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    Analog Electronics PDF

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    of 484
    ea er) Analog Electronics 7 Technical Publications Pune” ‘Table of Contents : ee Chapter- 1 Feedack Amplifiers 1-1) to (1_- 104) Chapter-2 Oscillators (2 = 1) to (2 - 90) Chapter- 3 Multivibrators and Blocking Oscillators (3 - 1) to (3 - 126) Chapter-4 High Frequency Amplifiers (4 - 1) to (4 - 52) Chapter-§ Tuned Amplifier (5 - 1) to (5 - 54) Chapter-6 Power Amplifiers [Large Signal Amplifiers} (6 - 1) to (6 - 88) Appendix-A Schmitt Trigger using Op-amp (A- 1) to (A- 16) Chapterwise University Questions with Answer (P= 1) to (P--24) (3) Features of Book — |® Use of clear, plain and lucid ‘language making the understanding very easy. |# Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs. ‘* Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and illustrations. ‘* Important conc#pts are highlighted using Key Points throughout the book. \# Large number of solved examples. |# Approach of the book resembles classroom teaching. l® Book provides detailed insight into the subject. 1 Stepwise oxplanation to mathomatical derivations for casier understanding. Best of Technical Publications a As per Revised Syllabus of RTU - 2006 Course Semester - IV (ECE) “© Electromagnetic Field Theory (4) S et Analog Electronics ISBN 9788184316100 All rights reserved with Technical Publications, Ne part of this book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and retrigval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : Technical Publications Pune® #1, Amit Revicleney, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, MS. India, Printer : Alet OTPincers Sno. 10/3, Sehayad Read, Pune = 431-041 1H! The importance of Analog Electronics is well known in various engineering fields. Overwhelming response to our books on various subjects inspired us to write this book. The book is structured to cover the key aspects of the subject Analog Electronics. The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The book provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise methods to explain the important topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations, practical examples and solved problems. All the chopters in the book are arranged in a proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All care has been taken fo make students comfortable in understanding the basic concepts of the subject. The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy of the subject. This makes the understonding of this subject more clear and makes it more interesting. The book will be very useful not only to the students but also to the subject teachers. The students have to- omit nothing and possibly hove to cover nothing more. We wish to express our profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book a reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous cccasions by our whole fomily. We wish to thank the Publisher and the entire team of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with quality printing. Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well oppreciated. Authors U. A Bakshi A. P. Godse Dedteated to Gururaj, Neha and Rutuvas Table of Contents Chapter-i_Feedback Amplifiers cree _ (1) to (4= 104y, 1.2 Classification of Amplifiers... s 1.2.1 Voltage Amplifier... 0. ses sess cette es ee este ee eee eee teneeeereneneeenssten 1.2.3 Transconductance Amplifier 1.2.4 Transresistance Amplifier 1.3 Block Diagram...... 1.3.1 Sampling Network... . ees cccesnseecree seen eeeneneereeneteeesesereeesecesy 1-4 1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Negative Feedback. 1.4.1 Advantages 1.4.2 Disadvantages... . 00.00. sce eens cece ee eens reeset ees 4-7 1.5 The Four Basic Feedback Topologies...............sssssssssermucsuessueresserssenel 7 1.6.1 Loop Gain........................ 1.6.2 Desensitivity of Gain... 1.7 Cut-off Frequencies with Feedback a Distortion with F . 