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Wind Energy 5.1
UnitV
WIND ENERGY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
ww Wind energy is a large renewable energy source. Global wind power potential is of the
order of 11,000 GW. It is about 5 times the global installed power generation capacity. This
w.E
excludes offshore potential as it is yet to be properly estimated. Wind energy is a converted form
of solar energy. The sun’s radiation heats different parts of the earth at different rates-most
notably during the day and night, but also when different surfaces (for example, water and land)
asy
absorb or reflect at different rates. This in turn causes portions of the atmosphere to warm
differently. Hot air rises, reducing the atmospheric pressure at the earth’s surface, and cooler air
En
is drawn in to replace it. The result is wind. Air has mass, and when it is in motion, it contains the
energy of that motion (“kinetic energy”). Some portion of that energy can converted into other
gin
forms mechanical force or electricity that we can use to perform work.
ee rin
g.n
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Fig. 5.1 : Installed wind power capacity growth in India
5.1

5.2 Electrical Energy Utilization and Conservation
The modern wind era began in California in the 1980s. Between 1981 and 1986, small
companies and entrepreneurs installed 15,000 medium-sized turbines, providing enough power
for every resident of San Francisco. Pushed by the high cost of fossil fuels, a moratorium on
nuclear power, and concern about environmental degradation, the state provided tax incentives
to promote wind power. These, combined with federal tax incentives, helped the wind industry
take off. After the tax credits expired in 1985, wind power continued to grow, although more
slowly. Perhaps more important in slowing wind power’s growth was the decline in fossil fuel
prices that occurred in the mid-1980s.
ww In the early 1990s, improvements in technology resulting in increased turbine reliability and
w.E
lower costs of production provided another boost for wind development. In addition, concern
about global warming and the first Gulf War lead Congress to pass the Energy Policy Act of
1992–comprehensive energy legislation that included a new production tax credit for wind and
asy
biomass electricity. However, shortly thereafter, the electric utility industry began to anticipate a
En
massive restructuring, where power suppliers would become competitors rather than protected
monopolies.
gin
Investment in new power plants of all kinds fell drastically, especially for capital-intensive
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renewable energy technologies like wind. America’s largest wind company, Kenetech,
declaredbankruptcy in 1995, a victim of the sudden slowdown. It wasn’t until 1998 that the wind
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industry began toexperience continuing growth in the United States, thanks in large part to federal
g.n
tax incentives, state-levelrenewable energy requirements and incentives, and–beginning in 2001–
rising fossil fuel prices.
et
Fig. 5.2 : Development of wind turbines

Wind Energy 5.3
While the wind industry grew substantially from the early 2000’s on, it suffered from a bout
of boom-and-burstcycles due to the on-again, off-again nature of federal tax incentives. In 2006,
a period of uninterrupted federal support for wind began, which has led to several years of
record growth.
In other parts of the world, particularly in Europe, wind has had more consistent, long-term
support. As a result, European countries are currently capable of meeting more of their electricity
demands through wind power with much less land area and resource potential compared with
ww
the United States. Denmark, for example, alreadymeets about 20 percent of its electricity demand
from wind power. Wind generation also accounts for about 13 percent of the national power
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needs in Spain, and 8 percent in Germany.iii Serious commitments to reducing global warming
emissions, local development, and the determination to avoid fuel imports have been the primary
drivers of wind power development in Europe.
asy
Modern electric wind turbines come in a few different styles and many different sizes,
En
depending on their use. The most common style, large or small, is the “horizontal axis design”
(with the axis of the blades horizontal to the ground). On this turbine, two or three blades spin
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upwind of the tower that it sits on. Small wind turbines are generally used for providing power off
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the grid, ranging from very small, 250-watt turbines designed for charging up batteries on a
sailboat, to 50-kilowatt turbines that power dairy farms and remote villages. Like old farm
rin
windmills, these small wind turbines often have tail fans that keep them oriented into the wind.
g.n
Large wind turbines, most often used by utilities to provide power to a grid, range from
et
250 kilowatts up to the enormous 3.5 to 5 MW machines that are being used offshore. In 2008,
the average land-based wind turbines had a capacity of 1.67 MW.x Utility-scale turbines are
usually placed in groups or rows to take advantage of prime windy spots. Wind “farms” like
these can consist of a few or hundreds of turbines, providing enough power for tens of thousands
of homes.
From the outside, horizontal axis wind turbines consist of three big parts: the tower, the
blades, and a box behind the blades, called the nacelle. Inside the nacelle is where most of the
action takes place, where motion is turned into electricity. Large turbines don’t have tail fans;
instead they have hydraulic controls that orient the blades into the wind.


5.2 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF WIND ENERGY CONVERSION
ww
w.E Fig. 5.3 : Flow of wind by using solar energy
5.3 THE NATURE OF THE WIND asy

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Wind is an indirect solar energy source. Its characteristics can be summarized as follows.
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 It is environmentally clean source of energy.
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 It is a dilute source of energy.
 It is perennially available. rin

 Its availability is unpredictable. g.n
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 Data are available about its availability pattern around the day for different months
of the year.
The machine that converts kinetic energy in the wind into usable form of mechanical energy
(usually shaft power). Wind machines are typically used for mechanical applications like water
pumping, grinding, woodcutting, or for AC or DC power generation in grid connected or isolated
mode. Details of different types of wind machines are given in Table 1.

Wind Energy 5.5

Table 5.1 : Different Types of Wind Machines
No. of Axis of Rotor position Starting Rotor

Type of machine Power
Blades rotation wrt tower torque speed
Upwind or
Propeller machine 2 or 3 Horizontal Moderate Fast Electrical
downwind
Multi-bladed
6 to 24 Horizontal Upwind High Slow Mechanical
machine
Savonius machine 2 or 3 Vertical - Very high Slow Mechanical
ww Darrius machine 2 or 3 Vertical - Very low Fast Electrical
w.EThree bladed propeller deign has evolved as the commercial Wind Energy Conversion
System today.
asy
Designs of 225 kW, 450 kW, 650 kW or 1 MW are installed commercially in India.
En
Wind speed increase with height. They have traditionally been measured at a standard
height of ten meters where they are found to be 20-20% greater than close to the surface. At a
gin
height of 60 m they may be 30-60% higher because of the reduction in the drag effect of the
earth’s surface
5.4 THE POWER IN THE WIND

ee rin
g.n
Wind possesses energy by virtue of its motion. Any device capable of slowing down the
mass of moving air, like a sail or propeller, can extract part of the energy and convert is in to
useful work. Three factors determine the output from a wind energy converter
 The wind speed

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 The cross-section of wind swept by rotor; and
 The overall conversion efficiency of the rotor, transmission system and generator or
pump.
No device, however well-designed, can extract all of the wind’s energy because the wind
would have to be brought to a halt and this would prevent the passage of more air through tile
rotor. The most that is possible is for the rotor to decelerate the whole horizontal column of
intercepted air to about one-third of its free velocity. A 100% efficient aero generator would

therefore only be able to convert up to a maximum of around 60% of the available energy in wind
into mechanical energy. Well-designed blades will typically extract 70% of the theoretical
maximum, but losses incurred in the gearbox, transmission system and generator or pump could
decrease overall wind turbine efficiency to 35% or less.
Radius  r
Sweap Area
ww
2
A = r
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Fig. 5.4 : Calculation of area covered by wind turbine
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The swept area of the turbine can be calculated from the length of the turbine blades using
the equation for the area of a circle :
MATHEMATICAL MODEL gin
E = Kinetic Energy (J)
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The following table shows the definition of various variables used in this model:
rin
m
ρ = Density (kg/m3)
= Mass (kg) g.n
v
A = Swept Area (m2)
= Wind Speed (m/s)
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Cp = Power Coefficient
P = Power (W)
r = Radius (m)
dt/dm = Mass flow rate (kg/s)
x = distance (m)
dE / dt = Energy Flow Rate (J/s)
t = time (s)

