MAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

ESE160-C1
SAMARTINO, JOHN MEGRYAN B. 2013106636

CESE-3

GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS
Natural hazard is unexpected or uncontrollable natural event of unusual magnitude that
threatens the activities of people or people themselves (Orense, 2003). Natural hazard may
lead to natural disaster if it resulted to a widespread destruction of property and caused injury
and/or death. Those natural events that directly affect the ground or cause ground movements
are called geotechnical hazards. Some geotechnical hazards are: earthquakes and earthquake
related hazards like soil liquefaction, lateral spreading and tsunami; and landslides or sloping
failures. Human activities can increase the occurrence and severity of a geotechnical hazard like
building on top of unstable slope will increase the possibility of slope collapsing, steepened
slope due to cutting into a hillside or embankment and too much logging operations may
initiate landslides. Although natural geotechnical hazards cannot be prevented, there is greater
possibility that we can control human activities that can cause disasters. By effective mitigation
techniques, we can reduce the damage, reduce the severity of its effects and reduce human
sufferings that result from disasters.

EXAMPLE OF GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS.

Earthquakes and Earthquake Related Hazards. An earthquake is the result of a sudden release
of energy in the earth’s crust that creates seismic waves. At the earth’s surface, earthquakes
manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground. Earthquake
shaking or other rapid loading can reduce shear resistance of soil and cause the soil to behave
like liquid, the event called soil liquefaction. When a large earthquake epicenter is located
offshore, the seabed sometimes suffers sufficient displacement to cause a tsunami. The shaking
in earthquake can also trigger landslides and occasionally volcanic activity.
Landslide is a general term used to describe the down-slope movement of the soil, rock and
organic materials under the influence of gravity. It is a normal landscape process in
mountainous areas, but becomes a problem when it results in serious damage that oftentimes
approach disaster proportions. As cities and towns grow, roads and highways and other
amenities progressively encroach onto steeper slopes and mountainsides. Subsequently, these
infrastructures attract further built-up environments. Landslide hazards become an increasingly
serious threat to life and property. Catastrophic landslides have recently been increasing in the
Philippines even surpassing the combined effects of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. The
triggers usually take the form of an earthquake, heavy rainfall and human activities like
quarrying and logging.
A tsunami is a series of ocean waves that sends surges of water, sometimes reaching heights of
over 100 feet (30.5 meters), onto land. These walls of water can cause widespread destruction
when they crash ashore. These awe-inspiring waves are typically caused by large, undersea
earthquakes at tectonic plate boundaries. When the ocean floor at a plate boundary rises or
falls suddenly it displaces the water above it and launches the rolling waves that will become a
tsunami. Tsunamis may also be caused by underwater landslides or volcanic eruptions. They
may even be launched, as they frequently were in Earth’s ancient past, by the impact of a large
meteorite plunging into an ocean.
ERUPTION. On locations where tectonic plates diverge or converge, volcanoes can be found. A
volcano consists of a deep magma chamber where magma accumulates, pipes that lead to
surface vents, and the vents through which lava is emitted during a volcanic eruption.
Volcanoes are often known to have a mountain-like shape. Volcanic eruptions can be extremely
damaging to the environment, particularly because of a number of toxic gases possibly present
in pyroclastic material. It typically consists mainly of water vapour, but it also contains carbon
dioxide and sulphur dioxide gas. Other gases typically found in volcanic ashes are hydrogen
sulphide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, carbon monoxide, and volatile metal chlorides.

