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দাথবফজ্ঞান প্রশ্ন ৃজনীর ফা তত্ত্বীয় যমভনই যাক না যকন, দাথবফজ্ঞাননয যভৌবরক বফলয়ভূ ফভয় একই থানক । এই
যভৌবরক বফলয়ভূ ম্পনক আনায বযস্কায ধাযণা থাকনর ,আবন অফযই যম যকান উদ্দীনকয জ্ঞান, অনু ধাফন, প্রনয়াগ উচ্চতয দক্ষতায
প্রশ্নভূ নয উত্তয খুফ ু ন্দয কনয াবজনয় বরনখ আনত াযনফন।এই ই-ফু নক দাথবফজ্ঞাননয যভৌবরক বফলয়ভূ ম্পনক খুফ নজ ধাযনা
ফু ঝায জনয দাথবফজ্ঞাননয গুযত্বূ ন বফলয়ভূ নয প্রনয়াজনীয় উদাযণ বিত্র ফযাখযাভূ রক ভাধান কনয যদয়া নয়নে ।
ন োটঃ ‚ভূ র ফই তথা াঠ্য ফইনয়য বফকল্প বকেু নাই ।‛ দাথবফজ্ঞান বানরা বানফ ফু ঝায জনয আনানক অফযই বফববন্ন যরখনকয ফই ড়নত নফ
অথাৎ একই টবক্স বফববন্ন ফইনত ড়নত নফ। যম টাকা বদনয় যকাবিিং কযনফন যই টাকা বদনয় বফববন্ন যরখনকয ফই বকনু ন এফিং তা একফায কনয
নর ড়ুন , আা কবয যকাবিিং এ ড়ায যিনয় বানরা পরাপর ানফন ।
বক্ষাথী কানে একান্ত অনু নযাধ , দাথবফজ্ঞান না ফু নঝ ভুখস্ত কযায বফার বুরবট বুনর কযনফন না।নটা বননজয ানয় বননজই কুড়ার ভাযায
ভাথক।কাযন এনত ভয় যভধা দু নটাই অিয় য় , এফিং এনত বফলয়টায উয একটা অভূ রক অস্ববস্ত বীবত িনর আন।
অনটানভবটক স্ক্রনরয ভাধযনভ ই-ফুক ড়া / বযনড়য জনযঃ
আনায ই−ফুক ফা pdf বযডানযয Menu Bar এয View অনবট যত বিক কনয Auto /Automatically Scroll অনবট
বনরক্ট করুন (অথফা যাবয যমনত Ctrl + Shift + H )। এবার ↑ up Arrow ফা ↓ down Arrow যত বিক কনয
আনায ড়ায ু বফধা অনু ানয স্ক্রর স্পীড বঠ্ক কনয বনন।
যাবয যমনত অধযানয়য নানভয উয বিক করুনঃ
1. যবক্টয (Vector)
2. রযবখক গবত (Linear-Motion)
3. বিভাবত্রক গবত(Motion-In-Two-Dimensions)
4. গবতূ ত্র (Laws-Of-Motion)
5. যকৌবণক গবতূ ত্র (Laws-Of-Angular-Motion)
6. কাজ, বি ক্ষভতা (Work-Energy-And-Power)
7. ভাকল (Gravitation)
8. যর েবন্দত স্পন্দন (Simple-Harmonic-Oscillation)
9. বিবতিাকতা (Elasticity)
10. প্রফাী দাথ (Fluid)
11. তা গযা (Heat-And-Gas)
12. তাভাত্রা (Temperature)
13. তা গবতবফদযায প্রথভ ূ ত্র (First Law Of Thermodynamics)
14. তা বফবকযণ (Heat Radiation)
15. অফিায বযফতন (Change Of State)
16. তাগবতবফদযায বিতীয় ূ ত্র (Second Law Of Thermodynamics)