Wind Energy 5.7
With the knowledge that it is of critical economic importance to know the power and
therefore energy produced by different types of wind turbine in different conditions, in this exemplar
we will calculate the rotational kinetic power produced in a wind turbine at its rated wind speed.
This is the minimum wind speed at which a wind turbine produces its rated power.
Under constant acceleration, the kinetic energy of an object having mass m and velocity v
is equal to the work done W in displacing that object from rest to a distance s under a force F,
i.e.: Wind mills or turbines works on the principle of converting kinetic energy of the wind in to
ww
mechanical energy.
E = W = Fs
w.EAccording to Newton’s Law, we have:
F = ma
Hence, asy
En E = mas … ... (5.2.1)
gin
Substituting it in equation (5.2.1), we get that the kinetic energy of a mass in motions is:
ee E=
1 2
2
mv
The power in the wind is given by the rate of change of energy: rin
... (5.2.2)
P=
dE 1 2 dm
V g.n ... (5.2.3)
As mass flow rate is given by:

dt 2 dt
et
dm dX
 A
dt dt
and the rate of change of distance is given by:
dX
V
dt

We get
dm
AV
dt
Hence, from equation (5.2.3), the power can be defined as:
1
P = A V 3 ... (5.2.4)
2
ww 1
{Power available from wind mill} = A V3
2
w.E
where, ρ – air density = 1.225 Kg. / m³ at sea level.
(changes by 10-15% due to temperature and pressure variations)
asy
A – Area swept by windmill rotor =πD² sq-m. (D – diameter)
V – Wind speed m/sec.
En
gin
Air density, which linearly affects the power output at a given speed, is a function of altitude,
temperature and barometric pressure. Variation in temperature and pressure can affect air density
6
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up to 10 % in either direction. Warm climate reduces air density.
rin
g.n
Pw
4
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m
60
.
ia
rD
2
to
40
Ro
m
20
5 10 15
V
Fig. 5.5

Wind Energy 5.9
The Nature of the Wind
This equation tells us that maximum power available depends on rotor diameter. The
combined effects of wind speed and rotor diameter can be observed by the following graph. This
graph indicates that wind machines should have large rotors and should be located in areas of
high wind speeds.
Rotor
ww Wind
Speed
w.E Free Wind
asy
Free Wind
Wake
Wind Direction
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Pressure
P
ee rin
Ambient
Pressure
g.n
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Fig. 5.6 : Air speed and pressure increases to ambient atmospheric condition
Practically, wind turbines are able to convert only a fraction of available wind power into
useful power. As the free wind stream passes through the rotor, it transfers some of its energy to
the rotor and its speed decreases to a minimum in the rotor wake. After some distance from the
rotor wind stream regains its speed from the surrounding air. We can also observe drop in
pressure as the wind stream passes through the rotor. Finally air speed and pressure increases to
ambient atmospheric condition. This is illustrated in the following graphs Fig 5.5.
Equation 5.2.1 gives that the maximum wind available but actual amount will be somewhat
less because all the available energy is not extractable. The actual energy obtained is proportional

to the cube of the wind speed. If thus evident that small increase in wind speed can have a
marked effect on the power in the wind.
5.5 BETZ LIMIT OR BETZ’LAW
A German physicist Albert Betz concluded in 1919 that no wind turbine can convert more
than 16/27 (59.3%) of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy turning a rotor. To
this day, this is known as the Betz Limit or Betz’Law. The theoretical maximum power efficiency
of any design of wind turbine is 0.59 (i.e. no more than 59% of the energy carried by the wind
ww
can be extracted by a wind turbine). This is called the” power coefficient” and is defined as:
Cp Max = 0.59
w.E
A1 asy A
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A2
V1
gin V
ee
Fig. 5.7 : Betz Limit or Betz’Law
V2
rin
g.n
Also, wind turbines cannot operate at this maximum limit. The Cp value is unique to each
turbine type and is a function of wind speed that the turbine is operating in. Once we incorporate
et
various engineering requirements of a wind turbine - strength and durability in particular – the real
world limit is well below the Betz Limit with values of 0.35-0.45 common even in the best
designed wind turbines. By the time we take into account the other factors in a complete wind
turbine system - e.g. the gearbox, bearings, and generator and so on - only 10-30% of the
power of the wind is ever actually converted into usable electricity. Hence, the power coefficient
needs to be factored in equation (5.2.4) and the extractable power from the wind is given by:
5.6 SITE SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
The power available in the wind increases rapidly with the speed; hence wind energy conversion
machines should be located preferable in areas where the winds are strong and persistent. Although
daily winds at a given site may be highly variable, the monthly and especially annual average
speeds are remarkably constant from year to year. The major contribution to the wind power

Wind Energy 5.11
available at a given site is actually made by winds with speeds above the average. Nevertheless,
the most suitable sites for wind turbines would be found in areas where the annual average wind
speeds are known to be moderately high or high
The site choice for a single or a spatial array of WECS (wind energy conversion system) is
an important matter when wind electrics is looked at from the systems point of view of aero
turbine generators feeding power into a conventional electric grid. If the WECS sites are wrongly
or poorly chosen the net wind electric generated energy per year may be sub optimal with
resulting high capital cost for the WECS apparatus, high costs for wind generated electric energy,
ww
and low returns on investment, Even if the WECS is to be a small generator not tied to the
electric grid, the siting must be carefully chosen if inordinately long break even times are to be
w.E
avoided, Technical, economic, environmental, social, and other factors are examined before a
decision is made to erect a generating plant on a specific site. Some of the main considerations
are discussed below.
asy
1. High annual average wind speed. A fundamental requirement to the successful use of
En
WECS, obviously, is an adequate supply of wind as stated above. The wind velocity is
the critical parameter. The power in the wind P through a given Cross-sectional area for
gin
a uniform wind velocity V, is:
ee
P = K V3
2
rin
g.n
et
Fig. 5.8 : Wind Speed and Tower Height Ratio

where K is a constant. It is evident; because of the cubic dependence on wind velocity that small
increases in V markedly affect the power in the wind, e.g. doubling V, increases P by a factor of
8. It is obviously desirable to select a site for WECS with high wind velocity. Thus a high average
wind velocity is the principal fundamental parameter of Concern in initially appraising a WECS
site. For a more detailed estimate value, one would like to have the average of the velocity cubed
Anemometer data is normally based on wind speed measurements from a height of 10 m.

For the most accurate assessment of wind power potential it is absolutely essential that anemometer
ww
data be obtained at the precise site and hub height for any proposed WECS.
Strategy for siting is generally recognized to consist of:
w.E  Survey of historical wind data,
asy
 Contour maps of terrain and wind are consulted.
 Potential sites are visited.
En
 Best sites are instrumented for approximately one year.
gin
 Choose optimal site.
ee
2. Availability of anemometry data. It is another important siting factor. The principal
rin
object is to measure the wind speed which basically determines the WECS output power,
g.n
but there are many practical difficulties with the instrumentation and measurement methods.
The anemometer height above ground, accuracy, linearity, location on the support tower,
et
shadowing and inaccurate readings therefrom, icing inertia of rotor whether it measures
the horizontal velocity component or vertical, and temperature effects are a few of the
many difficulties encountered. The anemometry data should be available over some time
period at the precise spot where any proposed WECS is to be built and that this should
be accomplished before a siting decision is made.
3. Availability of wind V (t) curve at the proposed site. This important curve determines
the maximum energy in the wind and hence is the principal initially controlling factor in
predicting the electrical output and hence revenue returns of the WECS machine. It is
desirable to have average wind speed V such that V 12-16 km/hr (3.5-4.5 m/sec)
which is about the lower limit at which present large scale WECS generators ‘cut in’
i.e. start turning. The V(t) curve also determines the reliability of the delivered WECS

Wind Energy 5.13
generator power, for if the V(t) curve goes to zero there will be no generated power
during that time. If there are long periods of calm the WECS reliability will be lower than
if the calm periods are short. In making such reliability estimates it is desirable to have
measured V(t) curve over about a 5 year period for the highest confidence level in the
reliability estimate.
4. Wind structure at the proposed site. The ideal case for the WECS would be a site
such that the V(t) curve was flat, i.e. smooth steady wind that blows all the time ; but a
typical site is always less than ideal. Wind especially near the ground is turbulent and
ww gusty and. changes rapidly in direction and in velocity. This departure from homogeneous
flow is collectively referred to as “the structure of the wind.”
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
Fig. 5.9 : Wind Turbine with obstacles
g.n
et
5. Altitude of the proposed site. It affects the air density and thus the power in the wind
and hence the useful WECS electric power output. Also, as is well known, the winds
tend to have higher velocities at higher altitudes.
One must be careful to distinguish altitude from height above ground. They are not the
same except for a sea level WECS site.
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic. One should know about terrain of the site to be chosen.
If the WECS is to be placed near the top but not on the top of a not too blunt hill facing
the prevailing wind, then it may be possible to obtain a ‘speed up’ of the wind velocity
over what it would otherwise be. Also the wind here may not flow horizontal making it
necessary to tip the axis of the rotor so that the aero turbine is always perpendicular to
the actual wind flow.

