure drops are not very sensitive to small changes of this parameter. No
distinction is made between flowing and shut in temperatures.
Temperature, Reservoir
The reservoir temperature (sometimes referred to as the formation temperature) increases with reservoir
depth. Locations around the world have different geothermal gradients.
Along with oil gravity, the reservoir temperature is probably the most significant variable in characterizing
the PVT and fluid properties of oil (surprisingly, the Hanafy et al correlation is independent of reservoir
temperature).
DEFAULT: None
Temperature, Sandface
This is the temperature at the sandface, and is used to calculate the temperature gradient within the
wellbore. This has an effect on fluid density and viscosity, however the calculated pressure drops are not
very sensitive to small changes in temperature. A reasonable estimate of reservoir temperature is sufficient
in most cases. No distinction is made between flowing and shut in temperatures.
Temperature, Separator
The separator temperature is the temperature in the separator or at wellhead. It is used in the
recombination calculations to calculate the vapour equivalent of the condensate, the recombined gas rate
and the recombined gas gravity.
Temperature, Wellhead
This is the temperature at the wellhead, and is used to calculate the temperature gradient within the
wellbore. This has an effect on fluid density and viscosity, however the calculated pressure drops are not
very sensitive to small changes of this parameter.
Note: The wellhead temperature can be very different during flow or shut in. Usually the wellhead
temperature will be higher during flow than during shut in, due to the flow of warmer fluids from the
reservoir. A reasonable estimate of flowing wellhead temperature is sufficient in most cases, however care
must be taken when specifying the wellhead temperature during shut in. Measured wellhead temperatures
can vary significantly depending on the time of day (or night) or time of year (summer or winter). These
potentially large swings in temperature (150°F is not unusual) only affect the wellhead and approximately
10 feet (3 m) into the ground. Below this depth, the ground and wellbore fluids are virtually unaffected.
Rather than using a wellhead temperature, it is better to use the mean ground temperature for static
calculations.
79
UNITS: °F ( °C) DEFAULT: none
Toe (MD)
This is the measured depth from the wellhead to the toe (end) of the horizontal well. The length of the
horizontal portion of the wellbore is the difference between the measured depth of the toe and the
measured depth of the heel.
Tubing Depth defines the End of Tubing (EOT), relative to the wellhead. Tubing depth
is required for flow through the tubing, annulus or ‘both’ options. It is ignored when
flow is defined through the casing. As the F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ Wellbore module
assumes wellbore flow originates at the Mid-Point of Perforations (MPP), flow from
MPP to EOT will be through the casing if Tubing Depth is < MPP, and through the
annulus if Tubing Depth > MPP. In a horizontal well, the total flow is divided so that it
enters at ten (10) equally spaced points in the horizontal portion of the wellbore. As a
result, where the tubing depth and the datum are positioned will affect the flow path of
the fluid to the wellhead.
UNITS: Feet (m)
DEFAULT: none
Tubing ID
This is the inside diameter of the tubing used in the wellbore. This value is used to calculate the area of
flow when production is directed through the tubing. Complex tubing can be entered in the common
wellbore problem tab.
Note: In the petroleum industry the nominal tubing size refers to the outside diameter NOT the inside
diameter. The ID depends on the Tubing OD (outside diameter) and the weight (linear density) of the
tubing.
For Example,
2-3/8" tubing, (grade J-55, weight 4.70 lb/ft) has 1.995" ID and 2.375" OD.
2-7/8" tubing, (grade J-55, weight 6.40 lb/ft) has 2.441" ID and 2.875" OD.
3-1/2" tubing, (grade J-55, weight 9.30 lb/ft) has 2.992" ID and 3.500" OD.
Tubing Length
Tubing OD
The Tubing OD is the Outer Diameter of the tubing used in the wellbore. This value is used along with the
Casing ID to calculate the area of flow when production is directed through the annulus. Complex tubing
can be entered in the common wellbore problem tab.
80
Note: In the petroleum industry the nominal tubing size refers to the outside diameter of the tubing.
The Tubing ID (inside diameter) depends on the OD and the weight (linear density) of the tubing.
For a given set of conditions (tubing size and flowing wellhead pressure), a Tubing Performance Curve
(TPC) is a plot of the flowing sandface pressure, required to sustain flow up the tubing, as a function of
flow rate. This curve will not change through the life of the well. It is not at all dependent upon well
performance; it depends only upon the gas-liquid ratio, tubular configuration (depth, diameter), wellhead
pressures, etc. Tubing Performance Curves are applicable for both oil and gas wells, for both vertical and
horizontal wellbores.
F.A.S.T. Virtuwell™ allows the plotting of Tubing Performance Curves in conjunction with both Absolute
Open Flow (AOF) curves and Oil Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) curves. The intersection of the
AOF or IPR curve with a TPC signifies the operating point of the particular wellbore/reservoir combination.
Since both the Gas AOF/TPC and the Oil IPR/TPC pages allow up to four (4) TPCs to be plotted at any
one time, it is quite simple to investigate the effect of various tubing diameters, gas-liquid ratios and flowing
wellhead pressures on the operating point of a particular wellbore/reservoir combination.
On the Gas AOF/TPC page, the minimum gas rate required to lift liquids is calculated in conjunction with
each Tubing Performance Curve. It is represented on the tubing performance curve by a circle listing the
number identifying the tubing performance curve. To the right of the liquid lift rate, the tubing performance
curve is a solid green line. To the left, it is a dotted red line. The solid green line represents stable flow, i.e.
the wellbore will lift liquids continuously. The dotted red line represents unstable flow. If the Tubing
Performance Curve is a dotted red line over the entire range of flow rates represented, the circled number
is placed in the middle of the curve solely for identification. The calculated liquid lift rates for each tubing
performance curve are tabulated under Liquid Lift.
V2
This is the square of the velocity (V). The velocity is obtained by dividing the volumetric flow rate by the
pipe cross-sectional area. In multi-phase flow this is termed the "superficial velocity".
For a single phase gas, V varies with pressure, and the calculation must be done sequentially in small
steps to allow the velocity to vary with pressure.
For multi-phase flow, V is the superficial mixture velocity, which is calculated by prorating the superficial
velocity of each individual phase in the ratio of the "input" volume fraction and NOT of the "in-situ" volume
fraction.
Velocity, Mixture
Mixture Velocity is another parameter often used in multiphase flow correlations. The mixture velocity is
given by:
where:
Vm = mixture velocity
Vsl = superficial liquid velocity
Vsg = superficial gas velocity
81
Velocity, Superficial
The superficial velocity of each phase is defined as the volumetric flow rate of the phase divided by the
cross-sectional area of the pipe (as though that phase alone was flowing through the pipe). Therefore:
and
where:
Since the liquid phase accounts for both oil and water:
and the gas phase accounts for the solution gas going in and out of the oil as a function of pressure:
( )
82
The oil, water and gas formation volume factors (Bo, Bw and Bg) are used to convert the flow rates from
standard (or stock tank) conditions to the prevailing pressure and temperature conditions in the pipe.
Since the actual cross-sectional area occupied by each phase is less than the cross-sectional area of the
entire pipe the superficial velocity is always less than the true in-situ velocity of each phase.