17. তযঙ্গ ব্দ (Waves & Sound)
18. ব্দ (Sound)
19. নব্দয গবতনফগ (Speed Of Sound)
বদক/নবক্টয যাবঃ ভান বদক উবয়ই আনে এফিং যম যকান একবট ফা উবয়বটয বযফতননয পনর যবক্টয যাব বযফবতত
নত ানয। উদাযণঃ যণ, যফগ, ত্বযণ, ভন্দন, ফর, বযনফগ, অববকলজ ত্বযণ, যিৌম্বক প্রাফরয, রফদু যবতক প্রাফরয, বূ -
িুম্বনকয অনু বূবভক প্রাফরয, জন, ৃষ্ঠাটান, াদ্রতাতা গুণািংক, ফনরয রামাভক, যিৌম্বক রামাভক, প্রফাভাত্রা ইতযাবদ।
অবদক/নস্করাযঃ ভান আনে বকন্তু বদক যনই। উদাযণঃ দ্রুবত, কাজ, ক্ষভতা, বি, তা, িা, যিৌম্বক রফদু যবতক বফবফ,
িাজ, বিবতিাক গুণািংক ইতযাবদ।
যবক্টয যাবয যমাজনঃ যনৌকায গবত, িরন্ত গাবড়নত ড়ন্ত ফৃ বি, াবখয উড্ডয়ন।
যবক্টয যাবয বফনয়াজনঃ গুনটানা যনৌকা, রননযারায যঠ্রা, যর যদারনকয গবত।
রবধঃ দু ই ফা তনতাবধক যবক্টয যমাগ কনয একবট নতুন যবক্টয ায়া মায়। এ নতুন যবক্টযনক রবধ যবক্টয ফনর।
অিংকঃ যম যবক্টযভূ যমাগ কনয রবধ ায়া মায়, তানদযনক রবধয অিংক ফা উািং ফনর।
ভনন যাখনত নফঃ
‡¯‹jvi ivwk I ‡f±i ivwki g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ (Distinction between Scalar and Vector Quantities):
µwgK ‡¯‹jvi ivwk ‡f±i ivwk
‡h mKj †fŠZ ivwk‡K ïay gvb Øviv m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c ‡h mKj †fŠZ ivwk‡K m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c cÖKvk Kivi Rb¨
1| cÖKvk Kiv hvq Zv‡`i‡K ‡¯‹jvi ivwk e‡j| gvb I w`K Df‡qi cÖ‡qvRb nq Zv‡`i‡K ‡f±i ivwk
e‡j|
`ªæwZ, fi, KvR, ‰`N©¨ BZ¨vw` †¯‹jvi ivwki miY, IRb, †eM, Z¡iY, ej BZ¨vw` ‡f±i ivwki
2|
D`vniY| D`vniY|
Kgc‡ÿ GKwU ivwki gvb k~b¨ bv n‡j ¸bdj †Kvb ivwki gvb k~b¨ bv n‡jI ¸bdj k~b¨ n‡Z
3|
k~b¨ n‡Z cv‡i bv| cv‡i|
4| gvb Av‡Q wKš‘ w`K bvB| gvb I w`K Av‡Q|
‡hvM, we‡qvM, ¸b, I fvM ¯^vfvweK wbq‡g Kiv ‡hvM, we‡qvM, ¸b, I fvM ¯^vfvweK wbq‡g Kiv hvq
5|
hvq| bv|
`ywU Aw`K ivwki ¸bdj me©`v GKwU Aw`K ivwk `ywU w`K ivwki myweav RbK ¸bdj GKwU w`K ivwk
6|
nq| ev GKwU Aw`K ivwk nq|
e¨vmva© †f±i (Radius Vector): A‡bK mgq †Kvb we›`yi Ae¯’vb‡K †h †f±‡ii mvnv‡h¨ cÖKvk
Kiv nq Zv‡K e¨vmva© †f±i r e‡j| myZivs †Kvb we›`y P-Gi ¯’vbvsK (x,y,z) n‡j, e¨vmva©