1.8.4 Frequency Distortion... ... 20... .. sce esses eee sees este eee eee sees VN 1.9 Input and Output Resistances....... 4.9.1 Input Resistance oo... .. cscs cee e eee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeseueeeseres 1.10 Summary of Effect of Negative Feedback on Amplifier... 1.11 Method of Identifying Feedback Topology and Analysis of a Feedback 1.12.1.1 Transistor Emitter Follower 0 he 1.12.1.2 FET Source Follower 1-29 1.12.1.3 Voltage Series FeedbackPair 1-3 1.42.2 Curent Series Feedback. 1.12.2.1 Common Emitter Configuration with UnbypassodR, oss 1-35 4.12.2.2 Cammon Source Configuration wihR,Unbypassed . J... . 1-37 1.12.3 Current Shunt Feedback... 1.42.4 Voltage Shunt Feedback... .....cse cesses esses eevee nese sees seeeeeeees - 1.13 Nyquist Criterion for Stability of Feedback Amplifiers... Examples with Solutions... Exercise Problems on Feedback Amplifier: 2.4.3 Based on the Range of Operating Frequency ..........0scceeeueeseeeeeeeeeeee 2-8 2.5.5 Advantages. 2.5.6 Disadvantages 2.5.7 Phase Shift Oscillator using Op-amp_ ilk 2.6 Wien Bridge Oscillator 2.5.1 Derivation for Frequency of Oscillations.......- 2-20...) )eeeeeeeee ee 2.6.2 Transistorised Wien Bridge Oscillator ...............0............e.00 ss 2.6.3 Wien Bridge Oscillator using Op-aMp ......eeeee esses ees seer ee eeeneneneere 2.6.4 Wien Bridge Oscillator using FET, ........- 2... 2.7 Comparison of RC Phase Shift and Wien Bridge Oscillators...... 2.9.2 Derivation of Frequency of Oscillations .........--.......) eee 2-39 2.9.3 FET Hartley Oscillator... 2.2... es eee eee eee eee ees 2-44 2.9.4 Hartley Oscillator using Op-amp.. es esses eeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeseaueee 2-45 2.10 Colpitts Oscillator. 2.10.1 Transistorised Colpitts Oscillator... .. os eee eee eee 2-47 2.10.2 Derivation of frequency of Oscillations... ....... cece e eee sess ceeeseeeeetes 2-48 2.10.3 Colpitts Oscillator using Op-amp . 2.10.4 Colpitts Oscillator using FET 0.0... 00. cccecceeereeeeneeneeeeeeesanenes 2.11 Clapp Oscillator 2.14.1 Derivation of Frequency of Oscillations ...... . 2.11.2 Advantages. . . 2.12 Tuned Collector Oscillator 2D 2.13 Frequency Stability of Oscillator... 2-61 2.13.1 Factors Affecting the Frequency Stability... 0.0... seeseeserssseeseeeeereeeee 2-61 2.14 Crystal Oscillators. 2-62 2.14.1 Constructional Details... sees et 2 BG 2.44.2 AC, Equivalent Circuit . 2.14.3 Series and Parallel Resonance . aeeesensese Do BG 2.14.4 Crystal Stability. ... .. cee eee eee eee eee eee 2-66 2.14.5 Pierce Crystal Oscillator... 0.6.00. e eee e eee sees ees s crete seen res 2°66 2.14.6 Miller Crystal Oscillator... o.oo eee eee eee ete eee te ee eee enter ees 2-67 2.15 Amplitude Stabilization... Examples with Solutions. BA AOD UCL aac ee EE 3.2 Types of Multivibrators ........ 3-1 3.2.1 Bistable Muttivibrator oo. ss ses eset settee ete teeee sts ete eeee eee DAk 3.2.2 Monostable Multivibrator......... we 3-2 3.3.2 Loading Considerations . . . 33.24 Design of Ftd Bas stale Miao. 3.3.3 Self Biased Transistor Bistable Multivibrator . . 1.3.3.1 Design of Self Biased Bistable Multivibrator . . be ee 3-18 3.3.4 Speed-up Capacitors or Commutating Capacitors . 3.3.5 Appli 3.4 Collector Coupled Monostable Multivibrator.... 3-21 3.4.1 Pulse Width of Collector Coupled Monostable Multivibrator....................- 3-22 t 7 3-24 3.4.3 Applications 3.5 Emitter Coupled Monostable Multivibrato! B51 Waveforms 4.5.2 Extreme LimitsofVo 3.5.3 Gate Width of Emitter Coupled Monoshot................-....--....... -- 3-33 3.6 Triggering of Monostable Multivibrator ...... 0... SBA 3.7 Collector Coupled Astable Muttivibrator ...... sores B= 3D 4.7.4 Applications ....... Pperervedrsd?r?rttt??s eee eee eee ee eee 2 3-dt 3.8 Emitter Coupled Astable Multivibrator ........ 