Viscosity, Gas
The viscosity of a fluid refers to the resistance to flow. It causes the pressure to drop in the direction of
flow. It is used in the calculation of the "friction pressure drop". For gas, the viscosity varies with gas
gravity, temperature and pressure. Usually it is not measured, but is obtained from the Carr, Kobayashi
and Burrows correlations, which include corrections for H2S, CO2 and N2. For sour gases, this correlation is
preferred to the Lee, Gonzalez and Eakin formulation (which does NOT account for H2S, CO2 and N2).
Viscosity enters into the definition of Reynold’s Number, which is used to obtain the friction factor from the
Fanning friction factor charts.
Viscosity, Mixture
The mixture viscosity is a measure of the in-situ viscosity of the mixture and can be defined in several
where:
Note: The mixture viscosity is defined in terms of in-situ volume fractions (EL), whereas the no-slip viscosity
is defined in terms of input volume fractions (CL).
Viscosity, No-Slip
The "no-slip" viscosity is the viscosity that is calculated with the assumption that both phases are moving
at the same in-situ velocity. There are several definitions of "no-slip" viscosity. In general, unless otherwise
specified, NS is defined as follows.
where:
83
CL = input liquid volume fraction
CG = input gas volume fraction
NS =no-slip viscosity
L = liquid viscosity
G = gas viscosity
Viscosity, Oil
This is the value of the oil viscosity at in-situ conditions. It is a very strong function of temperature, API
Gravity (Stock Tank Oil Density) and Solution Gas-Oil Ratio.
Below the bubble point pressure, the amount of gas dissolved in the oil increases as the pressure is
increased. This causes the in-situ oil viscosity to decrease significantly. Above the bubble point pressure,
oil viscosity increases minimally with increasing pressure.
The oil viscosity can be measured as a function of pressure in most PVT laboratory measurements. In the
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ program it is calculated from the correlation of "Beggs and Robinson" at the
appropriate pressure and temperature. These correlations are very sensitive to solution gas-oil ratio and to
oil gravity. The oil viscosity can vary from 10 000 cp for a heavy oil to less than 1 cp for a light oil.
The oil viscosity has a very strong effect on the friction pressure loss, but no effect on the hydrostatic
pressure loss.
Water Cut
This is the water produced at surface as a percentage of the total liquids produced at surface. It is typically
known from direct measurements. If the daily water rate is known, it must be divided by the daily total
liquid rate (oil + water) to obtain the water cut.
If IPR information has been given, the water cut is calculated from the instantaneous (and varying)
oil/water rates obtained from their respective IPR’s to construct the Tubing Performance Curves.
UNITS: % DEFAULT: 0
Water Rate
This is the daily water rate. It is typically known from direct measurements. If the water cut or Water-gas
ratio is known, it must be multiplied with the daily total liquid or gas rate to calculate the daily water rate.
The water rate is at stock tank conditions.
F.A.S.T. VirtuWelltm treats all flow within the vertical wellbore as originating from the MPP (Mid Point
Perforations). In a horizontal well, the total flow is divided so that it enters at ten (10) equally spaced points
in the horizontal portion of the wellbore.
References:
Carr, N. L., R. Kobayashi and D. B. Burrows (1954). Viscosity of Hydrocarbon Gases under
Fluid Properties
84
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ is designed to calculate multiphase flow effects, and thus allows the user to input the
relevant fluid properties of Gas, Oil (Condensate) and Water.
Gas
The Gas Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ include gas gravity, mol% N2, mol% CO2
and mol% H2S. The use of correct gas properties is most important in single phase gas wells and
Gas/Liquid systems with high Gas to Liquid Ratios. These gas properties are used in calculating the gas
density, the compressibility factor (Z) and the gas viscosity at various pressures and temperatures.
Oil
The Oil Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ include the API Gravity and, in certain
instances, the flowing Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR). The API Gravity is used to determine the Oil Density, the
Solution Gas-Oil Ratio, the Oil Viscosity and the Formation Volume Factor at various pressures and
temperatures. The oil properties can be measured in the laboratory or obtained from several published
correlations. F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ has a choice of oil properties to choose from. The flowing Gas-Oil Ratio
affects the pressure drop calculations in multiphase flow.
Condensate
The Condensate Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ include the condensate density,
separator pressure and separator temperature.
Water
The Water Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ include the Water Gravity and, in
certain instances, the flowing Water-Gas Ratio (WGR). The Water Gravity is used to determine the density
and the viscosity of water at various pressures and temperatures from published correlations. The flowing
water-gas ratio affects the pressure drop calculations in multiphase flow.
The gas, oil and water properties have a significant effect on both the hydrostatic and the friction pressure
losses.
Gas Properties
The Gas Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include:
gas gravity
mol% N2
mol% CO2
mol% H2S
The use of correct gas properties is most important in single phase gas wells and Gas/Liquid systems with
high Gas to Liquid Ratios. These gas properties are used in calculating:
gas density
compressibility factor (Z)
gas viscosity
These, in turn, affect DIRECTLY the calculation of the pressure drops caused by friction and by hydrostatic
head.
Gas Well Testing, Theory and Practice. Fourth Edition, 1979 (Metric), 1975 (Field). Energy Resources
Conservation Board, Alberta, Canada.
85
Gas Gravity
Gas Gravity is the molar mass (molecular weight) of the natural gas divided by the molar mass of air
(28.94). It ranges from 0.55 for dry sweet gas (mostly methane) to approximately 1.5 for wet, sour gas
(includes CO2 and H2S concentration). The Gas Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory gas
analysis.
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™, Gas Gravity affects three variables namely compressibility factor (Z-factor), gas
viscosity, and gas density.
The effects on compressibility (Z) and viscosity are not very significant. However, the effect on density is
significant in two ways. It affects the friction pressure drop to some extent, but it affects the hydrostatic
pressure drop directly – i.e. doubling the Gas Gravity doubles the density and therefore doubles the
hydrostatic pressure drop.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
UNITS: None
N2
Molar Concentration of Nitrogen in the gas stream. It has an effect on the calculation of compressibility
factor (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of Nitrogen must be between 0% and 15% to be within
the limits of the correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ will still complete the
calculations, however results should be used with caution.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
DEFAULT: 0
CO2
Molar Concentration of Carbon Dioxide in the gas stream. It has an effect on the calculation of
compressibility factor (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of CO2 must be between 0% and 80% to
be within the limits of the correlations for the z-factor, and between the limits of 0 and 15% for the viscosity
correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ will still complete the calculations,
however results should be used with caution.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
DEFAULT: 0
H2S
Molar Concentration of Hydrogen Sulfide in the gas stream. It has an effect on the calculation of
compressibility factor (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of H2S must be between 0% and 80% to
be within the limits of the correlations for the z-factor and between the limits of 0 and 15% for the viscosity
correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ will still complete the calculations,
however results should be used with caution.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
86
DEFAULT: 0
Gas Density
The density of a gas varies with the in-situ conditions of pressure and temperature along a pipe. The gas
density is calculated from the "real gas" law :
where:
G = Gas Gravity
P = Pressure (psia)
z = compressibility factor
T = temperature (R)
The gas density is used in calculating the pressure drops caused by friction and by hydrostatic head.