It may be possible to make use of hills or mountains which channel the prevailing winds
into a pass region, thereby obtaining higher wind power.
Rotor blade
Rotor diameter
Swept area
of blades
ww 2H
w.E H
2H
Not to scale asy 20H
En
Fig. 5.10 : Wind Turbine with obstacles
gin
7. Local Ecology. If the surface is bare rock it may mean lower hub heights hence lower
structure cost. If trees or grass or vegetation are present, all of which tend to disturb the
bareground case. ee
wind, then higher hub heights will be needed resulting in larger system costs than the
rin
8. Distance to Roads or Railways. This is another factor the system engineer must
g.n
consider for heavy machinery, structures, materials, blades and other apparatus will have
et
to be moved into any chosen WECS site.
9. Nearness of site to local centre/users. This obvious criterion minimizes transmission

line length and hence losses and costs. After applying all the previous siting criteria, hope
fully as one narrows the proposed WECS sites to one or two they would be relatively
near to the users of the generated electric energy.
10. Nature of ground. Ground condition should be such that the foundations for a WECS
are secured. Ground surface should be stable. Erosion problem should not be there, as
it could possibly later wash out the foundations of a WECS, destroying the whole system.
11. Favorable land cost. Land cost should be favorable as this along with other siting
costs, enters into the total WECS system cost.

Wind Energy 5.15
12. Other conditions such asicing problem, salt spray or blowing dust should not present
at the site, as they may affect aero turbine blades, or environmental is generally adverse
to machinery and electrical apparatus.
However, the wind shear, and consequently the available windpower at a given altitude, is
also affected by the roughness of the earth’s surface in a given location. If the area contains
buildings, trees, wind machines, or other obstacles, the variation of the wind speed with altitude
above ground level is usually greater for these obstructed are as than for the case of open water
and flat plains.
ww
The characteristics of a good wind power site may be summarized as follows:
w.E
1. A site should have a high annual wind speed,
asy
2. There should be no tall obstructions for a radius of 3 km.
3. An open plain or an open shore line may be a good location.
En
4. The top of a smooth well rounded hill with gentle slopes lying on a flat plain or located on
gin
an island in a lake or sea is a good site.
ee
5. A mountain gap which produces to wind funneling is good.
rin
5.7 BASIC COMPONENTS OF A WECS (Wind Energy Conversion System)
g.n
WIND DIRECTION
AERO TURBINE
MECHANICAL INTERFACE
GEARING COUPLING
ELECTRICAL
GENERATO
et
R
CONTROLLER
Fig. 5.11 : Basic component in WECS

Aero Turbine converts energy in moving air to rotary mechanical energy. In general, they
require pitch control and yaw control (only in the case of horizontal or wind axis machines)
for proper operation. A mechanical interface consisting of a step up gear and a suitable coupling
transmits the rotary mechanical energy to all electrical generators.The output of this generator is
connected to the load or power grid as the application warrants.
Blades Power Charge

Generator Controller
ww
Drive
Shaft
w.E Rotor
asy
Brake
Turbine
Controller
Tail
Fin
En Rotating Nacelle/Mast
Mounting and Power
Mast (Output cable

gin Output Slip Rings
Mechanism
ee
runs down inside) Power Cable
To Home
rin
Fig. 5.12: Basic Wind Turbine Diagrams
g.n
Yaw control. For localities with the prevailing wind in one direction, the design of a turbine can
et
be greatly simplified. The rotor can be in a fixed orientation with the swept area perpendicular to
the predominant wind direction. Such a machine is said to be yaw fixed. Most Wind turbines,
however, are yaw active, that is to say, as the wind direction changes, a motor rotates the
turbine slowly about the vertical (or yaw) axis so as to face the blades into the wind. The area of
the windstream swept by the wind rotor is then a maximum.
In the small turbines, yaw action is controlled by’ a tail vane, similar to that in a typical
pumping windmill. In larger machines, a servomechanism operated by a wind-direction sensor
controls the yaw motor that keeps the turbine properly oriented.
The purpose of the controller is to sense wind speed, wind direction, shafts speeds and
torques atone or more points, output power and generator temperature as necessary and

Wind Energy 5.17
appropriate control signals for matching the electrical output to the wind energy’ input and protect
the system from extreme conditions brought upon by strong winds electrical faults, and the like.
The physical embodiment for such an aero-generator is shown in a generalized form in Fig.
(5.8). The sub-components of tile windmill are:
 Wind turbine or rotor

 Wind mill head
ww 

Transmission and control
Supporting structure
w.E


Such a machine typically is a large impressive structure.
Rotors
asy
 Rotors are mainly of two types:

 EnHorizontal axis rotor and
gin
Vertical axis rotor.
Main advantage of vertical-axis machines is that they operate in all wind directions and thus
no need yaw adjustment.
ee rin
The rotor is only one of the important components. For an effective utilization, all the
g.n
components need to be properly designed and matched with the rest of the components.
et
Tower (supporting structure)
The height of an HAWT tower is very important when it comes to performance since wind
speed increases with height.
The interaction between wind speed and installation height is complicated. The wind is
affected by friction from turbulence around mountains, hills, trees, buildings etc. These influences
decrease with increasing height. In short, wind speed increases with more height and friction
while turbulence decreases. Higher towers therefore offer more wind speed and it is possible to
use larger blades that increase the production of electrical power. Low wind speed and changes
in wind speed as a function of height, called wind shear, can have a harmful influence on the
performance of the turbine.

In the case of HAWT the tower must be high enough for the blades to not touch the ground
as they rotate. But generally, the height of the tower is 1 to 1.5 times the rotor diameter. A wind
turbine should be practical for the operation in question and the height of the tower should be
based on economic tradeoffs of increased energy capture versus increased cost and the
characteristics of the site.
Foundation
A geological assessment has to be made after choosing a site for the wind turbine and/or
ww
wind farms. Soil and rock characteristics are important issues when it comes to load factors
because it is important to have knowledge of how the soil behaves and how it supports the wind
w.E
turbine, and how it formed
Rotor Blades
asy
The performance of a wind turbine is entirely dependent on the number of blades attached
En
to the rotor and their geometrical dimensions. Factors that influence the performance of the
blades.
Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) gin

ee
As stated before, the tip speed ratio is an important parameter selected in the design of
rin
every wind turbine. Greater TSR implies a greater power coefficient. The TSR is the relationship
between rotor blade velocity and the relative wind speed.
Rotor Hub g.n

 et
Hub height is the height from the ground to the center of the rotor and is a heavy
component of the wind turbine. The hub connects the blades to the main shaft and
drive train and must withstand all loads from the blades
 The hub is rigid, hinged or teetering and is usually made of ductile cast iron. The hub
is covered by a cone in order to prevent is from the environment and for visual effects.
The material used for constructing the cone has similar composites as used in the
blades

