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New Series Vol. 16, 2002, Fasc. 1-4
This paper is dedicated to Prof. Bl. Sendov on the occasion of his 70th anniversary
The generalized factorial functions and numbers and some classes of polynomials asso-
ciated with them are considered. The recurrence relations, several representations, asymptotic
and other properties of such numbers and polynomials, as well as the corresponding generating
functions are investigated.
AMS Subj. Classification: Primary 11B83, 33E20; Secondary 33B15, 33B20
Key Words: generalized factorial functions, factorial numbers, factorial polynomials
where γ is Euler’s constant. These formulas were mentioned also in the book
[14].
A number of problems and hypotheses, especially in number theory, were
posed by Kurepa and then considered by several mathematicians. For example,
Kurepa [10] asked if
where gcd(a, b) denotes the greatest common divisor of integers a and b. This
conjecture, known as the left factorial hypothesis (KH), is still an open problem
in number theory. There are several statements equivalent to KH. An equivalent
formulation of KH appears in the book [8, Problem B44],
For details see [18, 19, 20], as well as a recent survey written by Ivić and Mija-
jlović, [9].
Recently, Milovanović [16] defined and studied a sequence of the factorial
functions {Mm (z)}+∞ m=−1 , where M−1 (z) = Γ(z) and M0 (z) = K(z). Namely,
Z +∞ z+m
t − Qm (t, z) −t
(1.1) Mm (z) = e dt (Re z > −(m + 1)),
0 (t − 1)m+1
Since
(1.3) Mm (z) = Mm (z + 1) − Mm−1 (z + 1) (m ∈ N0 ),
Generalized Factorial Functions, . . . 115
in the form
Xµ
n−1
m+n
¶
(1.6) Mm (n) = Sk .
k+m+1
k=0
The numbers (1.5) satisfy the recurrence relation Sk = kSk−1 + (−1)k with
S0 = 1. Also, it is easy to prove that
1
Mm (1) = 1, Mm (2) = m + 2, Mm (3) = (m2 + 5m + 8),
2
1 3
Mm (4) = (m + 9m2 + 32m + 60), etc.
6
In general,
n
X
n!Mm (n + 1) = A(m,n)
ν mν (A(m,n)
n = 1).
ν=0
for ν = 0, 1, . . . , m, we obtain
m
X
Mm (n + 1) − M−1 (n + 1) = Mν (n).
ν=0
Mν (n)
(2.2) lim = 1.
n→+∞ Mν−1 (n)
Generalized Factorial Functions, . . . 117
m\n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
−1 1 1 2 6 24 120 720 5040
0 1 2 4 10 34 154 874 5914
1 1 3 7 17 51 205 1079 6993
2 1 4 11 28 79 284 1363 8356
3 1 5 16 44 123 407 1770 10126
4 1 6 22 66 189 596 2366 12492
5 1 7 29 95 284 880 3246 15738
Γ(n)
= lim = 1.
n→+∞ Γ(n) − Γ(n − 1)
Using Stolz’ theorem and relation (2.1) we get
Mν (n) Mν (n) − Mν (n − 1)
lim = lim
n→+∞ Mν−1 (n) n→+∞ Mν−1 (n) − Mν−1 (n − 1)
Since
Mm (n) M0 (n) M1 (n) Mm (n)
= · ··· ,
M−1 (n) M−1 (n) M0 (n) Mm−1 (n)
using (2.2) we get the following result:
Theorem 2.3. For each m ∈ N0 we have
Mm (n) Mm (n)
(2.3) lim =1 and lim = 0.
n→+∞ (n − 1)! n→+∞ n!
holds.
P r o o f. First, we note that for m = −1, the inequality (2.4) reduces to
the well-known functional equation for the gamma function, Γ(n + 1) = nΓ(n),
n ≥ 1.
For m = 0, inequality (2.4) reduces to !(n + 1) ≤ n(!n), which is not true
for n = 1. But, it can be proved for each n ≥ n0 = 2. Indeed, for n = 2, (2.4)
becomes an equality !3 = 2(!2), i.e., 0! + 1! + 2! = 2(0! + 1!) = 4. Suppose now
that (2.4) holds for some n = k ≥ 2, i.e.,
M0 (k + 1) ≤ kM0 (k).