The supercompressibility factor (also often called compressibility factor), z, of a natural gas is a measure
of its deviation from ideal gas behavior. Its value is usually between 0.8 and 1.2, but it can be as low as 0.3
and as high as 2.0. It is used in the calculation of gas densities, and in converting gas volumes and rates
from standard conditions to reservoir conditions (and vice-versa).
Gas Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid refers to the resistance to flow. It causes the pressure to drop in the direction of
flow. It is used in the calculation of the "friction pressure drop". For gas, the viscosity varies with gas
gravity, temperature and pressure. Usually it is not measured, but is obtained from the Carr, Kobayashi
and Burrows correlations, which include corrections for H2S, CO2 and N2. For sour gases, this correlation is
preferred to the Lee, Gonzalez and Eakin formulation (which does NOT account for H2S, CO2 and N2).
Viscosity enters into the definition of Reynold’s Number, which is used to obtain the friction factor from the
Fanning friction factor charts.
UNITS: cp (mPa.s)
Oil Properties
In this document, the word "oil" is used interchangeably with the word "condensate".
The Oil (Condensate) Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ include the API Gravity (Oil
Density) and, in certain instances, the flowing Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR).
Although every oil has its unique PVT and flowing characteristics, the properties that affect the pressure
loss in pipe flow can usually be characterized by the single variable, API Gravity. It can be correlated to the
Oil Density, the Solution Gas-Oil Ratio, the Oil Viscosity and the Oil Formation Volume Factor at various
pressures and temperatures.
87
These oil properties can be measured in the laboratory or can be obtained from several published
correlations. F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ uses the "Beggs and Robinson" (1975) correlation for viscosity, and the
"Vasquez and Beggs" (1980) correlation for the other oil properties.
The oil properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ include:
API Gravity
The API Gravity is used to determine the following at various temperatures and pressures:
Oil Density
Solution Gas-Oil Ratio
Oil Viscosity
Oil Formation Volume Factor
The oil properties can be measured in the laboratory or obtained from several published correlations.
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ uses the "Beggs and Robinson" correlation for viscosity, and the "Vasquez and Beggs"
correlation for the other oil properties. The flowing Gas-Oil Ratio affects the pressure drop calculations in
multiphase flow.
The Bubble Point Pressure is defined as the pressure at which the oil is saturated with gas. Above this
pressure the oil is undersaturated, and the oil acts as a single phase liquid. At and below this pressure the
oil is saturated, and any lowering of the pressure causes gas to be liberated resulting in two phase flow.
The Bubble Point affects the Inflow Performance Relationship Curve (IPR) curve. Above this pressure, the
IPR is a straight line, of slope equal to the inverse of productivity index. Below the bubble point pressure,
the IPR is a curve based on "Vogel’s" equation. The straight line and the curve are tangential at the bubble
point pressure, where they meet.
The bubble point pressure has a SIGNIFICANT effect on PVT correlations. It marks a drastic change, and
a discontinuity, in the correlations. For example:
At pressures below the bubble point, the oil viscosity decreases with
increasing pressure where as above the bubble point the viscosity
increases.
Thesolution gas-oil ratio increases with increasing pressure up to the
bubble point and is constant thereafter.
Theoil formation volume factor increases with increasing pressure and
decreases slightly thereafter.
DEFAULT: None
API Gravity
API Gravity is the specific gravity (density) of oil at stock tank conditions. It ranges from 60 °API
(condensate) to 45 °API (light oil) to 20 °API (medium density) to 10 °API (heavy oil). The API Gravity is
readily obtained from any laboratory oil analysis. It is a fixed property of the oil, and is independent of the
operating pressure or temperature, unlike the in-situ oil density that is very dependent on operating
pressure and temperature conditions.
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™, this variable is the primary variable used for calculating the oil properties at the
required pressures and temperatures. API Gravity affects four variables namely:
88
Oil viscosity
Solution gas-oil ratio
Oil formation volume factor
Oil density (in situ)
The primary effect of API Gravity is on the in-situ oil density. The density affects the friction pressure drop
to some extent, but it affects the hydrostatic pressure drop DIRECTLY.
The conversion from API Gravity (field units) to Stock Tank Oil Density (metric units) is:
DEFAULT: None
The in-situ oil density should not be confused with the API Gravity (Stock Tank Oil Density). The in-situ oil
density varies with pressure and temperature, but more so with the amount of dissolved gas contained in
the oil (Solution Gas-Oil Ratio), whereas the API gravity is a fixed property of the particular oil,
independent of operating conditions. The in-situ oil density is obtained by multiplying the density at stock
tank conditions by the Formation Volume Factor at the in-situ pressure and temperature conditions. Thus:
The solution gas-oil ratio has a significant influence on the oil formation volume factor and the oil viscosity.
When a mixture of gas and oil is flowing in a pipe or wellbore, the actual quantity of "free gas" that is
flowing increases as the pressure of the gas-oil system decreases. This is due to gas "coming out of
solution from the oil" and becoming free gas, thus increasing the gas flow rate, and decreasing the oil flow
rate. In the F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ program, the solution gas-oil ratio is used for accounting for the changes in
the in-situ gas rate along the pipe or wellbore.
The solution gas-oil ratio is readily obtained from laboratory PVT measurements, or as is done in the
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ program, it may be calculated from correlations such as "Vasquez and Beggs".
89
DEFAULT: Vasquez and Beggs correlation
Oil Viscosity
This is the value of the oil viscosity at in-situ conditions. It is a very strong function of temperature, API
Gravity (Stock Tank Oil Density) and Solution Gas-Oil Ratio.
Below the bubble point pressure, the amount of gas dissolved in the oil increases as the pressure is
increased. This causes the in-situ oil viscosity to decrease significantly. Above the bubble point pressure,
oil viscosity increases minimally with increasing pressure.
The oil viscosity can be measured as a function of pressure in most PVT laboratory measurements. In the
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ program it is calculated from the correlation of "Beggs and Robinson" at the
appropriate pressure and temperature. These correlations are very sensitive to solution gas-oil ratio and to
oil gravity. The oil viscosity can vary from 10 000 cp for a heavy oil to less than 1 cp for a light oil.
The oil viscosity has a very strong effect on the friction pressure loss, but no effect on the hydrostatic
pressure difference.
UNITS: cp (mPa.s)
Oil Flow Rate (in-situ Barrels) = Oil Flow Rate (Stock Tank Barrels) * Oil Formation Volume Factor
and
Oil density (in-situ) = Oil Density (Stock Tank Conditions) * Oil Formation Volume Factor
In the equations used in F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ the oil rate and the oil density should be expressed at in-situ
conditions, because the equations apply to the pressure and temperature conditions inside the pipe.
However, the oil flow rate is generally measured at the surface, in stock tank barrels. Therefore, this rate is
multiplied by the oil formation volume factor to convert it to in-situ conditions. Similarly, it is the in-situ
density that counts, and that is obtained from the API Gravity (Stock Tank Oil Density) and the Formation
Volume Factor
Below the bubble point pressure, the oil formation volume factor increases with pressure. This is because
more gas goes into solution as the pressure is increased and this causes the oil to swell. Above the bubble
point pressure, the oil formation volume factor decreases as the pressure is increased, because there is
no more gas available to go into solution, and the oil is being compressed.