†f±i r OP x i y j zk Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Ges Gi gvb nq r r x 2 y 2 z 2
jwäi w`K wbY©q: g‡bKwi jwä R, P Gi mv‡_ †Kvb Drcbœ K‡i| A_©vr AOB OBN mg‡KvYx wÎfy‡R
BN
tan
ON
BN
tan
OA AN
BN
AB
tan AB
AN
OA AB
AB
QSin
tan
P QCos
QSin
tan 1 ... ... ... (2) (1) bs mgxKiY jwäi gvb I (2) bs mgxKiY jwäi w`K wb‡`©k K‡i|
P QCos
GKB mg‡q GKB we›`y‡Z wµqviZ `ywU w`Kivwki jwäi m‡e©v”P I me©wb¤§ gvb ivwk `yÕwUi †hvMdj I we‡qvM d‡ji mgvb t
P I Q, †Kv‡Y wµqv Ki‡j mvgvšÍÍwi‡Ki m~Îvbyhvqx Avgiv cvB,
R P 2 Q 2 2PQCos ... ... ... (1)
R2 = P2 +Q2 +2PQ Cos
R2 P2 Q2 = 2PQ Cos
R 2 P2 Q2
Cos Avevi Avgiv Rvwb, CosGi gvb
2PQ
1 †_‡K +1 Gi g‡a¨ mxgve×| A_©vr, 1 Cos 1
R 2 P 2 Q2
1 1 [CosGi gvb ewm‡q]
2PQ
2PQ R 2 P 2 Q 2 2PQ
P 2 Q 2 2PQ R 2 P 2 Q 2 2PQ [Dfq c‡ÿ P2+Q2 †hvM K‡i]
( P Q) 2 R 2 ( P ~ Q) 2
(P Q) R (P ~ Q) Kv‡RB GKB mg‡q GKB we›`y‡Z wµqviZ `yÕwU w`K ivwki jwäi m‡e©v”P I me©wb¤§ gvb
ivwk `ywUi †hvMdj I we‡qvM d‡ji mgvb| Ab¨ fv‡eI ejv hvq, GKB mg‡q GKB we›`y‡Z wµqviZ `yÕwU w`K ivwki jwäi
m‡e©v”P gvb ivwk `ywUi †hvMdj n‡Z eo n‡Z cv‡i bv I me©wb¤§ gvb ivwk `ywUi we‡qvM dj †_‡K †QvU n‡Z cv‡i bv|
†f±i ¸Yb ev µm ¸Yb t `yÕwU w`K ivwki †f±i (µm) ¸Yb GKwU †f±i ivwk hvi gvb w`Kivwk `ywUi gv‡bi ¸Ydj Ges
G‡`i ga¨eZ©x †Kv‡Yi Sine -Gi ¸Y d‡ji mgvb Ges GB ¸bdj ivwk `yÕwUi Z‡j j¤^fv‡e ¯’vwcZ GKwU Wvb cv‡Ki KK©
¯Œz‡K 1g †f±i ivwk ‡_‡K 2q †f±i ivwki w`‡K ÿz`ªZi †Kv‡Y Nyiv‡j GUv †h w`‡K AMÖmi nq †mB w`‡K wµqv K‡i|
e¨vL¨vt g‡b Kwi, P I Q `yÕwU w`K ivwk ci¯úi †Kv‡Y AvbZ& A_©vr P I Q Gi ga¨eZ©x †KvY | G‡`i µm
¸Yb A_©vr ‡f±i ¸Yb P Q PQSin GLv‡b GKwU GKK w`K ivwk hv ( P Q ) Gi jwäi w`K wb‡`©k K‡i|
hw` P Q R aiv nq Z‡e R Gi AwfgyL P I Q Gi mgZ‡ji mv‡_ Awfj¤^ eivei n‡e|
R P Q PQSin
( P Gi gvb) ( P Gi j¤^ eivei Q Gi gvb )
Avevi, Q P QPSin ()
Q P QPSin
Q P ( Q Gi gvb) ( Q Gi j¤^ eivei P Gi gvb )
P Q Q P A_©vr †f±i ¸Yb wewbgq m~Î †g‡b P‡j bv|