Wind Energy 5.19
Control System
To be able to achieve dynamic stability and both safe and reliable operation under various wind
conditions, control systems are needed.
 Pitch Control System
The pitch control system a subsystem of the wind turbine and it is quite expensive. It is
located and operates inside the hub where it rotates around their radial axis as wind velocity
changes during operation. The pitch control system changes the angle of attack by pitching the
ww
blades and the capacity of wind power captures changes. This allows for an almost optimal
adjustment of the pitch angle at every wind speed and low cut-in wind velocity. When the wind
w.E
speed is high, the pitch angle has to be changed in accordance and the angle of attack is reduced.
asy
Yaw Control System
A yaw system is also needed to maintain a dynamic stability in turbulent environments
En
because the pitch control system is not enough. Even though it is costly, both systems are important
gin
to maintain dynamic stability and safe operation of the turbine in spite of wind speeds and turbulence
environments.
Anemometer
ee rin
There must be accurate measurement of wind parameter for the pitch and yaw control
g.n
systems to maintain dynamic stability operate reliably under all sorts of wind environments.
Gathering accurate data of wind speed can be a problematic but important because it is used in
conducting performance of turbines.
Types of Anemometer
et
1. Cup Anemometer
2. Ultrasound Anemometer
Gear Box
The gearbox is another heavy element of the system. It is typically used in a wind turbine to
increase rotational speed from a low-speed rotor to a higher speed electrical generator. The
generator receives the power collected from the wind by the rotor through the gearbox. The

power is concentrated on each tooth of the gear, where the gear is used as transportation. This is
the reason why there are so many loads on each of the teeth
Nacelle
The nacelle is housing or a box located at the top of the tower and serves as a protection
from the environment for some major components like the generator and the gearbox. Then
acelle consists of a floor called bedplate, where the equipment is placed, and the roof, or main
enclosure, to frame the components
ww
Generator
w.E Electrical generators convert mechanical power into electrical power. The generators that
are used in HAWT are synchronous or induction generators, but induction generators are usually
asy
chosen because of torsional compliance and extraction of damping energy in the drive train.
Different generator designs produce either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC),
En
available in a large range of output power ratings.
gin
Most home and office appliances operate on 120 volt (or 240 volt), 60 cycle AC. Some
appliances can operate on either AC or DC, such as light bulbs and resistance heaters, and many
ee
others can be adapted to run on DC. Storage systems using batteries store DC and usually are
configured at voltages of between 12 volts and 120 volts.
rin
g.n
Generators that produce AC are generally equipped with features to produce the correct
voltage (120 or 240 V) and constant frequency (60 cycles) of electricity, even when the wind
speed is fluctuating.
Transmission
et
The number of revolutions per minute (rpm) of a wind turbine rotor can range between 40
rpm and 400 rpm, depending on the model and the wind speed. Generators typically require
rpm’s of 1,200 to 1,800. As a result, most wind turbines require a gearbox transmission to
increase the rotation of the generator to the speeds necessary for efficient electricity production.
Some DC-type wind turbines do not use transmissions. Instead, they have a direct link between
the rotor and generator. These are known as direct drive systems. Without a transmission, wind
turbine complexity and maintenance requirements are reduced, but a much larger generator is
required to deliver the same power output as the AC-type wind turbines.

Wind Energy 5.21

5.8 CLASSIFICATION OF WEC SYSTEMS
1. First, there are two broad classifications:
(i) Horizontal Axis Machines. The axis of rotation is horizontal and the aero turbine
plane is vertical facing the wind.
(ii) Vertical Axis Machines. The axis of rotation is vertical. The sails or blades may also
be vertical, as on the ancient Persian windmills, or nearly so, as on the modern Darrievs
rotor machine.
ww
2. Then, they be classified according to size as determined by their useful electrical power
w.E
output.
SCALE POWER RATING APPLICATION
asy
Homes
Small Less than 2 kW Farms
Remote
Intermediate
En 10 kW to 250 kW
Village power
Hybrid system
Large
gin 250 kW to 2MW
Distributed power
Central station wind farms
Distributed power
(i)
ee
Small scale (upto 2 kW). ‘These might be used a farms, remote applications, and
other places requiring relatively low power.
rin
(ii)
g.n
Medium size machines (10-250 kW) these wind turbines may be used to supply less
than 250 kW rated capacity, to several residences or Hybrid system.
(iii)
et
Large scale or large size machines (250 kW and above) large wind turbines are those
of 250 kW rated capacity or greater. They are used to generate power for distribution
in central power grids. There are two sub classes:
a. Single generator at a single site
b. Multiple generators sited at several places over an area.
3. As per the types of output power, wind aero generators are classified as:
a. DC output
i. DC generator
ii. Alternator rectifier

b. AC output
i. Variable frequency, variable or constant voltage AC
ii. Constant frequency, variable or constant voltage AC
4. As per the rotational speed of the aeroturbines, these are classified as:
i. Constant speed with variable pitch blades. This made implies use of a synchronous
generator with its constant frequency output.
ww ii.
iii.
Nearly constant speed with fixed pitch blades. This mode implies an induction generator.
Variable speed with fixed pitch blades. This mode could imply, for constant frequency
w.E output:
1. Field modulated system
asy
2. AC-DC-AC link
En
3. Double output induction generator
gin
4. AC commutator generator
5. Other variable speed constant frequency generating systems.
a. Battery storage
ee
5. Wind turbines are also classified as per how the utilization of output is made:
rin
b. Direct connection to an electromagnetic energy converter.
g.n
c.
d.
Other forms (thermal potential etc.) of storage.
Inter connection with conventional electric utility grids.

et
The system engineering seeking to integrate WECS will, naturally be most interested in the
latter case but should be aware that WECS offer other option as well.
5.9 ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF WECS
Advantages of wind energy are:
(i) It is a renewable source of ‘energy. ‘

Wind Energy 5.23
(ii) Like all forms of solar energy, wind power systems are nonpolluting, so it has no
adverse influence on the environment
(iii) Wind energy systems avoid fuel provision and transport
(iv) On a small scale up to a few kilo-watt system is less costly. On a large-scale costs can
be competitive with conventional electricity and lower costs could be achieved by
mass production.
ww
Disadvantages of wind energy are:
(i) Wind energy available in dilute and fluctuating in nature,
w.E
(ii) Unlike water energy wind energy needs storage capacity because of its irregularity.
asy
(iii) Wind energy systems are noisy in operation; a large unit can be heard many kilometers
away.
En
(iv) Wind power systems have a relatively high overall weight because they involve the
gin
construction of a high tower and include also a gearbox, a hub and pitch changer a
generator coupling shaft etc. For large systems a weight of 110 kg/kV (rated) has
(v)
been estimated,
ee rin
Large areas are needed, typically, propellers 1 to 3 m in diameter, deliver power in
the 30 to 300 wranges.
g.n
(vi) Present systems are neither maintenance free net-practically reliable. However, the
et
fact that highly reliable propeller engines are built for aircraft suggest that the present
troubles could be overcome by industrial development work,
(vii) Some people who live near wind farms have complained about sleep disorders,
headaches, panic attacks and other illnesses that were caused by vibration and low-
frequency noise. The sound frequencies appear to affect the inner ear and over a long
period time.


5.10 TYPES OF WIND TURBINES
Introduction: A windmill is a machine for wind energy conversion. A wind turbine converts the
kinetic energy of the wind’s motion to mechanical energy transmitted-by the shaft. A generator
further converts it to electrical energy, thereby generating electricity. The term ‘windmill’ which
originally implied a min for grinding grain becomes an obvious misnomer when applied to electric
Power generation. The term is still widely used however, aero generators avoids the difficulty.
Only in the last century have windmills been used to generate electric power.
ww Wind aero generators or wind turbine generators of WECS are generally classified as
 Horizontal Axis Turbines
w.E  Vertical Axis Turbines
asy
5.11 HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINES
En
In order for a turbine to be defined as a HAWT, the rotor blades have to be connected to
a horizontal shaft. These types of turbines are mainly for commercial usage. Critical components
gin
are the rotor, gearbox, anemometer, generator, yaw motor, control system and the foundation.
ee
The turbine can either be a rotor-upwind design or rotor-downwind design. An upwind rotor
faces the wind while a downwind rotor enables the wind to pass the tower and nacelle before it
rin
hits the rotor. The rotor diameter, number and twist angle of rotor blades, tower height, rated
electrical power, and control strategy are the main considerations in design.
g.n
Hub Shaft
Gear-Box
Main Transmission
Brake
Generator et
Housing High-Speed
Shaft
Blades Tower
Fig. 5.13 : Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

Wind Energy 5.25
A huge factor regarding the efficiency is the height of the tower since more height means
more wind power. According to Equation (5.2.4), the windspeed is in the third power meaning
that more height equals more wind speed. Also, with increasing height, the turbine noise, rotor
blades, and power output increases Rotor diameter (D) is of equal importance because it
determines the area (A) needed to meet the output level which is needed in each case.
HAWT usually have two or three rotor blades. A turbine with two rotor blades is often in
downwind installations where, the rotor is downwind on the tower. It is faster and cheaper, but it
ww
flickers more than the rotor with three blades and is less efficient. Three blade rotors operate
more smoothly and are therefore less disturbing. HAWTs are lift based which means that they
w.E
have blades designed as airfoils similar to aircraft wings. The apparent wind creates lift from a
pressure differential between the upper and lower air surfaces.
asy
En
gin
Single
Blade
ee Double
Blade
Three
Blades rin
Fig. 5.14 : Different Blade in HAWT g.n
Tower
et
In the case of HAWT the tower must be high enough for the blades to not touch the ground
as they rotate. But generally, the height of the tower is 1 to 1.5 times the rotor diameter. A wind
turbine should be practical for the operation in question and the height of the tower should be
based on economic tradeoffs of increased energy capture versus increased cost and the
characteristics of the site.