The value of the oil formation volume factor is generally between 1 and 2 RB/STB (m3/m3). It is readily
obtained from laboratory PVT measurements, or it may be calculated from correlations such as "Vasquez
and Beggs".
In the correlations that are being used to calculate the oil formation volume factor, the Solution Gas-Oil
Ratio is the most significant variable.
Condensate Properties
90
The Condensate Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ include:
Condensate Density
Separator Pressure
Separator Temperature
Condensate-Gas Ratio (CGR)
The Condensate Properties that are entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™ are used to calculate a Recombined
Gas Gravity and a Recombined Gas Rate. These are then used in single-phase pressure drop
calculations. A gas-condensate system is treated as a single-phase system with a recombined gas gravity
and a recombined gas rate.
Condensate Density
Condensate Density is the specific gravity in API of condensate at stock tank conditions. It ranges from 60
API to 40 API. The API Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory oil analysis. It is a fixed property of
the condensate.
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell™, this variable is used to calculate the Recombined Gas Gravity and the Recombined
Gas Rate which are then used in single-phase pressure drop calculations.
The conversion from API Gravity (field units) to Stock Tank Oil Density (metric units) is:
DEFAULT: None
Separator Pressure
The separator pressure is the pressure in the separator or at wellhead. It is used in the recombination
calculations to calculate the vapour equivalent of the condensate, the recombined gas rate and the
recombined gas gravity.
Separator Temperature
The separator temperature is the temperature in the separator or at wellhead. It is used in the
recombination calculations to calculate the vapour equivalent of the condensate, the recombined gas rate
and the recombined gas gravity.
UNITS: F (C)
DEFAULT: 100 F
This is the condensate to gas ratio produced at surface. It is typically known from direct measurements. If
the daily condensate rate is known, it must be divided by the daily gas rate to obtain the Condensate-Gas
Ratio. The CGR is used to calculate the Recombined Gas Gravity and the Recombined Gas Rate which
are used in the wellbore pressure drop calculations.
91
DEFAULT: 0
Water Properties
Currently, water gravity is the only property that can be entered, but water can potentially have a large
effect on a system.
Water Gravity
Specific Gravity is defined as the density of the liquid divided by the density of water at standard conditions
(62.3 lb/ft3, 1000 kg/m3). The gravity of pure water is therefore 1.0. Often oilfield waters are saline and
have a specific gravity slightly greater than 1.0.
The primary effect of water gravity is on the density of water, which in turn affects the hydrostatic pressure
difference.
UNITS: None
DEFAULT: 1
The Khan et al correlation contains equations for estimating oil viscosity at, above and below the bubble
point for Saudi Arabian oils. The study used data from 75 bottom hole samples, which were taken from 65
Saudi Arabian reservoirs. The authors claim that this correlation gives the most accurate predictions for
Saudi Arabian crude oils, as compared to the Beggs and Robinson, Beal, and Chew and Connally
correlations.
In order to calculate the viscosity, the solution gas-oil ratio (Rs) at the bubble point is required. There are
two methods to calculate the viscosity with the Khan et al correlation. The first way is to input the value of
Rs at the bubble point. This can be entered as shown in the following image.
92
In the case where there is no user selected value, the Rs value will be calculated using the correlation
selected for Bo and Rs in the fluid properties tab.
In the correlation for oil viscosity at the bubble point, the oil specific gravity must be less than one in order
to prevent division by zero in the equation. In order to handle this, we have added a limit that the oil
gravity, in , must be greater than 10 (specific gravity would then equal 1).
93
Oil Viscosity at the Bubble Point
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
Reference
S.A. Khan, M.A. Al-Marhoun, S.O. Duffuaa, and S.A. Abu-Khamsin. "Viscosity Correlations for Saudi
Arabian Crude Oils," SPE Paper No. 15720, 1987.
The De Ghetto et al correlation contains modified PVT correlations for estimating bubble point pressure,
solution gas-oil ratio, oil formation volume factor, oil compressibility, and oil viscosity for heavy and extra-
heavy oils. Each correlation is modified specifically for heavy oils (10 < oAPI < 22.3), and extra heavy oils
(oAPI < 10). The oils used for developing the correlation came from the Mediterranean Basin, Africa and
the Persian Gulf, taken from AGIP’s reservoir fluid samples. When comparing published correlations, De
Ghetto et al decided that the Vazquez and Beggs correlation estimated the oil formation volume factor with
minimal error, and therefore no further modification was needed. The Vazquez and Beggs correlation for oil
formation volume factor is included in the De Ghetto et al correlation.
Important Note: In contrast with other correlations, the De Ghetto et al correlation requires the
pressure and temperature at the separator. These values may be by selecting Pressure loss correlation
parameters in the Options menu as shown in the following picture.
94
Bubble Point Pressure
Heavy oils: Modified Vazquez and Beggs solution gas-oil ratio correlation reversed to solve for the bubble
point pressure.
Where
Extra-Heavy oils: Modified Standing’s solution gas-oil ratio correlation, reversed to solve for the bubble
point pressure.
95
Solution Gas-Oil-Ratio
Heavy oils: Modified Vasquez-Begg's correlation
Where
Undersaturated:
Oil Compressibility
Undersaturated:
96
is calculated the same as above.
Gas saturated:
The derivatives dBo/dRs and dRs/dP where taken from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Oil Viscosity
Dead Oil:
Gas saturated:
Where
Where
97
Y is calculated the same as for heavy oils, which is shown above.
Undersaturated:
Nomenclature
If available, the limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
Reference
Giambattista De Ghetto, Francesco Paone and Marco Villa. "Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlations
for Heavy and Extra Heavy Oils," SPE 30316, 1995.
The Velarde et al correlation contains equations for estimating bubble point pressure, solution gas-oil ratio
and oil formation volume factor. The correlation for the solution gas-oil ratio uses a reduced variable
approach, and so the final equation is solved for the reduced solution gas-oil ratio. The reduced solution
gas-oil ratio is defined as the solution gas-oil ratio divided by the solution gas-oil ratio at the bubble point.
Similarly, the reduced pressure is defined as the pressure divided by the bubble point pressure.
98
Note that the reservoir pressure and the bubble point pressure used in the reduced pressure equation are
in units of psig.
Where
The bubble point pressure equation is reversed to solve for the solution gas-oil ratio. The bubble point
pressure in this equation is in units of psia.
In order to prevent the calculation of a negative solution gas-oil ratio, we have implemented a limit on the
variable . If the value of is greater than one, it is given a value of one.
99
Where
Where
po is calculated through iteration using the following equations. The calculations are done ten times. The
values from the ninth and tenth calculations are averaged to give you a final value for .
Undersaturated:
100
The oil compressibility used in this equation is obtained from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are in two tables after the list of symbols. One set of
limits was used to develop the solution gas-oil ratio correlation, the other used to develop the bubble point
pressure correlation.
Reference
J. Velarde, T.A. Blasingame and W.D. McCain, Jr. "Correlation of Black Oil Properties at Pressures Below
Bubble Point Pressure – A New Approach," The Petroleum Society 97-93, 1997.