Avgiv Rvwb, Wvb cv‡Ki KK© ¯Œz‡K evgw`‡K Nyiv‡j GwU Dc‡ii w`‡K Ly‡j Av‡m Avi Wvb w`‡K Nyiv‡j wb‡Pi w`‡K AMÖmi
nq, Z`ªæc P I Q Gi †f±i ¸Yb evgveZ©x n‡j G‡`i jwä R Gi AwfgyL DaŸ© w`‡K nq Ges P I Q Gi †f±i ¸Yb
`wÿbveZ©x n‡j G‡`i jwä R Gi AwfgyL wb¤§gyLx n‡e hv c~‡e©i Awfgy‡Li Dëv w`‡K n‡e|
Dc‡iv³ eY©bv Abymv‡i,
1) = 0 n‡j P Q 0 n‡e KviY Sin 0º = 0
2) P|| Q n‡j P Q 0 n‡e KviY Sin 0º = 0
3) P Q n‡j P Q PQ n‡e KviY Sin 90º = 1
4) î, ˆj I k̂ mgKv‡Y wµqv Ki‡j î ˆj k̂, ˆj k̂ î , k̂ î ĵ
I î, ˆj I k̂ mgvšÍiv‡j wµqv Ki‡j î î ĵ ĵ k̂ k̂ 0
‡¯‹jvi ¸Yb wewbgq m~Î †g‡b P‡j wKš‘ †f±i ¸Yb wewbgq m~Î †g‡b P‡j bv:
g‡b Kwi `ywU †f±i P I Q , †Kv‡Y AvbZ& P.Q PQCos ... ... ... (1)
Avevi, Q. P QPCos
Q.P PQCos ... ... ... (2)
(1) I (2) n‡Z cvB, P. Q Q. P A_©vr †¯‹jvi ¸Yb wewbgq m~Î †g‡b P‡j| Acic‡ÿ, (P Q) I (Q P) Gi gvb GKB
n‡jI G‡`i w`K wecixZ A_©vr P Q PQ Sin ... ... ... (3)
Avevi, Q P Q P Sin ( )
Q P PQ Sin ... ... ... (4)
(3) I (4) n‡Z cvB, (P Q) (Q P)
P Q Q P A_©vr †f±i ¸Yb wewbgq m~Î †g‡b P‡j bv|
e›Ub m~Î: A .(B C) A . B A .C Gi cÖgvY:
cÖgvY: g‡b Kwi, A, B I C †f±i wZbwU h_vµ‡g OP,OQI QR Øviv m~wPZ Kiv n‡q‡Q| GLb wPÎ †_‡K Avgiv
cvB, A .(B C) A . (OQ QR )
A .(B C) A . OR
A .(B C) A OP Gi Dci OR Gi j¤ ^ Awf‡ ¶ c
A .(B C) A ON
A .(B C) A (OM MN )
Figure 1
A .(B C) A OM A MN
A .(B C) A OP Gi Dci OQ Gi j¤ ^ Awf‡ ¶ c A OP Gi Dci QR Gi j¤ ^ Awf‡ ¶ c
A .(B C) A . OQ A . QR
A .(B C) A . B A . C (cÖgvwYZ)
1| ‡f±i
(2)(m) (3)(2) (5)(10) 2m 6 50 0
1| hw` A 3î ˆj 2k̂ I B 2î 3 ĵ k̂ nq Z‡e
- 56
|A B| KZ? m m - 28 (Ans.)
2
î ĵ k̂
A B 3 1 2 5| A 2î 2ˆj k̂ I B 6î 3ˆj 2k̂ n‡j A I B
2 3 1 Gi ga¨eZ©x †KvY wbY©q Ki|
A.B AB cos
î ( 1 6 ) ĵ(3 4 ) k̂ (9 2 ) 5 î 7 ĵ 11k̂
1 A . B
| A B | 52 (7) 2 112 25 49 121 13 . 96(Ans.) A I B Gi ga¨eZ©x †KvY, θ Cos
AB
2| hw` A 6î 3 ĵ 2k̂ I B 2î 2 ĵ k̂ nq Z‡e A .B A x B x A y B y A z B z (2)(6) (2)(-3)
A.B KZ? (-1)(2) 12-6-2 4
A.B A x B x A y B y A z B z 2 2 2
A 2 2 (1) 9 3
(6)(2) ( 3)(2) (2)(1) 12 6 2 8 (Ans.)