126 m—
200 7500 kW
180 Rotor Diameter (m)

Rating (kW)
100 m—
160 3000 kW
140
80 m—
120 1800 kW
70 m—
1500 kW
100
50 m—
80 750 kW
60 30 m—
300 kW
ww
40 17 m—
75 kW
20
w.E
0
1980- 1990- 1995- 2000- 2006- 2010 2011
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Fig. 5.15 : Growth in size of typical commercial wind turbine (hub height in meters)
asy
 Tubular Towers (Steel and Concrete): Steel tubular towers are the most common
used solution. They are made of steel plates that are welded together. This type has a
En
diameter from 4.5 meters at the bottom to 2 meters at the top, divided into 3 or 4 parts,
gin
where they are bolted together at the site where the wind farm is located. They can vary
from 30 to 40 meters.
ee
 Lattice Towers: This type was common when turbines were smaller. These types of
towers are very strong, not expensive to manufacture, easy to transport and erect. Their
rin
biggest problem is the visual impact and maintenance cost.
 Guyed Wind Tower: They take a scape because of the guy wires but are very strong g.n
and most economical, but they are only used for small turbines.
 Tilt up Wind Towers: This type has a locking system making it easy to take down for
et
repair. They are mainly used for consumer wind energy.
 Free standing towers: Must to be used with cautions and for small wind turbines.
Foundation
The foundation is not the first thing that comes to mind when thinking of a wind turbine. The
foundation is usually underground for most parts with diameters ranging from approximately
15–21 meters.

Wind Energy 5.27
There are several types of foundations for wind turbines:
 Spread Footing is the most common foundation and best suited in low compressed soil.
 Patented Caisson is an embedded soil filled steel can mainly use in riverbeds and relies
on skin friction of soil. It cannot be placed in all soil conditions due to movement of the
soil.
 Pile Foundation is best to use in very compressed soil where it is drilled deep down to
support the wind turbine. They are expensive and cost a lot in labor. If there is a poor soil
ww at the site, this foundation is well suited.
Control System
w.ETo be able to achieve dynamic stability and both safe and reliable operation under various
asy
wind conditions, control systems are needed.
Pitch Control System
En
The pitch control system a subsystem of the wind turbine and it is quite expensive. It is
gin
located and operates inside the hub where it rotates around their radial axis as wind velocity
changes during operation. The pitch control system changes the angle of attack by pitching the
ee
blades and the capacity of wind power captures changes. This allows for an almost optimal
rin
adjustment of the pitch angle at every wind speed and low cut-in wind velocity. When the wind
speed is high, the pitch angle has to be changed in accordance and the angle of attack is reduced.
Yaw Control System g.n

et
A yaw system is also needed to maintain a dynamic stability in turbulent environments
because the pitch control system is not enough. Even though it is costly, both systems are important
to maintain dynamic stability and safe operation of the turbine in spite of wind speeds and turbulence
environments.
Anemometer
There must be accurate measurement of wind parameter for the pitch and yaw control
systems to maintain dynamic stability operate reliably under all sorts of wind environments.
Gathering accurate data of wind speed can be a problematic but important because it is used in
conducting performance of turbines.

Types of Anemometer
 Cup Anemometer
 Ultrasound Anemometer
Gear Box
The gearbox is another heavy element of the system. It is typically used in a wind turbine to
increase rotational speed from a low-speed rotor to a higher speed electrical generator. The
generator receives the power collected from the wind by the rotor through the gearbox. The
ww
power is concentrated on each tooth of the gear, where the gear is used as transportation. This is
the reason why there are so many loads on each of the teeth
w.E
Nacelle
asy
The nacelle is housing or a box located at the top of the tower and serves as a protection
from the environment for some major components like the generator and the gearbox. Thenacelle
En
consists of a floor called bedplate, where the equipment is placed, and the roof, or main enclosure,
to frame the components.
Heat Exchanger gin

ee
The components and systems inside the nacelle are necessary to convert mechanical energy
rin
into electricity. These systems and components generate a lot of heat inside the nacelle and need
g.n
cooling. Excessive heat causes lubrication to break down and materials to expand, which in turn
causes more friction and heat, leading to frequent lubricant replacement and gearbox repair.
Brake Mechanism
et
Wind turbines have to be able to stop in case of failure of critical components or if windspeed
goes over a critical limit. If the wind turbine does not brake, the rotation of the windturbine may
lead to loss in the whole structure. There are two types of braking systems; aerodynamic and
mechanical. Breaking systems are used for smaller and larger turbines.
Generator
Electrical generators convert mechanical power into electrical power. The generators that
are used in HAWT are synchronous or induction generators, but induction generators are usually
chosen because of torsional compliance and extraction of damping energy in the drive train. The
reason why is the cyclic variations in the torque developed in the aerodynamic rotor.

Wind Energy 5.29
Induction Generators
The induction generator has a non-rotating component called stator which is connected to
the network or load. In order to reduce noise and electrical losses, the stator has a three phase
winding on a laminated iron core. Their function is to produce a magnetic field that rotates at a
constant speed. Though the induction generator and the synchronous generator have similar
stators, their rotor configurations are very different Induction generators are more reliable and
are not expensive. They also have some mechanical properties that suit wind turbines.
ww
Synchronous Generators
The synchronous generator also has a stator with the same function as the induction generator.
w.E
The rotor for this type of generator has field winding to carry a direct current, which creates a
magnetic field. The rotating field, which is created by the stator winding, interfaces into the magnetic
asy
field. This leads to the rotor rotating at a constant speed with the stator field and the frequency of
the network.
Yaw Drive
En
gin
The yaw drive rotates the nacelle with respect to the tower on its rotating bearing. The yaw
drive does this to let the turbine face the wind and to unwind the power and other cables when
ee
they become twisted. There are usually one or more motors, either hydraulic or electric, which
rin
are put on the nacelle. Each motor drives a pinion that is connected to a vertical shaft through the
gearbox.
Advantages and Disadvantages g.n

The advantages of the HAWT over the VAWT

et
blades are to the side of the turbine’s center of gravity, helping stability.
 the turbine collects the maximum amount of wind energy by allowing the angle of
attack to be remotely adjusted the ability to pitch the rotor blades in a storm so that
damage is minimized.
 the tall tower allows the access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear and placement
on uneven land or in offshore locations.
 most HAWTs are self-starting.
 can be cheaper because of higher production in volume.

Disadvantages of the HAWT compared to the VAWT is that:
 it has difficulties operating near the ground.

 the tall towers and long blades are hard to transport from one place to another and
they need a special installation procedure.
 they can cause a navigation problem when placed offshore.
5.12 VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINES
ww HAWT and VAWT have some common components but their configurations are not the
same. One of the major advantages of the VAWT include the fact that they are cross-flow
w.E
devices and therefore accept wind from any direction, so there is no need of yaw drive mechanism
which is an expensive component used in HAWT. Also, the drivetrain, which includes the generator,
asy
the gearbox and the brake, is located at the ground of the base of the tower, making maintenance
easier. When it comes to blade design, the blades can have a constant chord and no twist,
En
making the blades simple and cheap to produce.
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Fig. 5.16 : The Savonius Rotor The Darrieus Rotor The H-Darrieus Rotor
They can be built lower, making them less visual and they can withstand harsher environments
and do not need to be shut down in high wind speeds. But there are also disadvantages including
the tendency to stall under gusty wind conditions. The blades are sensitive to fatigue due to the
wide variation in applied forces during each rotation. Also, they have a low starting torque,
dynamic stability problems and low installation height limiting operation to lower wind speed
environments.