Using recurrence relation (2.1) for ν = 0 and a fact that M0 (k) > 0, we
obtain
M0 (k + 2) ≤ (k + 1)M0 (k + 1).
Notice that Mm (4) ≤ 3Mm (3) for m = 1, 2, 3, 4 (see Table 1), so that
nm = 3 for such values of m.
For m ≥ 5 we can prove inequality (2.4) for n = m, i.e., Mm (m + 1) ≤
mMm (m). This means that we can take nm = m for m ≥ 5. According to (1.3)
and (1.6) this inequality can be represented in the following equivalent forms:
and
m µ
X ¶ X µ 2m ¶
m−1
2m
Sk ≤ (m − 1) Sk .
k+m k+m+1
k=0 k=0
i.e.,
Xµ
m−3
2m
¶
(2.5) (m − 1 − k)Sk−1 + Am + Bm ≥ 0,
k+m
k=2
where
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
2m 2m − 1 2m2 − 5m − 1 2m − 1
Am = (m − 2) − =
m+1 m m+1 m
and
µ ¶ µ ¶ ∙ ¸
2m 2m Sm−1
Bm = Sm−3 − Sm−1 = Sm−3 m(2m − 1) − .
2m − 2 2m Sm−3
for each ν ∈ N0 . Notice that aν+1 = bν +1, I0 = {−1, 0}, as well as I1 ∪I2 ∪ · · · =
N. Then for each ν ∈ N and m ∈ Iν we have nm = ν + 2.
For example, for ν = 1, i.e., m ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}, we have nm = 3. It was
noted in the proof of the previous theorem. For m ∈ {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} (ν = 2)
we have nm = 4, etc. Notice that nm < m.
+∞
X xn
(3.1) gm (x) = Mm (n) .
n=0
n!
where
(3.5) g0 (x) = ex−1 (Ei (1) − Ei (1 − x)),
and Ei (x) is the exponential integral defined by
Z x t
e
(3.6) Ei (x) = v.p. dt (x > 0).
−∞ t
Generalized Factorial Functions, . . . 121
and
+∞
X
0 0 xn
gm+1 (x) − gm (x) = (Mm+1 (n + 1) − Mm (n + 1)) ,
n=0
n!
i.e.,
+∞
X
0 0 xn
gm+1 (x) − gm (x) = Mm+1 (n) = gm+1 (x).
n=0
n!
Integrating this differential equation, we obtain
Z x
x
(3.7) gm+1 (x) = e e−t gm
0
(t) dt.
0
Using the exponential integral Ei (x) defined by (3.6) (see [1, p. 228]), the pre-
vious formula becomes
i.e., (3.5).
R e m a r k 3.4. The generating function for left factorial in the form
(3.5) was obtained by D- . Cvijović.
In order to find an explicit expression for gm (x) we denote its Laplace
transform by Gm (s). Then, from (3.4) it follows
µ ¶
1 1
Gm+1 (s) = Gm (s) + Gm (s) = 1 + Gm (s),
s−1 s−1
122 G.V. Milovanović, A. Petojević
i.e.,
µ ¶m m µ ¶
X
1 m 1
Gm (s) = 1 + G0 (s) = · G0 (s).
s−1 k (s − 1)k
k=0
Using integration by parts in the integral convolutions on the right hand side in
(3.8) yields
Z x Z x
x−t k−1 1 dt
e (x − t) g0 (t) dt = ex−t (x − t)k
0 k 0 1 −t
k µ ¶ Z x
ex X k k−ν
= (x − 1) e−t (1 − t)ν−1 dt.
k ν=0 ν 0
Since (
Z x e−x g0 (x), if ν = 0,
−t ν−1
e (1 − t) dt =
0 Pν−1 (0) − e−x Pν−1 (x), if ν ≥ 1,
where
ν
X
ν (x − 1)j
(3.9) Pν (x) = (−1) ν! ,
j!
j=0
we get
Z k µ ¶
x
x−t k−1 (x − 1)k ex X k
e (x − t) g0 (t) dt = g0 (x) + (x − 1)k−ν Pν−1 (0)
0 k k ν
ν=1
k µ ¶
1X k
− (x − 1)k−ν Pν−1 (x).
k ν=1 ν
According to this equality, (3.8) and (3.9) we have the following result:
Theorem 3.5. For each m ∈ N0 the generating function x 7→ gm (x) is
given by
1
(3.10) gm (x) = (Am (x)g0 (x) + Bm (x)ex − Cm (x)),
m!