101
Beggs and Robinson
Beggs and Robinson is a generally applicable correlation containing equations for dead, gas-saturated and
undersaturated oil viscosity. The correlation was developed using a wide range of PVT data.
In order to calculate the viscosity, the Beggs and Robinson correlation requires a solution gas-oil ratio (Rs).
Where
Where
Where
C1 = 2.6
C2= 1.187
C3 = -11.513
C4 = -8.98x10-5
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
A = intermediate variable
API = oil gravity, degrees API (16 – 58)
B = intermediate variable
102
P = reservoir pressure, psia (0 – 5250)
Pb = bubble point pressure, psia
Rs = solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB (20 – 2070)
T = reservoir temperature, F (70 – 295)
X = intermediate variable
Y = intermediate variable
Z = intermediate variable
= oil viscosity, cp
ob = oil viscosity at the bubble point, cp
Reference
H.D. Beggs and J.R. Robinson. "Estimating the Viscosity of Crude Oil Systems," JPT 1140-41, September
1975.
Vazquez and Beggs is a generally applicable correlation containing equations for solution gas-oil ratio, oil
formation volume factor, and oil compressibility. The correlation was developed from 600 laboratory PVT
analyses from fields all over the world. The data used in the development of the correlation included wide
ranges of pressure, temperature and oil properties. The correlation divides the data into two groups bases
on oil gravity. The division is made at an oil gravity of 30 degrees API.
Where
The coefficients C1, C2 and C3 are the same as for the bubble point pressure equation.
Where
103
Undersaturated:
Oil Compressibility
Undersaturated:
Where
A1 = -1433.0
A2 = 5.0
A3 = 17.2
A4 = -1180.0
A5 = 12.61
A6 = 105
Gas saturated:
The derivatives dBo / dRs and dRs/dP where taken from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
104
T = reservoir temperature, degrees F
g = gas specific gravity (air = 1) (0.511 – 1.351)
Reference
M.E. Vazquez and H.D. Beggs. "Correlations for Fluid Physical Property Prediction," JPT 968-70, June
1980.
The Petrosky and Farshad correlation contains equations for estimating bubble point pressure, solution
gas-oil ratio and oil formation volume factor and oil compressibility for Gulf of Mexico oils. The correlation
was developed with fluid samples taken from offshore Texas and Louisiana. The producing areas
represented are from Galveston Island Eastward through Main Pass.
The authors claim that these correlations provide improved results over other correlations for the Gulf of
Mexico, including those published by Standing, Vazquez and Beggs, Glaso and Al-Marhoun.
Where
Where
Undersaturated:
105
Oil Compressibility
Gas saturated:
Undersaturated:
The derivatives dBo/dRs and dRs/dP were taken from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
Reference
G.E. Petrosky Jr. and F.F. Farshad. "Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlations for Gulf of Mexico Crude
Oils," SPE 26644, 1993.
Ng and Egbogah
The Ng and Egbogah correlation contains two methods for calculating dead oil viscosity, a modified Beggs
and Robinson correlation and a correlation that uses the pour point temperature. When the Ng and
Egbogah correlation has been selected or is being displayed on the comparison page, an input cell for the
pour point temperature will appear on the left side of the screen. If a pour point temperature is input, the
program uses the pour point correlation to calculate the viscosity of dead oil.
Pour point temperature is the lowest temperature at which the oil is observed to flow when cooled and
examined under conditions prescribed in ASTM D97. The purpose of introducing the pour point
temperature into the correlation is to reflect the chemical composition of crude oil into the viscosity
correlation.
106
The pour point temperature parameter entry is located in the options menu under pressure loss correlation
parameters.
If a pour point temperature is not entered, the program uses the modified Beggs and Robinson correlation
to calculate the viscosity of dead oil. To obtain the viscosity for live oil, the dead oil correlations are used
with the Beggs and Robinson viscosity correlation. The data used to derive the correlations was taken from
the Reservoir Fluids Analysis Laboratory of AGAT Engineering Ltd., using a total of 394 oil systems.
In order to calculate the viscosity, the Ng and Egbogah correlation requires a solution gas-oil ratio (Rs).
107
Gas-Saturated Viscosity
Where
Undersaturated Viscosity
Where:
C1 = 2.6
C2 = 1.187
C3 = -11.513
C4 = -8.98×10-5
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
References
Achong, I., "Revised Bean Performance Formula for Lake Maracaibo Wells", internal co. report, Shell Oil Co., Houston, TX, Oct 1961
Ashford, F.E. and Pierce, P.E., "Determining Multiphase Pressure Drops and Flow Capacities in Down-Hole Safety Valves", SPE Paper No. 5161,
J. Pet. Tech., Sep 1975, 1145
Baxendell, P.B., "Bean Performance – Lake Maracaibo Wells", internal co. report, Shell Oil Co., Houston, TX, Oct 1967
Gilbert, W.E., "Flowing and Gas-Lift Well Performance", Drill. & Prod. Practice, 1954, 126
108
Omana, R., Houssiere, C. Jr., Brown, K.E., Brill, J.P., and Thompson, R.E., "Multiphase Flow Through Chokes", SPE Paper No. 2682, paper
presented at Annual Fall Meeting of the SPE of AIME, Denver, CO, Sep 28 – Oct 1, 1969
Ros, N.C.J., "An Analysis of Critical Simultaneous Gas-Liquid Flow Through a Restriction and Its Application to Flowmetering", Appl. Sci. Res. (9),
1960, 374
The Standing correlation contains equations for estimating bubble point pressure, solution gas-oil ratio and
oil formation volume factor for California oils. 105 experimentally determined data points on 22 different oil-
gas mixtures from California were used in the development of the correlations.
Undersaturated:
The oil compressibility used in this equation is obtained from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
109
= oil formation volume factor at the bubble point, bbl/STB
Reference
M.B. Standing. "A Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlation for Mixtures of California Oil and Gases,"
Drill. & Prod. Prac., API, 1947.
The Al-Marhoun correlation contains equations for estimating bubble point pressure, solution gas-oil ratio
and oil formation volume factor for Saudi Arabian oils. 75 bottom hole fluid samples from 62 reservoirs in
Saudi Arabia were used in the development of these correlations. The author claims that the correlations
should be valid for all types of gas-oil mixtures that share similar properties as those used in the derivation.
According to the author, the average errors and standard deviations were lower with the Al-Marhoun
correlation than with the Standing and Glaso correlations for Saudi Arabian crude oils.
Where
110
Where
Where
Undersaturated:
The oil compressibility used in this equation is obtained from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
Reference
M.A. AL-Marhoun. "Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlations for Saudi Crude Oils," SPE 13718, 1985
111
The Glaso correlation contains equations for estimating bubble point pressure, solution gas-oil ratio and oil
formation volume factor for North Sea oils. The author claims that the correlation should be valid for all
types of oil and gas mixtures after correcting for non-hydrocarbons in the surface gases and the
paraffinicity of the oil. According to the author, the correlation more accurately predicts the oil properties of
North Sea oils than the Standing correlation.
Where
Where
Where
112
Undersaturated:
The oil compressibility used in this equation is obtained from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
Reference
Oistein Glaso. "Generalized Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlations," Journal of Petroleum
Technology, 1980.