Wind Energy 5.31
The VAWT has not yet gained the same popularity for large scale power production as the
HAWT. In order to spread the use of VAWT some problems need to be overcome, including
poor self-starting and low initial torque, low power coefficient, and poor building integration.
Currently, large scale VAWTs are not considered economically attractive, butt hey offer energy
solutions for remote areas away from grid systems, and areas where large wind farms cannot be
placed because of environmental concerns and scattered units are preferred. This is the reason
why a mass production of VAWTs been started as a small-scale generating units.
ww
Conclusions that can be made about HAWT
 There is enough wind energy available on Earth, and to utilize it as possible, wind turbine
w.E designs need to be developed.
 asy
Various types of VAWT can solve the energy requirements from 2 kW to 4 MW.
The power coefficient can be maximized by selecting the best TSR for each design.
 En
The VAWTs can be stationed on high buildings in cities where the wind velocity is greater
than 14 m/s.
gin

ee
Calculation of energy efficiency can help designers to better understand losses in the
VAWTs where targeted efforts can be made to overcome them.
rin
The VAWTs are classified into three main categories according to their aerodynamic and
mechanical characteristics :
g.n
(a) The Savonius Rotor
(b) The Darrieus Rotor
(c) The H-Darrieus Rotor
et
5.13 THE SAVONIUS ROTOR
The Savonius Turbine consists of an S-shaped vertical surface that rotates around a central
axis. It operates as a cup anemometer and wind is allowed to pass between the bent sheets. The
Savonius is a drag type VAWT, which means that it cannot rotate faster than the windspeed.
Drag turbines operate purely by the force of the wind pushing the blade. The apparent wind
creates lift form a pressure differential between the upper lower air surfaces.


Drehrichtung
C
D
ww
w.E Wind
Fig. 5.17 : The Savonius Rotor
asy
The TSR is equal to 1 or even smaller, therefore the turbine is not suitable for generating
En
electricity. The efficiency of a Savonius turbine is poor and has very limited power outputs but its
advantage is that is reliable and can be maintained rather easily. Large Savonius turbines that
gin
have high efficiency need a lot of material, making them unfeasible when it comes to being cost-
ee
effective over the long run. In Table 1 are listed various power coefficients for different turbine
rotors. From that table can be seen that the Savonius has the lowest power coefficient of 0.3 and
rin
it operates only over a specified blade tip-speed-to wind speed ratio of 0.8 to 0.85. For this
g.n
reason, the Savonius rotor is only cost-effective where not much power is needed, for example
for water pumping or driving a small generator.
et
This design and the technology to produce it is simple. A simple Savonius rotor can be
made of a barrel cut in half. This design is recommended in developing countries or in isolated
areas without electrical power. The Savonius is widely used as a started motor for the Darrieus
turbine because of its lack of self-starting capability under certain wind speed conditions .Another
advantage of the Savonious rotor is that it is self-starting were other lift drag VAWTs are not.
This configuration can be used commercially if efficient turbine designs are developed.
5.14 THE DARRIEUS VERTICAL WIND TURBINE
The main principle of the Darrieus rotor is that its blade speed is multiplied by the wind
speed, which leads to apparent wind through the whole revolution coming in as a head wind with

Wind Energy 5.33
limited angle variations. When it comes to the blade, the rotational movement of the blade produces
a head wind that combines with the actual wind. Those two wind types form the apparent wind.
The turbine is propelled by the lift force. Lift turbines are those that have the blades designed as
airfoils similar to aircraft wings. The apparent wind creates lift from a pressure differential between
the upper and lower air surfaces. They are also more efficient than drag turbines.
Upper Bearing
Upper Hub
ww Central Column
Cables
w.E Rotor
Height
asy
En
Rotor
Diameter
Lower Hub
gin Lower Hearing
Tensioner
ee Support Stand
rin
Power Train
Clearance
Equipment Station
g.n
Ground
Level
Cable
Foundation
Rotor Foundation
Fig. 5.18 : Darrieus Vertical Wind Turbine

et
When the wind flows over the high lift and low drag, it gives the turbine the initial power that
is needed to overcome the inertia. The forward movement of the blade through the air creates its
own wind flow, which creates numbers of lift throughout the whole circle of its rotation. In downwind
stroke, the underside of the blade creates a torque when the blade is rotating. The stalling of the
blades at the top and the bottom controls the speed of the rotating blades, which says that the
blades accelerate up to a point of equilibrium where they will not increase their speed despite of
the wind speed.


5.15 THE H-DARRIEUS ROTOR
The H-Darrieus rotor, sometimes called Giromill rotor, is an improved design of the Darrieus
rotor with higher efficiency. This type lift based design is considered one of the most attractive
solutions because it is simple and easy to manufacture. The Giromill can be controlled by stall or
pitch control. The drag/stall effect caused by the traditional Darrieus rotor blades limits the speed
of the wind flow of the opposing blade.
ww
Lift Force
w.E
asy How the Darrieus
En Wind Turbine Works
gin Lift Force
Wind
ee rin
Re s ul ta nt Ai r fl o w (re d a rro w)
g.n
fo rm s p os i ti v e a n g l e o f
atta c k to wi n g
Air speed due to rotation
Fig. 5.19 : The H-Darrieus Rotor

et
The Giromill was then designed to be self-controlling in all wind speeds where it would
reach its optimal rotational speed, shortly after the cut-in-wind speed. The Giromill is ideal in
large-scale electricity production because it has lower and more predictable stress loading on the
blades than other VAWTs. But this large-scale production of electricity of the Giromill has not
been fully researched because of earlier design failures and partly because they have slightly
lower blade efficiency. There are some parameters that affect the performance of those types of
turbines.

Wind Energy 5.35

5.16 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES VAWT
Advantages over the HAWT, namely:
 since VAWT components are placed nearer to the ground, it has an easier access to
maintenance
 smaller cost of production, installation, and transport
 turbine does not need to be pointed towards the wind in order to be effective
ww
 VAWTs are suitable in places like hilltops, ridge lines and passes
 blades spin at a lower velocity, thus, lessening the chances of bird injury
w.E
 suitable for areas with extreme weather conditions like mountains
asy
The disadvantages of the VAWT, on the other hand are:
 most of them are only half as efficient as HAWTs due to the dragging force
En
 air flow near the ground and other objects can create a turbulent flow, introducing issues of
vibration
gin
ee
 VAWTs may need guy wires to hold it up (guy wires are impractical and heavy in farm areas)
5.17 ANALYSIS OF AERODYNAMIC FORCES ACTING ON THE BLADE

rin
FS
g.n
R
et
L


FT D
 Rotor plane Wind speed
r. Vrel
Vrel
Pitch Angle
Angle of attack
Fig. 5.20 : Vector diagram of forces on a elemental blade section of an wind turbine.
(The blade is rotating to the left).

There are several basic types of blades an wind turbine may have, (e.g.) sails, planes and
aerodynamic surfaces based on the air craft wing cross-section for which there are many kinds.
The early history of windmills is based on the first two; modern higher efficiency wind-electric
generators are based on use of blades with aerodynamic surfaces. Consider the aerodynamic
blade shown in Fig. The blade can be thought of as a typical cross-sectional element of a two-
bladed wind turbine. The element shown is at some radius r from the axis of rotation. It is moving
to the left. Because the blade is moving in the plane of rotation it sees a tangential wind velocity,
V7" in the plane of rotation: This velocity component added vector ally to the impinging wind
ww
velocity gives the resulting wind velocity, VR, seen by the rotating blade element. At right angles
to VR,is the lift force FL caused by the aerodynamic shape of the blade. The drag force, FD is
w.E
parallel to VR.
V = Impinging wind velocity.
asy
VT = Wind velocity in plane of rotation due to blade turning.
En
VR = Resultant wind velocity seen by Wind turbine blade.
gin
FL = Lift force (Normal to VR).
FD = Drag force (Parallel to VR).
FR = Resultant force on blade.
ee
FT = Torque producing component of FR making wind turbine rotate.
rin
Fth = Thrust force component of FR
g.n
et
α = Angle of attack of blade.
β = Blade pitch angle.
The vector sum of FL and FD is FR which has a torque producing component, FT and a
thrust producing component. The former is what drives the wind-turbine rotationally and the
latter tends to flex the blade and also overturn the wind generator. The vector diagram is centred
on the centre of lift of the aerodynamic blade. As is well-known from aircraft wing theory, one of
the critical parameters is , the angle of attack of the aerodynamic element. It determines lift and
drag forces and hence speed and torque output of the wind turbine. These quantities can be
varied by changing the blade pitch angle , and this is the basic torque control method used on
large variable pitch wind-electric generators. The torque would determine the AC output power
if asynchronous generator was used.