3.8.1 Operation and Mathematical Analysis... 2... 0.0... sc. e eee sees eee GHAR 3.8.2 Expression for Time Period 3.8.3 Practical Emitter Coupled Astable Multivibrator . . 1.8.4 Advantages of Emitter Coupled Astable Multivibrator. 18.5 Disadven of Emitter Coupled Astable Multivibrator ...................00. 909 3.9 Schmitt Trigger Circuit 3.9.1 Operation of the Circuit... eee eee eee cee eee eee cee es OBR 39.2 Hysteresis ... 3.9.3 Applications 3.9.4 Function of C;. 3.9.5 Designing the Schmilf Trigger .......-..ceeseeseeeseceeeseeeseesessese ees O° OB 3.10 Introduction to Blocking Oscillators 00... eee ee ceed = 5B Urheberrechtlich geschiitztes Material 3.11 Pulse Transformer 3.11.1 Practical Equivalent Circuit 3.11.2 Pulse Response Characteristics . 3.11.3 Applications of Pulse Transformer... ......1.eseeserecesserevereressseesenes 3-62 3.12 Monostable Blocking Oscillator using Base Timing..........000 3.12.1 Operation and Mathematical Analysis of the Circuit............scsceeseeeeeeue 9.12.2 Expression for Pulse Width 3.13 Monostable Blocking Oscillator using Emitter Timing 3.13.1 Mathematical ANAIYSIS....6000. cc cscccececeeeeeeeees 3.13.2 Expression for Pulse Width... 0.0.1 cs cece eee e eee ee sees sere eeeeeeeeeeee 3.43.3 Limiting Value Of Ry... se ees esses esse eceee esse eee eese ss eereeeeseeeeee 3.13.4 Effect of Saturation Voltages Of tp... 1.0.0. ceseeteeeeeeseserteereeneeenense 3.13.5.1 Necessity ofDamping. we 3.13.6 Loading Considerations. ....................00 3.13.7 Triggering Cireuit for Monostable Blocking Oscillator . 3.13.8 Other Methods of Controlling the Pulse. o 3.13.8. Common Base Coafguaton. pee ee 3.13.8.4 Shorted Delay Line Method _. 3.15 Diode Controlled Transistorized Astable Blocking Oscillator. 3.15.1 Mathematical Analysis....................+ . 3.15.3 Mark-Space Ratio and Duty Cycle 3.16 RC Controlled Transistorized Astable Blocking Oscillator...... 3.16.1_ Operation of Circuit with Ry C, in Emitter... 0.0.0.2... ee eee 3.46.2 Limitations of Low Duty Cycle .......secsccsccveveeesssesssssessessesees 3.16.3 Comparison of Astable Blocking Oscillator Circuits... ..ceessssscseesseees 3.17 Applications of Blocking Oscillator..... Examples with Solutions..... 4.2 Hybrid - x Common Emitter Transconductance Model... <1 4.2.1 Elements in the Hybrid- mModel.........-sseesseeese evens reese seer e eee 24-2 4.2.2 Hybrid - Parameter Values... 1... -- ese v sees ee esse esses veer eres 22.43 rid-« Conductances 4.3 Determination of Hi 4.3.1 Transistor Transconductance gm. 4.3.2 The input Conductance give... 4.3.3 The Feedback Conductance Gig cscs .seecescscsecsscecseeseeesseseseeres we 4-7 4.3.4 The Base Spreading Resistance ry ....-----seressee eset ereesesereeeer ete 4-8 4.3.5 The Output Resistancege, ........-----....-s eee wee eee AB 4.3.6 Summary... . 4.4 Hybrid-n Capacitance: 4.5 Validity of Hybrid-z Model 4.6 Variation of Hybrid Parameters with | I. |, | Vce | and Temperature.........4-12 4.7 High Frequency Analysis of CE Ampplifier..........0.....cusscmsscsssereenenh = 13 11CE Short-Circuit c Gai “ta 47.44 Parameterfy ..-.-.-- wee eee 4-15 4TA2Parameterfg oe eee 4-16 4713Parameterf .. 1... ese eee ee sess 4-16 4.7.2 Current Gain with Resistive Load 4-48 4.7.3 Current Gain Including Source Resistance... ........s.seseeeeesssseeeeeres 4-22 4.7.4 Voltage Gain Including Source Resistance... ........ 4.7.5 The Cut-off Frequency Including Source Resistance . . . 4.8 Gain Bandwidth Produtt snl = 24 4.8.1 Gain Bandwidth Product for Voltage... 2.2... ss eee ee ee eee teeter BF een TESTE Series ty 4.8.2 Gein Bandwidth Product for Current . .. 4.9 Emitter Follower at High Frequencies 4.9.1 Nodal Equations 4.9.2 Single Pole SolUHON ...... 02... sssessseseeeeeseeesseseensseseeseeseneees Examples with Solutions. 5.5 Analysis of Single Tuned Amplifier....... 