B 6 2 (3) 2 2 2 36 9 4 49 7
3| A 5î 2 ĵ-3k̂ I B 15î aĵ-9k̂ | a Gi gvb KZ
1 A .B -1 4 4
n‡j A I B ci¯úi mgvšÍivj n‡e? θ Cos Cos Cos 1
AB (3)(7) 21
A I B ci¯úi mgvšÍivj n‡e hw` A B 0 nq|
79 .02 (Ans.)
î ĵ k̂
AB 5 2 3 6. ‡f±i B 6 î 3 ĵ 2 k̂ Gi Dci ‡f±i
15 a -9 A 2î 2ˆj k̂ Gi j¤^ Awf‡ÿc wbY©q Ki|
A.B AB cos
A B î( 18 3a) ĵ(-45 45) k̂(5a-30)
A.B
A B î (3a 18) k̂(5a 30) A Gi j¤^ Awf‡ÿc, A cos
B
A B (3a 18) 2 (5a 30) 2
A .B A x B x A y B y A z B z
cÖkœg‡Z, A I B ci¯úi mgvšÍivj n‡j A B 0 ( 2)(6) ( 2)(-3) (1)(2) 12-6 2 8
B 6 2 ( 3) 2 2 2 36 9 4 49 7
(3a 18) 2 (5a 30) 2 0
(3a 18) 2 (5a 30) 2 0 [Dfq c¶ ‡ K eM K‡ i] A.B 8
A Gi j¤^ Awf‡ÿc =
32 (a 6) 2 5 2 (a 6) 2 0 B 7
(a 6) 2 (32 5 2 ) 0
(a 6) 2 0 Dfq c¶ ‡ K (32 5 2 ) Øviv fvM K‡ i 7| A 3î 2 ĵ k̂ , B î 2 ĵ 3k̂ I C î ĵ 2k̂
a 6 (Ans.) n‡j cÖgvY Ki †h, A.(B C) (A B).C
î ĵ k̂
4| A 2î 3 ĵ-5k̂ I B mî 2ˆj - 10k̂ | m Gi
B C 1 2 3
gvb KZ n‡j A I B ci¯úi j¤^ n‡e|
1 1 2
A I B ci¯úi j¤^ n‡j A . B 0 n‡e|
ev, B C î (4 3) ˆj(2 3) k̂(1-2) 7 î-5ˆj -k̂
A .B Ax Bx Ay By Az Bz 0
`ywU †f±‡ii µm ¸bdj †f±i `ywU Øviv MwVZ mgZ‡ji Dci j¤^ nq| †mB
13| Ae¯’vb †f±i r x î y ˆj z k̂ †K e¨eKjb K‡i j¤^ †f±‡ii mgvšÍivj GKK †f±iB n‡e mgZ‡ji Dj¤^ w`‡K GKK
wKfv‡e †eM I Z¡iY cvIqv hvq?
PQ
Avgiv Rvwb, †f±i| awi, †mB †f±i â , aˆ
PQ
dr
‡eM, v
dt î ˆj k̂
d P Q 2 3 4 î (9 8) ˆj(6 4) k̂ (4 3)
(x î y ĵ z k̂)
dt 1 2 3
dx dy dz
î ĵ k̂ (Ans.) P Q î 10ˆj 7k̂
dt dt dt
P I Q ‡h Z‡j Aew¯’Z Zvi Dj¤^ w`‡K †f±i
dv d dx dy dz
Avevi, Z¡iY a î ĵ k̂
dt dt dt dt dt ( P Q) (î 10ĵ 7k̂)
â
d 2x d2 y d2z PQ (1) 2 (10) 2 (7) 2
2 î 2 ĵ 2 k̂ (Ans.)
dt dt dt (î 10ˆj 7k̂)
â ( Ans.)