Wind Energy 5.37
Since VT increases linearly as we go out radically, r, on an inclined wind turbine blade, it is

necessary to adjust  with r so as to always have a positive angle of attack and to maintain
reasonable stress levels within the blade. This mean that at large r,  is made small while at small
r,  is large. Thus the blade ‘bites’ the air more in close than near the tips. These considerations
result in an wind turbine blade with an apparent twist in it. The need for twisting windmills sails
was recognised hundreds of years ago and widely used on Dutch windmills.
Having now achieved an elementary understanding of the basics of what turns the wind
ww
turbine, we see that the airfoil orientation for an wind turbine driven by the wind is exactly opposite
to the orientation of a classical airplane propeller which is mechanically driven and whose function
w.E
is to give a lift force in the axial direction. Thus, though aircraft wing theory is applicable to the
operation of an wind turbine, direct use of a classical aircraft propeller on an wind turbine would
Dot produce the most efficient wind turbine because the aerodynamic surface is oriented
asy
backwards to what it should be.
En
5.18 PERFORMANCE OF WIND-MACHINES
gin
WECS efficiency is of interest to both wind generator designers and system engineers. As
WECS is a capital intensive technology, it is desirable for the overall wind electric plant to have
electric energy cost.

ee
the highest efficiency possible, thus optimally utilizing capital resources and minimising’ the busbar
rin
g.n
The overall conversion efficiency, ’10 of an aerogenerator of the general type is:
0 
usefuloutput power
wind power input
= ηA * ηG * ηC * ηGm
et
ηA = Efficiency of the wind turbine
ηG = Efficiency of the gear iDg
ηC = Efficiency of the mechanics I coupling
ηGm = Efficiency of the generator
We immediately recognise equation (3) as an application of cascaded energy conversion,
from which overall efficiency will be strongly determined by the lowest efficiency converter in the

cascade. For the wind generator this is the wind turbine; the efficiency of the remaining three
elements can be made quite high but less than 100 percent. It is now evident why so much
emphasis is placed on the efficiency of the wind turbine in wind literature.
Consider an arbitrary wind turbine (Note that wind turbine  wind generator) of cross-
sectional area Adriven by the wind. Its efficiency would be:
usefulshaft power output

0 
wind power input
ww = Cp
w.E = coefficient of performance.
asy
Thus the coefficient of performance of an wind turbine is the fraction of power in the wind
through the swept area which is converted into useful mechanical shaft power: The coefficient of
En
performance is widely utilised throughout the recent wind literature. We have seen that Cp for
horizontal axis wind machine has theoretical maximum value = 0.593.
gin
This theoretical efficiency limitation on a wind energy conversion system is loosely analogical
ee
similar to the thermodynamic Carnot efficiency limitation on a conventional thermal power plant.
rin
We have also seen that the ‘convertible power of energy is proportional to the cube of the
wind speed. Thus if the wind speed decreases by 20%, the power output is reduced by almost
g.n
50%. The windspeed may very considerable from day to day and from season to season. The
et
efficiency of a wind generator depends first and foremost on the design of an wind rotor and
rotation speed, expressed as the ratio of blade tip speed to wind speed VT/V if n is the rotation
frequency, i,e. rotations per second, if a rotor of diameter D meters, the tip speed is nD m/sec.
The dependence of the power coefficient on the tip speed ‘ratio. For some common rotor
types is indicated in Fig. 5.20. It is seen that the two-bladed propeller type of rotor can attain a
much higher power. Coefficient (i.e. it is more efficient) than the American multi-blade windmill
and the classical Dutch four-bladed windmill. In practice two-bladed propeller (horizontal axis)
rotors are found to attain a maximum power coefficient of 0.40 to 0.45 at a tip speed ratio In the
range a roughly 6 to 10.

Wind Energy 5.39
0.6
0.5 Ideal Betz limit for

multiblade turbines
0.4
Power Coefficient Cp
Savonius High speed

Rotor two blade turbine
0.3
ww American
Multiblade
Darrius Rotor
w.E 0.2
Dutch four arms windmill
asy
0.1
0
1
En 2 3 4 5 6 7
gin
Ratio of Blade Tip Speed to Wind Tip Speed
Fig. 5.21 : Characteristic performances of wind machines
A 
VT
V C
1 k
ee rin
g.n
V p
1 k
VT
where k 
FD drag
FL lift
ratio et
VT = wind velocity of blade element in plane of rotation due to blade turning
V = impinging wind velocity.
Clearly if there were no drag, i.e. k = 0, then the efficiency would be unity. In actuality k can
be made very small, depending on the airfoil chosen and the angle of attack. Also above equation
derives efficiency would be low if were large or again if it were small.
VT
FOne suspicions that there exists an optimum ratio of (tip speed ratio).
V

ww
w.E Fig. 5.22 : Performance of Wind Turbine
asy
If one assembles models of various types of wind turbine blades and puts them in a wind
En
tunnel and runs carefully controlled experiments of their efficiencies as function of their tip speed
ratio, then one obtains a family of curves similar to that shown in Fig. 5.21. We first note that
gin
there are rather large differences between the various kinds of wind turbine blades. The Savonious
ee
rotor and the .American multi-blade (farm windmill) are obviously intended for low speed operation
whereas the modern two blade type and Darrieus rotor type are intended for high speed operation
rin
more compatible with generating electric energy. The classical Dutch blade is intermediate. We
g.n
also observe that all the blade performances fall below the ideal efficiency curve which has a
maximum of 59.3 per cent. It is interesting to observe that the modern two blade wind turbine
et
has a peak power coefficient which is a large fraction of the theoretical maximum, i.e. they are
well designed.
The power delivered and speed at which it is delivered has a bearing on the windmill a
application. When these two are matched at the delivery end, the windmill as an energy conversion
system can have the maximum utility. Therefore these two performance variables have come into
picture, i.e. one is Cp vs Vtip / V characteristics and other is Torque vs Vtip/V characteristics.
Figs. 5.21 and 5.22 shows trends in the variation of performance for some of the windmills as
discussed above.
It may be concluded that a two blade propeller has potentially the best performance of the
system considered. This explains why virtually all large-scale systems built in the past employed
two or three bladed machines. As the number of blades (and consequently the blade surface)

Wind Energy 5.41
increases, the Cp max decreases and occurs at lower v,ip IV ratio. This implies that for high
performance, the blades rotate at. High r.p.m. (and generally have air-foils for the surface).
Consequently the torque is low. These types are preferred for electric power generation. The
multi blade types with high starting torque on the other hand are more suitable for pumping water.
In practice, it is impossible to build.
Wind driven generators capable of operating at the same efficiency at all wind speeds. First
there is a minimum wind speed below which no power can be generated because of friction
losses. Also, above a selected maximum speed, i.e. the rated wind speed, the extracted power is
ww
held constant by stabilizing the rotor speed, for instance when the wind speed exceeds the maximum
selected by the designer, the rotor blades are progressively turned on their axes to reduce the
w.E
effective area facing the wind. As a result, the fraction of power extracted decreases as the wind
speed increases, beyond the rated speed (refer Fig.). Finally at about 30 m/sec, the rotor is
furled (stopped) to avoid damage.
asy
Only at intermediate wind speeds does the system efficiency reach its optimum and the
power extracted then follows a V3 law. The range of optimum operation depends on the engine
En
which was selected so as to give optimum output over the year. In our example, this could be in
gin
the range of 10-14 m/sec, 14 m/s being the rated velocity maintained also at higher wind speeds;
only there depending on the degree of sophistication, could between 70 and 85% of the convertible
ee
wind energy by transforming into kinetic energy by the rotor. Up to 20% of this energy would be
rin
lost in the gear type transmission, which connects the rotor shaft to the electric generator. The
energy which is available for conversion over all wind speed is a function of the wind speed
g.n
duration spectrum. There is a similarity with solar cells, the efficiency of which is strongly affected
by the wavelength spectrum of the sun’s radiation. For exploitable spectra, this spectral efficiency
generator amount to 37%. et

is comprised between 8% and 20%. Hence altogether, the total system efficiency of a wind
As a general, rule, the conversion efficiency at a given location depends on what might be
termed as wind quality; a steady wind is the Ideal case, never encountered in practice, whereas
a wind that. Varies greatly in speed is difficult to convert.

TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Define wind energy.
Wind energy is a converted form of solar energy. The sun’s radiation heats different parts
of the earth at different rates-most notably during the day and night, but also when different
surfaces (for example, water and land) absorb or reflect at different rates. This in turn causes
portions of the atmosphere to warm differently. Hot air rises, reducing the atmospheric pressure
at the earth’s surface, and cooler air is drawn in to replace it. The result is wind. Air has mass, and
ww
when it is in motion, it contains the energy of that motion (“kinetic energy”). Some portion of that
energy can converted into other forms mechanical force or electricity that we can use to perform
w.E
work
2. Define Cut-in Speed.
asy
Cut-in speed is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine will generate usable
power. This wind speed is typically between 7 and 15 mph.
En
Cut out speed: At very high wind speeds, typically between 45 and 80 mph, most wind turbines
gin
cease power generation and shut down. The wind speed at which shut down occurs is called the
cut-out speed. Having a cut-out speed is a safety feature which protects the wind turbine from
ee
damage. Shut down may occur in one of several ways. In some machines an automatic brake is
activated by a wind speed sensor. Some machines twist or “pitch”the blades to spill the wind.
rin
Still others use “spoilers,” drag flaps mounted on the blades or the hub which are automatically
g.n
activated by high rotor rpm’s, or mechanically activated by a spring loaded device which turns
the machine sideways to the wind stream. Normal wind turbine operation usually resumes when
the wind drops back to a safe level.
3. Define Rated Speed. et
The rated speed is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine will generate its
designated rated power. For example, a “10 kilowatt” wind turbine may not generate 10 kilowatts
until wind speeds reach 25 mph. Rated speed for most machines is in the range of 25 to 35 mph.
At wind speeds between cut-in and rated, the power output from a wind turbine increases as the
wind increases. The output of most machines levels off above the rated speed. Most manufacturers
provide graphs, called “power curves,” showing how their wind turbine output varies with wind
speed.

Wind Energy 5.43
4. Define Betz Limit.
It is the flow of air over the blades and through the rotor area that makes a wind turbine
function. The wind turbine extracts energy by slowing the wind down. The theoretical maximum
amount of energy in the wind that can be collected by a windturbines rotor is approximately
59.3%. This value is known as the Betz limit. If the blades were 100% efficient, a wind turbine
would not work because the air, having given up all its energy, would entirely stop. In practice,
the collection efficiency of a rotor is not as high as 59%. A more typical efficiency is 35% to 45%.
A complete wind energy system, including rotor, transmission, generator, storage and other devices,
ww
which all have less than perfect efficiencies, will deliver between 10% and 30% of the original
energy available in the wind.
w.E
5. Define Tip Speed Ratio.
The tip-speed ratio is the ratio of the rotational speed of the blade to the wind speed. The
asy
larger this ratio, the faster the rotation of the wind turbine rotor at a given wind speed. Electricity
generation requires high rotational speeds. Lift-type wind turbines have maximum tip-speed ratios
En
of around 10, while drag-type ratios are approximately 1. Given the high rotational speed
gin
requirements of electrical generators, it is clear that the lift-type wind turbine is the most
practical for this application.
 Drag Designs
ee
6. List out the Two Types of Turbine Designs.
rin
– Savonius
g.n
et
 Lift Designs
– VAWT Darrieus
– Most HAWT designs
7. Define Lift Design.
The lift blade design employs the same principle that enables airplanes, kites and birds to
fly. The blade is essentially an airfoil, or wing. When air flows past the blade, a wind speed
and pressure differential is created between the upper and lower blade surfaces. The pressure
at the lower surface is greater and thus acts to “lift” the blade. When blades are attached to a
central axis, like a wind turbine rotor, the lift is translated into rotational motion. Lift-powered
wind turbines have much higher rotational speeds than drag types and therefore are well suited
for electricity generation.

8. List out the types of turbine.

 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine.
9. Define Angle of Attack (Blade Angle).
The angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the flight direction is called the angle of
attack. Angle of attack has a large effect on the lift generated by an airfoil. This is the propeller
ww
efficiency. Typically, numbers here can range from 1.0 to 15.0 degrees.
10. List out the different disadvantages of Wind Power Generators.
w.E One problem that very few people talk about is that wind generators can be noisy and can
influence television reception. Some research has even indicated some kinds of physical effects
asy
from living close to wind generators. Some people who live near wind farms have complained
about sleep disorders, headaches, panic attacks and other illnesses that were caused by vibration
En
and low-frequency noise. The sound frequencies appear to affect the inner ear and over a long
period time.
gin
The appearance “wind turbine syndrome” suggests that wind farms should be located at a
frequency noise and vibration. ee

distance from where people are living so they are not affected by the long term effects of the low
16 MARK QUESTIONS rin

11. Explain briefly about the Applications of Wind Energy
g.n
12. Explain briefly about the horizontal wind mills with neat sketch?
13. Explain briefly about the vertical wind mills with neat sketch?
et
14. With a neat diagram, explain about different principle help to energy taken from the wind.
15. Why a tall tower is essential for mounting a horizontal axis wind turbine?
16. Describe the electrical layout of a typical wind form by means of single line diagram.
State the essential equipment.
17. With a neat diagram, explain how wind energy can be converted into electrical energy.
18. Explain with a neat diagram the working of various types of wind generators.


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Wind Energy 5.1

Fig. 5.1 : Installed wind power capacity growth in India

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5.2 Electrical Energy Utilization and Conservation

Fig. 5.2 : Development of wind turbines

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Wind Energy 5.3

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5.4 Electrical Energy Utilization and Conservation

5.3 THE NATURE OF THE WIND asy

 It is perennially available. rin

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Wind Energy 5.5

No. of Axis of Rotor position Starting Rotor

ww Darrius machine 2 or 3 Vertical - Very low Fast Electrical

5.4 THE POWER IN THE WIND

 The wind speed

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5.6 Electrical Energy Utilization and Conservation

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Wind Energy 5.7

w.EAccording to Newton’s Law, we have:

As mass flow rate is given by:

and the rate of change of distance is given by:

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5.8 Electrical Energy Utilization and Conservation

Hence, from equation (5.2.3), the power can be defined as:

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Wind Energy 5.9

The Nature of the Wind

w.E Free Wind

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5.10 Electrical Energy Utilization and Conservation

5.5 BETZ LIMIT OR BETZ’LAW

5.6 SITE SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

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Wind Energy 5.11

Fig. 5.8 : Wind Speed and Tower Height Ratio

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5.12 Electrical Energy Utilization and Conservation

Anemometer data is normally based on wind speed measurements from a height of 10 m.

Strategy for siting is generally recognized to consist of:

w.E  Survey of historical wind data,

 Potential sites are visited.

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Wind Energy 5.13

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5.14 Electrical Energy Utilization and Conservation

Not to scale asy 20H

9. Nearness of site to local centre/users. This obvious criterion minimizes transmission

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Wind Energy 5.15

3. An open plain or an open shore line may be a good location.

Fig. 5.11 : Basic component in WECS

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5.16 Electrical Energy Utilization and Conservation

Blades Power Charge

Mast (Output cable

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Wind Energy 5.17