The Hanafy et al correlation contains equations for estimating bubble point pressure, solution gas-oil ratio
and oil formation volume factor and oil compressibility, oil density and oil viscosity for Egyptian oils. The
compressibility correlation assumes constant compressibility after the bubble point. This correlation is
independent of oil gravity and reservoir temperature.
The PVT data used in the derivation of the correlations was distributed along three different regions of
Egypt: The Gulf of Suez, Western Desert and Sinai regions. The authors claim that the correlations can be
used to estimate oil properties for a wide range of crude oils ranging from heavy to volatile oils. However
our observations are that it appears to be closer to the properties of light oils.
113
Undersaturated:
Oil Density
NOTE: the density is calculated in metric units, gm/cc.
Gas saturated:
Undersaturated:
Oil Compressibility
Undersaturated:
This correlation uses only the oil density at the bubble point. Therefore the oil compressibility is constant
for pressures greater than the bubble point.
Gas saturated:
The derivatives and were taken from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Oil Viscosity
This correlation calculates the oil viscosity at any pressure using the corresponding oil density.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
114
Bg = gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB (1.032 – 4.35)
Bob = oil formation volume factor at the bubble point, bbl/STB
co = oil compressibility, ( - ?)
P = reservoir pressure, psia
Pb = bubble point pressure, psia (36 – 5003)
HL = solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB (7 – 4272)
ob = gas-saturated oil density, gm/cc (0.428 – 0.939)
Reference
H.H. Hanafy, S.M. Macary, Y.M. ElNady, A.A. Bayomi and M.H. El Batanony. "A New Approach for
Predicting
Gas Meters
The meters available in the software are:
Gas Properties
Orifice Meter
Critical Flow Prover
Pitot Tube
Bean Choke
Adjustable Choke
Measured Rate
½" Integral Orifice
Vcone
Vortex
115
Optional Gas Meter Processes
116
The Frac process can be added to any gas meter, augmenting the meters gas properties calculation
engine. Meter gas properties are set to the reservoir gas composition. The meter is positioned to measure
the produced gas from the well (reservoir + Frac. Gas). A real-time gas analysis determines the percent of
Co2 and N2 in the produced gas. The first stage of the Frac. Process calculates the produced gas
properties based on the reservoir gas properties and the percent N2 and Co2 input from the gas analysis.
The produced gas properties are used by the gas meter to calculate the produced gas rate.
The second stage of the Frac Process splits the produced gas rate into the recovered Frac gasses and
reservoir gas. It does this on a volumetric basis utilizing the reservoir gas properties and the results of the
gas analysis.
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The most common method of measuring gas is through an orifice meter. Gas flows through a piece of
straight pipe with an orifice plate inserted in the middle.
The orifice plate is a steel circular plate with a hole in the middle; the hole is smaller than the internal
diameter of the pipe. The plate is placed perpendicular to the gas flow, and is sealed so that all the gas
flows through the hole. The hole is "tapered", meaning that the edge of the orifice hole is sharp. The plate
must be inserted in such a way as to have the direction of flow of gas from the smaller to larger diameter,
i.e. if the gas is flowing from left to right, the sharp edge of the orifice (the smaller diameter) must be at the
left. Reversing the orifice plate will give an incorrect measurement.
The orifice plate is actually a highly machined component. Its dimensions must adhere to certain
specifications. If the plate is damaged in any way in or around the "hole", it can no longer measure gas
rates with any accuracy, and it must be replaced.
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The plates come in different sizes for measuring different rates. Each time an orifice plate is changed, the
size of the new plate must be recorded because the orifice size is needed for calculating flow rates.
In addition to knowing the size of the orifice plate, there are other parameters, which also must be known
and reported. The relationship for calculating flow rate, using an orifice meter, is described by the orifice
equation.
Where:
Reference
Orifice Metering of Natural Gas, Gas Measurement Committee Report #3, Page 19, American Gas
Association, 1969.
Orifice Coefficient, C
The orifice coefficient, C, is a variable that accounts for many parameters that are associated with an
orifice meter. As you can see in the equation below, it depends on several factors, ranging from Fb… to…
Ftf. These factors account for the various meter set-ups, as follows:
the internal diameter of the meter itself - Meter Run Size - (Factor Fb)
the size of the orifice plate - Orifice Diameter -(Factor Fb)
where the pressure is being measured - Location of Pressure Taps - (Factor Fb)
the gas gravity and its composition (Factors Fg and Fpv)
the gas flowing temperature - (Factor Ftf)
the magnitude of the pressure (Factors Fr , Y , Fpv)
the Standard Conditions (base) of Pressure and Temperature (Factors Fpb and
Ftb)
Fb Basic Orifice Flow Factor Location of the pressure taps, diameter of the orifice, and
internal diameter of the meter pipe.
Fr Reynold’s Number Factor p, P, location of taps, gas viscosity, gas temperature, and
gas gravity.
119
Ftb Temperature Base Factor Standard temperature conditions.
Fpv Supercompressibility Factor Z-factor, Flowing pressure and temperature, gas gravity
From this equation, "C" appears to be a very complex number. Even though the same orifice may be used
for measuring different streams of gas, the coefficient of that orifice will change to reflect the different
flowing conditions of the different systems.
Before the days of computers, engineers and operators used a complex system of tables to create an
orifice coefficient for each size of orifice and various flowing conditions. FieldNotes™ does these
calculations automatically, and the correct value of C is always applied to current calculation of gas flow
rates. Some field operators use a "Sony Circular Slide Rule" to calculate gas flow rates. The answers
obtained from this device are only approximate, and may differ from those calculated in the FieldNotes™
program.
Gas Vcone
A V-Cone is a type of differential pressure flow meter that uses the same idea as a orifice meter. The main
difference is that instead of a hole in the center of the orifice plate, which the gas flows through, the V-
Cone occupies the center of the pipe forcing gas to flow around it.
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NOTE: It is very important with a Vcone to have accurate numbers for pipe ID because calculations are
based on the space between the V-Cone and the inside of the pipe.
The Vcone measures the pressures upstream and downstream. Since velocity and pressure are related
(pressure is proportional to velocity squared), the velocity can be calculated from the difference upstream
(P1) and downstream (P2) pressures. As the pressure difference increases so does the velocity (the
velocity will increase much faster). Different size V-Cones will show a different pressure velocity
relationship.
Vcone Shape
The Vcone is shaped, as it is to get a more accurate velocity measurement by measuring the maximum
velocity in the pipe. In a pipe where the flow has not been obstructed or disturbed, the flow will become
"well-developed". During well-developed flow, the velocity at each point will be different. The velocity would
be zero at the wall of the pipe, maximum at the center of the pipe and zero at the wall again. The following
image is a velocity profile for gas flowing in a pipe:
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This is due to friction at the pipe wall that slows down the fluid as it passes. Since the cone is suspended
in the center of the pipe, it interacts directly with the high velocity region in two ways:
Most piping changes (pumps, tees, elbows, etc) can disturb well-developed flow.
A V-cone overcomes this by reshaping the velocity profile upstream of the cone
by using its contoured shape. As the flow approaches the cone, the flow profile
changes to become a well-developed profile.