Generalized Factorial Functions, . . . 123
⎛ ⎞
m−1
X X j µ ¶ X
m µ ¶
k−1 m j
Cm (x) ⎝ (−1)ν j (−1) ⎠ (x − 1) ,
=
m! ν=0
ν k−ν k j!
j=0 k=j+1
respectively.
The polynomials Am (x), Bm (x), and Cm (x) for 1 ≤ m ≤ 6 are presented
in Table 2.
(m)
Definition 4.1. Let m ∈ N0 . The factorial polynomials {Kn (t)}n∈N
are defined by
+∞
X xn
Gm (t, x) = ext gm (x) = Kn(m) (t) ,
n!
n=1
Since
n µ ¶
X
d (m) n
Kn (t) = (n − k)Mm (k)tn−1−k
dt k
k=1
Xµ
n−1
n−1
¶
= Mm (k)tn−1−k ,
k
k=1
i.e.,
Xn µ ¶
n
Kn(m) (t + s) = Kν(m) (t)sn−ν .
ν=1
ν
It is clear that
dν (m)
K (t) > 0 (0 ≤ ν < n)
dtν n
(m)
for each t ≥ 0. Therefore, the polynomials Kn (t) have no positive real zeros.
A simple representation of these polynomials in terms of zeros can be
done:
(m) (m)
Theorem
Qn 4.3. Let τν (ν = 1, . . . , n) be zeros of Kn+1 (t), i.e., Kn+1 (t) =
(n + 1) ν=1 (t − τν ). Then
n n(m)
n
1 X Kn+1 (t) X Y
Kn(m) (t) = = (t − τν ).
n+1 t − τk ν=1
k=1 k=1
ν6=k
126 G.V. Milovanović, A. Petojević
tz+m − Qm (t, z)
Ym (t, z) = (Re z > −(m + 1)).
(t − 1)m+1
in the x plane cut along the real axis from 1 to ∞, if Re c > Re b > 0 (cf. [2,
p. 65]). Here it is understood that arg ξ = arg(1 − ξ) = 0 and (1 − xξ)−a has its
principal value.
According to (1.1) we note that Mm (z) can be interpreted as the Laplace
transform of the function t 7→ Ym (t, z) at the point s = 1. Therefore, we put
Z +∞
(5.1) Fm (s, z) = L[Ym (t, z)] = Gm (t, z)e−st dt,
0
where z is a complex parameter such that Re z > −(m + 1), and Mm (z) =
Fm (1, z).
Generalized Factorial Functions, . . . 127
P r o o f. Since
(−1)k Γ(z)
(k + m + 1)! = (m + 1)!(m + 2)k and (1 − z)k = ,
Γ(z − k)
we have
µ ¶
m+z Γ(m + z + 1) Γ(m + z + 1) (1 − z)k (−1)k
= = · ,
k+m+1 Γ(z − k)(k + m + 1)! Γ(z)(m + 1)! (m + 2)k
so that
+∞
Γ(m + z + 1) X (1 − z)k (1)k (1 − t)k
Ym (t, z) = ·
Γ(z)(m + 1)! (m + 2)k k!
k=0
Γ(m + z + 1)
= 2 F1 (1 − z, 1, m + 2; 1 − t),
Γ(z)(m + 1)!
or, by continuation,
Z 1
Γ(m + z + 1)
Ym (t, z) = (1 − ξ)m (1 − (1 − t)ξ)z−1 dξ.
Γ(z)m! 0
where α = (1 − ξ)/ξ.
128 G.V. Milovanović, A. Petojević
Since
eαs Γ(z, αs)
L[(t + α)z−1 ] = (Re s > 0),
sz
where Γ(z, x) is the incomplete gamma function defined by (5.2), we get
Z
z(z + 1) · · · (z + m) 1 z−1
Fm (s, z) = ξ (1 − ξ)m eαs Γ(z, αs) dξ.
m! sz 0
References