150
14| P t 2 î t ˆj ( 2 t 1) k̂ I Q 5tî tĵ t 3 k̂
d d 16| †Kvb GKwU KYvi Ae¯’vb †f±i
(P. Q) ? (P Q) ?
dt dt r [(3.5ms 1 )t 4.2m] î [5.3ms 1 ]ˆj n‡j
P.Q ( t )(5t ) ( t )(t ) (2t 1)( t 3 )
2
†eM V wbY©q Ki|
P.Q 5t 3 t 2 2t 4 t 3 dr
Avgiv Rvwb, V
P.Q 2 t 4 4t 3 t 2 dt
d
d d
(P.Q) (2 t 4 4t 3 t 2 )
V
dt
[(3.5ms 1 )t 4.2m] î [5.3ms 1 t]ĵ
dt dt
d V 3.5 î 5.3ˆj (Ans.)
(P.Q) 8t 3 12t 2 2t
dt
2 2
î ĵ k̂ 17| cÖgvY Ki t A B A.B A 2 B2
PQ t2 t 2t 1 2 2
LHS A B A.B
5t t t3
2 2
ˆAB sin AB cos
P Q î ( t 4 2 t 2 t ) ˆj(10 t 2 5t t 5 )
ˆ 2 A 2 B 2 sin 2 A 2 B 2 cos 2
k̂ ( t 3 5t 2 )
1. A 2 B 2 sin 2 A 2 B 2 cos2
d d î ( t 2t t ) ˆj(10t 5t t )
4 2 2 5
dt
( P Q)
dt
k̂ (t 3 5t 2
A 2 B 2 sin 2 cos 2
d d
A 2 B 2 .1 A2 B 2 L.H .S R.H .S (Proved)
(P Q) ( t 4 2t 2 t )î
dt dt
d 5 d 18| P î 2 ĵ k̂ Ges Q 3î 6 ĵ 3k̂ n‡j †`LvI †h, P I
( t 10 t 2 5t )ˆj ( t 3 5t 2 ) k̂
dt dt Q ci¯úi mgvšÍivj|
d
(P Q) (4 t 3 4 t 1)î (5t 4 20 t 5) ĵ P I Q ci¯úi mgvšÍivj n‡e hw` P Q 0 nq|
dt
(3t 2 10 t )k̂ (Ans.) î ĵ k̂
P Q 1 2 1 î (6 6) ĵ(3 3) k̂ (6 6)
15| P 2î 3ˆj 4k̂, Q î - 2ˆj 3k̂ ‡f±i Øq †h Z‡j 3 6 3
Ae¯’vb K‡i Zvi Dj¤^w`‡K GKwU GKK †f±i wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, P Q î (0) ĵ(0) k̂ (0) 0 0 0 0
13 ˆ 2 ˆ 8
nˆ i j ( Ans.) 22| A 2iˆ 2 ˆj kˆ Ges B 6iˆ 3 ˆj 2kˆ `yÕwU ‡f±i ivwk|
237 237 237 G‡`i j¤^ Awfgy‡L GKwU GKK †f±i wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
20| P 4î 4ˆj k̂ Ges Q 2î 2 ĵ k̂ †f±iØq `ywU †f±‡ii µm ¸bdj †f±i `ywU Øviv MwVZ mgZ‡ji Dci j¤^ nq| †mB
GKwU mgvšÍwi‡Ki `ywU mwbœwnZ evû wb‡`©k Ki‡j Gi †ÿÎdj wbY©q j¤^ †f±‡ii mgvšÍivj GKK †f±iB n‡e mgZ‡ji Dj¤^ w`‡K GKK
Ki| P Q
Avgiv Rvwb, `ywU †f±i GKwU mgvšÍwi‡Ki `ywU mwbœwnZ evû wb‡`©k †f±i| awi, †mB †f±i n̂ , nˆ
Ki‡j H mgvšÍwi‡Ki †ÿÎdj n‡e †f±i `ywUi µm ¸Yd‡ji gv‡bi P Q
mgvb| P Q mgvšÍwi‡Ki †ÿÎdj| iˆ ˆj kˆ
GLb, PQ 2 2 1 iˆ(4 3) ˆj (4 6) kˆ(6 12)
î ĵ k̂ 6 3
2
PQ 4 4 1 î (4 2) ĵ(4 2) k̂ (8 8)
P Q iˆ 10 ˆj 18kˆ
2 2 1
Avevi, P Q 12 (10 2 ) ( 182 ) P Q 425
P Q 6î 6 ĵ
PQ iˆ 10 ˆj 18kˆ
P Q 6 2 6 2 72 8.49 GKK (Ans.) nˆ (Ans.)