5.6 Primary Tuned Amplifier with BJT... 5.7 Tuned Secondary FET Amplifier 5.8 Double Tuned Transformer Coupled Amplifier ..............s:ss00: 5.9 Stagger Tuned Amplifier. 5.10 Effact of Cascading Single Tuned Amplifiers on Bandwidth 5.11 Effect of Cascading Double Tuned Amplifiers on Bandwidth . 5.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Tuned Amplifiers....... 5.13 Applications of Tuned Amplifiers 5.14 Comparison between Tuned Circuits ..... 5.15 Pulse Response of Tuned Amplifiers 5.16 Bandwidth Requirements for Pulse Amplification ............1...+:s1ssssee BAT Shunt Peaking Circuits for Increased Bandwidth . Examples with Solutions. 6.1 Concept of Large Signal Amplification... 6-4 6.2 Features of Power Amplifiers ...... 6-2 6.3 Classification of Large Signal Amplifiers .. 6-2 6.3.1 Class A Amplifiers .... 6.3.2 Class B Amplifiers .. 6.3.3 Class C Amplifiers... _ 6.3.4 Class AB Amplifiers oo. esse nese ee eee eet eee eee ees 6.4 Class D Amplifiers 0.0... cece cece eccceeceseeseescceceesenseceueseeeeeesseeceneesetiee 6.5 Comparison of Amplifier Classes oes eecee ee cece cee eee eee eeeeceeeceneeseee 6.6 Analysis of Class A Amplifiers... 6.7 Series Fed, Directly Coupled Class A Amplifier 6.7.1 D.C. Operation. 6.7.2 D.C. Power Input. 6.7.3 AC. Operation... 0... see e ss ce eee reese e eens eee e eet eee ees eee es 6.7.4 AC. Power Output. 67.5 Efficiency... sce eee eee ce cee eee cee eee eee 6.7.6 Maximum Et 6.7.7 Power Dissipation . . 6.7.8 Advantages and Disadvantages 6-17 6.8 Transformer Coupled Class A Amplifier ........ 6-18 6.8.1 Properties of Transformer. .. ce eee ee eneeeeseeee se eeeeeeeeeseneseres 6219 6.8.2 Circuit Diagram of Transformer Coupled Amplifier. . eee eeeeeessts renee GH 24 6.8.3 D.C, Operation . 6-22 6.8.4 D.C Power Iny 8.8.5 A.C. Operation .. .. 6-23 G.BGAC. Output Power... ...ssecssereseeeeeeestenerererereteteesesrseneres 6-23 Urheberrechtlich geschiitztes Material 6.9.3 Second Harmonic Distortion (Three Point Method) ............sssseeeeeeeeenes G9 31 6.9.4 Power Output Due to Distortion ...........sssseseseeseesseeeseeseeeeeeeees 6.9.5 Higher Order Harmonic Distortion (Five Point 6.9.6 Power Output Due to Distortion .. 6.10 Analysis of Class B Amplifiers... 6.11 Push Pull Class B Amplifier 6.44.1 D.C. Operation... ssisee sees esses sees ee terete ee ee sree eeee sees 641.2 0.0, Powerfnput oo... eee ee eee ee sete eerste eset ete nee eee teens 6.11.3 AC. Operation 6.11.4 A.C. Power Output 6.11.5 Efficiency ......... 6.11.6 Maximum Efficiency 0... eee sees ee eee see ee eee ee nese eee seen 6.11.7 Power Dissipation... oo... eee eee eee eee eee eee eee sees es B43 6.12 Complementary Symmetry Class B Amplifier 6.12.1 Mathematical Analysis....................... 6.12.2 Advantages and Disadvant 6.13 Comparison of Push Pull and Complementary Symmetry Circuits ....... 6-55 6.14 Class A Push Pull Amplifier 6.16.2 Complementary Symmetry Class B Amplifier. 6.17 Complementary Symmetry Single Supply Version 6.18 Complementary Symmetry Class B with Driver Stage ..... 6.19 Quasi - Complementary Push Pull Amplifier .......... A.2 Basic Comparator using Op-amp............... A.2.1 Basic Non-inverting Comparator ......sssssesssstseteereeeeeseseeeeeeeenees A2.2 Basic Inverting Comparator...... A.2.3 Limitations of Op-amp Comparator A.3 Inverting Schmitt Trigger...... A.4 Non-inverting Schmitt Trigger...... A.5.1 Schmitt Triggers for Eliminating Comparator Chatter A.5.2 Schmitt Triggers in ON/OFF Controllers... A.6 Comparison of Schmitt Trigger and Comparator. A? Schmitt Trigger with Different UTP and LTP Levels .........000+ A7.1 Another Method of Obtaining Different Trigger Levels... . 