The pressure sensor is located in the center of the pipe to provide the highest
velocity measurement.
Equations
The equations used in a Vcone follow the same principle as an orifice meter. The biggest difference is that
an accurate measure of internal diameter is very important. Small errors in the internal diameter are raised
to the second power and so can make a large impact.
And:
Where:
Qa = Actual Volumetric flow rate (see changing actual rates to standard rates)
Cf = flow coefficient of the meter (usually provided by manufacturer)
C = meter constant
D = Pipe internal diameter
d = flow meter diameter
n = a unit conversion constant. 6.3002 for field units. 1.1107 for metric units.
p = density of fluid
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B = beta ratio (cone diameter relation)
∆ P = pressure drop, differential pressure
Y = expansion factor
Gas Properties
The gas property calculations used in Fieldnotes are dependant on user inputs that are used in
correlations. There are several general correlations used in the program.
The different correlations result in Equation of State calculations that differ depending on the inputed
values.
Gas Gravity
The most important gas property that affects the flow rate calculation is the Gas Gravity, G. The calculated
flow rate is inversely proportional to the square root of the gas gravity.
Many equations and hand calculations assume G = 0.6 . FieldNotes™ does not assume that, and
accounts for the correct gas gravity. Sometimes, during a test, the gas gravity is not known because the
laboratory gas analysis is not available. In such cases it is common practice to assume an approximate
gravity, calculate an approximate flow rate, re-input the corrected gas gravity when it becomes available,
and then re-calculate the correct flow rate.
Gas gravity is the Molar mass (molecular weight) of the natural gas divided by the Molar mass of air
(28.94). It ranges from 0.55 for dry sweet gas to approximately 1.5 for wet, sour gas.
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UNITS: None DEFAULT: 0.65
Critical Temperature
The PVT properties of natural gases (viscosity, compressibility, z-factor) are usually obtained from
correlations. These are usually formulated in terms of the reduced variables "reduced temperature" and
"reduced pressure". These reduced variables are defined as:
The critical temperature can be specified, if it is known from the gas analysis, or it can be calculated from
Standing’s correlation. This correlation requires a knowledge of the gas gravity, and the H2S, CO2 and N2
content. There are two slightly different correlations, one for dry gas and one for condensate gas. The
most commonly used one is for condensate gas, but the differences between these two correlations are
small.
Critical Pressure
The PVT properties of natural gases (viscosity, compressibility, z-factor) are usually obtained from
correlations. These are usually formulated in terms of the reduced variables "reduced pressure" and
"reduced temperature". These reduced variables are defined as:
The critical pressure can be specified, if it is known from the gas analysis, or it can be calculated from
Standing’s correlation. This correlation requires knowledge of the gas gravity, and the H2S, Co2 and N2
content. There are two slightly different correlations, one for dry gas and one for condensate gas. The
most commonly used one is for condensate gas, but the differences between these two correlations are
small.
124
Critical flow provers are used to measure gas flow rates.
In some respects, a critical flow prover is similar to an orifice meter. It uses a circular orifice plate with its
own orifice coefficient and flowrate equation, and a static pressure measurement.
Critical flow provers require the gas rate to be in "critical flow." If the upstream pressure drops too low, then
critical conditions may cease to exist, and the standard critical flow prover equation will no longer apply.
However, FieldNotes™ has incorporated some adjustment correlations to accommodate those situations
when non-critical flow occurs.
Critical flow assumes that the pressure upstream of a plate or choke is at least twice as large as the
downstream pressure. If this condition exists, then the velocity of the gas in the orifice or choke is at the
speed of sound. Since a pressure wave travels at the speed of sound, this means that any change in the
downstream pressure has no effect on the upstream pressure. As a consequence, critical flow provers do
not require differential pressure to calculate a flow rate; only the upstream static pressure measurement is
required. When flowing at critical conditions, gas flow rates are directly proportional to upstream pressure.
This relationship is shown in the critical flow equation.
Non-critical flow occurs when the upstream pressure is less than twice the downstream pressure. If the
gas is vented to atmosphere after leaving the critical flow prover, non-critical flow would occur when the
upstream (gauge) pressure falls below 15 psi(g) or 100 kPa(g). It is recommended that operators try to
avoid non-critical flow conditions. However, FieldNotes™ has incorporated some modifications to obtain
reasonably accurate flow rates when non-critical conditions occur.
Critical flow provers are excellent gas measurement tools when gas is released into the atmosphere. With
the atmospheric pressure acting as the downstream side of the prover, it is relatively easy to maintain
enough upstream pressure to maintain critical flow conditions. The lack of a differential pressure
measurement simplifies the operations and flow rate calculations.
Critical flow provers lose usefulness when the measured gas is not being immediately released into the
atmosphere. With significant pressure on the downstream side, operators must be vigilant to maintain that
2:1 ratio of upstream to downstream pressure. As well, that kind of pressure drop may be too large in
many operations, in which case the orifice meter is better suited for the job.
125
Like the orifice meter, the flow prover plates, pressure taps, and piping for the critical flow prover must
meet certain specifications.
Critical flow provers come in two sizes: two-inch and four-inch. The size corresponds to the internal
diameter of the prover. Each flow prover size has a set of orifice plates, each of which has its own
coefficient.
The critical flow prover plate is actually a highly machined component, and its dimensions must adhere to
certain specifications. If the plate’s orifice is damaged in any way, it can no longer measure gas rates with
any accuracy, and it must be replaced.
where:
Prover Orifice Size Coefficients for the two-inch Prover Coefficients for the four-inch Prover
(inches)
1/8 6.30 -
¼ 25.86 24.92
½ 101.8 156.1
¾ 224.9 304.2
1 406.7 499.2
126
1 1/4 657.5 742.1
1 3/4 - 1596.0
2 - 2566.0
2 1/2 - 3904.0
Pitot Tubes convert the dynamic flowing pressure of the gas into a gas
flow rate.
The Pitot tube actually measures two pressures. To do this, two concentric tubes are inserted into a flowing
gas line. The inside tube has its end open and points directly upstream. It is in direct contact with the flow
and measures the impact pressure of the gas. Ensure that the Pitot tube is exactly in the center of the pipe
where dynamic pressure is the strongest. The Pitot tube correlations require this position.
The outside concentric tube has its end sealed. Instead it has perforations on the side, and thus, is not be
in direct contact with the force of the flow. It is measuring only the static pressure.
127
The difference between the impact and static pressures is the dynamic pressure. FieldNotes™ calls it the
"Differential Pressure ". This is similar to the idea behind a manometer.
Pitot tubes are not used that much in today’s petroleum industry. However a variation of the pitot tube,
called the "Annubar" is used by a few well testing companies to measure gas rat
The bean choke is used for measurements when conditions require more robust equipment. For example,
if sand is being produced, orifice plates will be eroded very quickly and a bean choke, which is much more
robust, is preferable.
128
A bean choke is basically a 6" tube with a known internal diameter.
Bean chokes require critical flow to be valid. This means the upstream pressure must be at least twice the
downstream pressure. If this condition fails, then flow rates from the bean choke equations are no longer
valid. The operator should be vigilant and ready to change to a smaller choke when this condition occurs.