MITIGATION TECHNIQUES.
It is not possible to predict the exact time and location of the next big natural hazard like
earthquake and landslide but by understanding when, where, why and how it occur, we may be
able to intervene on time and avoid high risk situations thereby lessens its impacts to our lives.
Mitigation is the process of lessening the impact of natural hazards before, during and after
their occurrence. Engineering solutions can be used to temporarily reduce the impact of natural
hazard but each hazard requires specific type of mitigation. General awareness and having an
effective preparedness plan of the impending disaster are mitigation forms that work to all
kinds of natural hazards. Information is the key in a crisis. Information is power when it is
credible, timely, locally, relevant and widely accessible to the population. This section briefly
describes some mitigation measures that can be adopted to reduce risk from various
geotechnical hazards: 3.1 Zoning, Mapping and Monitoring Observations from previous
earthquakes provide a great deal of information about a particular area susceptible to
geotechnical hazards. It is important to identify and map 8 areas prone to earthquake hazards
of liquefaction, earthquake-induced landslides and amplified ground shaking. The outcome of
this observation and assessment is best presented in a zoning map where locations or zones of
different levels of hazard potentials are identified. Cities and municipalities especially those
highly populated areas are advise to come up with zoning maps. If you are building a structure
and want to find out if the site is susceptible to liquefaction or landslide, the zoning map will be
very useful for this purpose. Engineering geology and geotechnical hazard assessment should
be required prior to any development projects especially in landslide-prone areas. With a
deeper understanding and monitoring of the movements of unstable slopes, one can timely
intervene and apply the necessary mitigation measures. 3.2 Strengthening of Structures It is
always advisable to avoid areas susceptible to earthquake hazards like soil liquefaction;
however, for certain reasons like space restrictions and favorable locations, construction on
these areas can not be avoided. It is therefore a must to design the structure earthquake
resistant and its foundation elements resistant to the effects of liquefaction and ground
settlement. Emphasis of design should always be on safety over aesthetics and functionality.
Odd shaped structures, if possible, should be avoided. Soft story building failures can be
prevented by proper planning of architectural form of the building and by emphasizing ductility
design of the columns, walls and beams. To decrease the amount of damage a structure may
suffer in case of an earthquake, a structure must possess ductility in order to accommodate
large deformations, adjustable supports for corrections to differential settlements and having
foundation design that can span soft soils. 3.3 Soil improvement technology Another way of
mitigating earthquake related hazards like liquefaction are by improving the strength, density
and/or drainage characteristics of soil. This can be done through various ground improvement
techniques. Table 1 summarizes the liquefaction hazard mitigation techniques. Table 1
Examples of liquefaction hazard mitigation techniques 3.4 Slope Protection and Stabilization
Engineering countermeasures for reducing landslides generally involve the use of slope
stabilization methods such as benching, improvement of subsurface drainage, construction of
retaining structures, and reinforcement of slopes. Benching is the practice of Type of technique
Liquefaction hazard mitigation techniques Densification Sand compaction pile, Vibroflotation,
Dynamic compaction, Compaction grouting Soil improvement Grouting, Replacement Lowering
degree of saturation Well point Rapid dissipation of pore water pressure Gravel drain
Deformation control Sheet pile wall, Soil cement column wall 9 transforming one high slope
into a series of lower slopes with horizontal surfaces in between slopes referred to as benches.
The purpose of benching is to reduce the overall gradient of the slope. Installing proper
drainage minimizes the destabilizing effects of hydrostatic and seepage forces on a slope, as
well as reduces the risk of erosion and piping (Abramson, 1996). In the Philippines, the most
widely used drainage technique is the installation of surface drains to carry away surface runoff
and prevent it from seeping into the slope. Vegetation like Vetiver grass is also widely used for
steep slope stabilization and rehabilitation of degraded and disturbed lands. In the last 50
years, attention has been focused on vetiver’s unique soil conservation properties. It grows
both in highly acidic and alkaline soils and its roots can grow to depths of 3 to 4 meters. When
planted in single lines along the contour, hedges of vetiver grass are found to be very effective
in soil and moisture conservation. Table 2 summarizes some engineering practices for
stabilizing and/or protecting precarious slopes. Fig. 14 shows some slope protection and
stabilization techniques. Table 2 Examples of slope hazard mitigation techniques Type of
technique Slope protection and stabilization techniques Control works Soil removal
(Unloading), Counterweight fill, Benching, Drainage, Slope protection (e.g. grating crib,