2... sseesereeereenees Raview estions A- 5 Feedback Amplifiers 1.1 Introduction Feedback plays an important role in almost all electronic circuits. It is almost invariably used in the amplifier to improve its performance and to make it more ideal. In the process of feedback, a part of output is sampled and fed back to the input of the amplifier. Therefore, at input we have two signals ; Input signal, and part of the output which is fed back to the input. Both these signals may be in phase or out of phase. When input signal and part of output signal are in phase, the feedback is called positive feedback. On the other hand, when they are in out of phase, the feedback is called negative feedback. Use of positive feedback results in oscillations and hence not used in amplifiers. In this chapter, we introduce the concept of feedback and show how to modify the characteristics of an amplifier by combining a portion or part of the output signal with the input signal. We also study the analysis of various feedback amplifiers. 1.2 Classification of Amplifiers Before proceeding with the concepts of feedback, it is useful to understand the classification of amplifiers based on the magnitudes of the input and output impedances of an amplifier relative to the source and load impedances, respectively. The amplifiers can be classified into four broad categories : voltage, current, transconductance and transresistance amplifiers. 1.2.1 Voltage Amplifier Fig. 1.1 shows a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of an amplifier. If the amplifier input resistance R, is large compared with the source resistance R, then V, = V,. If the external load resistance R, is large compared with the output resistance R, of the amplifier, then V, = A, Vj = A, V,. Such amplifier circuit provides a voltage output proportional to the voltage input, and the proportionality factor does not depend on the magnitudes of the source and load resistances. Hence, this amplifier is called voltage amplifier. An ideal voltage amplifier must have infinite input resistance R; and (1-4) Analog Electronics 41-2 Feedback Amplifiers RoR, ~ R>>Ry Fig. 1.1 Thevenin's equivalent circuits of a voltage amplifier zero output resistance R,. For practical voltage amplifier we must have R, >> R, and R, >> R,. 1.2.2 Current Amplifier Fig. 1.2 shows Norton‘s equivalent circuit of a current amplifier. If amplifier input resistance R, — 0, then I, =1,. If amplifier output resistance R, — , then I, = A;J,. Such amplifier provides a current output proportional to the signal current, and the proportionality factor is independent of source and load resistances. This amplifier is called current amplifier. An ideal current amplifier must have zero input resistance R, and infinite output resistance R,. For practical current amplifier we must have R, <>R,. RaDorReeRy Rice Ror Ry 160 Fig. 1.2 Norton's equivalent circuits of a current amplifier 1.2.3 Transconductance Amplifier Fig, 1.3 shows a transconductance amplifier with a Thevenin’s equivalent in its input circuit and Norton’s equivalent in its output circuit. In this amplifier, an output current is Proportional to the input signal voltage and the proportionality factor is independent of the magnitudes of the source and load resistances. Ideally, this amplifier must have an infinite input resistance R; and infinite output resistance R,. For practical transconductance amplifier we must have R; >> R, and R, >> Ry. Analog Electronics 1-3 Feedback Amplifiers RoR, RPSR, Fig. 1.3 Transconductance amplifier 1.2.4 Transresistance Amplifier Fig. 1.4 shows a transresistance amplifier with a Norton’s equivalent in its input circuit and a Thevenin’s equivalent in its output circuit. In this amplifier an output voltage is Proportional to the input signal current and the proportionality factor is independent on the source and load resistances. Ideally, this amplifier must have zero input resistance R; and zero output resistance R,. For practical transresistance amplifier we must have R, <

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