However, if operations do fall below critical flow, FieldNotes™ has some provisions to calculate reasonably
accurate flow rates.
Bean chokes (sometimes just called chokes) are found in several places. A bean choke can be placed
near the wellhead to limit production from one particular well. It can limit production into a separator. It can
be found in a manifold between two pieces of production equipment. Bean chokes can be easily changed
out. This is very useful when encountering sand problems.
where
0 0
0.0625 0.88
0.09375 2.74
0.125 6.25
0.188 14.44
0.250 26.51
0.313 43.64
0.375 61.21
0.438 85.13
0.500 112.72
129
0.625 179.74
0.750 260.99
1 468.99
1.25 737.86
1.5 1067.39
1.75 1457.56
2 1908.38
2.25 2419.85
2.5 2991.98
2.75 3624.75
3 4318.17
Source: Diehl, John C., Natural-Gas Handbook: Metric Metal Works, Erie, Pa., 1927. p. 94
130
The adjustable choke is an adjustable valve which is calibrated (in 1/64 of an inch) to show the size of the
valve opening. Simply turning the valve handle can increase the opening from 0 (shut-in) to the maximum.
The calculation of flow rates from the choke settings is approximate and can be obtained from the
following equations and coefficients.
131
1/8 0.1250 0.347
¼ 0.250 1.470
132
½ 0.5000 6.260
¾ 0.7500 14.49
This table comes from a commonly used adjustable choke meter. The coefficients are essentially
equivalent to those of the bean choke. Because the machining standards may be different among the
manufacturers, users should consult the manufacturer for the exact coefficient of their adjustable choke.
133
Note: The Measured Rate has been modified in FieldNotes Version 3 from FIeldNotes V2.XX. See this link
for more detail: Version 3 changes.
Measuring gas is not easy. Unlike oil or water measurement, it is difficult to capture gas in some kind of
vessel, measure the volume, and calculate a flow rate. This is just the nature of natural gas being a "gas."
Instead of direct methods of measurements, we must measure gas rates by indirect means.
The science of thermodynamics is used to estimate gas rates. Basic thermodynamics was introduced in
your high school chemistry with the following formulas:
P1V1 = P2V2
P1/T1 = P2/T2
Where:
P is pressure
V is volume
T is temperature
‘1’ is the condition of the system at state 1
‘2’ is the condition of the system at state 2
To see how these equations work, take this example: assume a cylinder has a volume of 100 cm3 and a
pressure of 200 kPa. If a piston is pushed into the cylinder so that the volume for gas has decreased to 50
cm3, what would be the new pressure?
134
You could devise an experiment to find out the actual answer or you could use the equation. In either case,
the answer would be 400 kPa (P2 = P1 × V1 / V2 = 200 × 100 / 50). However, the equation was much
easier to use than setting up the experiment. In essence, we can actually predict the result of the
experiment without doing the experiment.
The level of thermodynamics used in measuring gas rates is at a much higher level than high school
chemistry—and much beyond the scope of the FieldNotes™ manual. However the scientists and
engineers have developed some fairly straightforward equations to calculate flow rates.
But like the P1V1 = P2V2 equation, the user of this equation must know the values of all the variables
except one in any gas rate equation. This last variable is the flow rate, which is calculated by inserting all
the known values into the equation and working out the math.
In most gas flow rate equations, you must know the value of these parameters to obtain a gas flow rate:
If you are missing any one of these variables, you can not calculate a proper flowrate. As well, the gas
must not have any liquids.
In theory, any piping system can measure gas rates if enough mathematics and experimentation is
applied. This could have meant that every engineer and scientist could develop their own set of
thermodynamic equations for measuring gas rates. Instead of having many different systems, the
American Petroleum Institute, Texas Railroad Commission, and other associations started developing
standard conditions and standard equations for measuring gas in the 1920’s. The oil industry around the
world has adopted these standards.
1. orifice meters
2. critical flow provers
3. bean chokes
4. adjustable chokes
5. pitot tubes
In addition, FieldNotes™ has features for a specialized meter called the 1/2" integral orifice meter.
135
For some applications, which require accurate measurements of small flow rates, the standard orifice
meter sizes are not small enough. A special meter called the 1/2" Integral Orifice Meter is available for use
in these cases. Its equation is as follows:
Where:
qg = MMscf/day
P = upstream pressure (psia)
h = differential pressure (inches of water)
C = orifice coefficient
T = temperature (°R)
G = gas gravity
Fz = Compressibility adjustment factor = (1/z)^0.5
Ftb = Temperature base adjustment factor = (519.67/Tb)^0.5
Fpb = Pressure base adjustment factor = ( Pb/14.64)
Gas Vortex
136
Note: The Measured Rate has been modified in FieldNotes Version 3 from FIeldNotes V2.XX. See this link
for more detail: Version 3 changes.
A Vortex flow meter is based on the principle of vortex shedding. Vortex-shedding meters are excellent
devices for flows that do not contain abrasives or large diameter particulate or long, stringy substances.
Vortex meters can be used on liquids and gases, including steam.
When the fluid arrives at the flow meter it passes by a bar known as the bluff body or shedding bar. This
bar causes the fluid to swirl around it, causing eddies (also known as shedding vortices) to form. This
effect is similar to what makes the ripples in a waving flag.
137
The eddies cause fluctuations in pressure that are fairly regular and directly proportional to the fluid
velocity. This leads to a fairly accurate calculation of the velocity using the relation:
The K-factor is virtually a constant over a broad range of flow regimes (it is based on the Reynolds
number).
Condensate Meters
Measured Level
Produced Volume
Turbine
Measured Rate
138
Condensate Turbine
139
Condensate Produced Volume
140
Condensate Measured Level
141
Liquid Level Measurements
Some testing situations determine fluid rates from the levels in the stock tanks as the test progresses. The
height of the liquids can be converted into a cumulative or incremental volume.
V=A*h
Where:
V = Volume
A = Area
h = height
V=A*h
Where:
V = change in volume
h = change in height
A = area of the tank, which does not change.
142
The area of the tank can be used to create the tank level conversion factor. To see how this is done, click
on either the metric example or the field units example.
Water Meters
Measured Level
Produced Volume
Turbine
Measured Rate
143
Water Turbine
144
Water Produced Volume
145
Liquid Level Measurements
Some testing situations determine fluid rates from the levels in the stock tanks as the test progresses. The
height of the liquids can be converted into a cumulative or incremental volume.
V=A*h
Where:
V = Volume
A = Area
h = height
V=A*h
Where:
V = change in volume
h = change in height
A = area of the tank, which does not change.
The area of the tank can be used to create the tank level conversion factor. To see how this is done, click
on either the metric example or the field units example.
Oil Meters
The meters available in the software are:
Measured Level
Produced Volume
Turbine
Measured Rate
146
Oil Turbine
147
Oil Measured Level
V=A*h
Where:
148
V = Volume
A = Area
h = height
V=A*h
Where:
V = change in volume
h = change in height
A = area of the tank, which does not change.
The area of the tank can be used to create the tank level conversion factor. To see how this is done, click
on either the metric example or the field units example.
149