PQ 425
‡eM (Velocity):
msÁv: mgq e¨eavb k~‡b¨i KvQvKvwQ n‡j mg‡qi mv‡_ e¯‘i mi‡Yi nvi‡K †eM e‡j|
Δr Δr
e¨L¨v: t mgq e¨eav‡b †Kvb e¯‘i miY r n‡j †eM v lim wKš‘ n‡”Q Mo †eM v | myZivs v lim v
t 0 t t t 0
A_©vr mgq e¨eavb k~‡b¨i KvQvKvwQ n‡j Mo †e‡Mi mxgvwšÍK gvb‡KB †eM e‡j|
Z¡iY (Acceleration) :
v
mg‡qi mv‡_ †eM e„w×i nvi‡K Z¡iY e‡j| t mgq e¨eav‡b e¯‘i †e‡Mi cwieZ©b v n‡j Z¡iY a n‡e| Ab¨fv‡e
t
ejv hvq mgq e¨eavb k~‡b¨i KvQvKvwQ n‡j mg‡qi mv‡_ e¯‘i †eM e„w×i nvi‡K Z¡iY e‡j| t mgq e¨eav‡b e¯‘i †e‡Mi
v
cwieZ©b v n‡j Z¡iY a lim n‡e|
t 0 t
miY ( Displacement ) t wbw`©ó w`‡K e¯‘i Ae¯’v‡bi cwieZ©b‡K miY e‡j| miY‡K s ev d Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Gi
GKK wgUvi| wbw`©ó w`‡K †Kvb e¯‘ t mgq a‡i v †e‡M Pj‡j, miY s = v t n‡e| miY GKwU †f±i ivwk|
Av‡cwÿK †eM: `ywU MwZkxj e¯‘i GKwUi Zzjbvq (mv‡c‡ÿ) AciwUi Ae¯’v‡bi cwieZ©‡bi nvi‡K Av‡cwÿK †eM e‡j|
ga¨ †eM: †Kvb GKwU MwZkxj e¯‘i cÖ_g Ges †kl †eM Gi AwfgyL GKB n‡j Zv‡`i †hvM d‡ji A‡a©K‡K ga¨ †eM
vi v f
e‡j| ‡Kvb wbw`©ó w`‡K †Kvb e¯‘i Avw`‡eM viI †kl †eM vf n‡j ga¨‡eM = n‡e|
2
dv x a x dt ax aª “eK
v xo 0
vx t
v x ax t
v x0 o
v x v xo a x t 0
v x v xo a x t mgxKiYwU cÖwZcv`b Kiv nj|
1
(L) x x o ( v xo v x )t cÖwZcv`b:
2
g‡bKwi, X Aÿ eivei GKwU e¯‘ mylg Z¡i‡Y MwZkxj| Av‡iv awi, GB MwZi cÖviw¤¢K kZ©vw` nj mgq Mbbvi ïiæ‡Z
A_©vr hLb t = 0 ZLb Avw` Ae¯’vb x = x0 Ges Avw`‡eM vx = vxo | Av‡iv awi, t mgq ci e¯‘wUi Ae¯’vb x Ges Ges
†kl‡eM vx | Mo‡e‡Mi msÁv n‡Z Avgiv Rvwb, ÿz`ªvwZÿz`ª mgq e¨eav‡b †eM I mgq e¨eav‡bi ¸bd‡ji mgwó wb‡q
Zv‡K †gvU mgq w`‡q fvM Ki‡j H mg‡qi Mo‡eM e‡j| myZivs KYvwUi t mgq ci Mo‡eM v x n‡j,
1t
v x v x dt
t0
1 t dx dx
v x dt vx
t 0 dt dt
x x o v x t ... ... ... ... (1)
mymg Z¡i‡Y Pjgvb e¯‘wUi †ÿ‡Î †eM v x mg‡qi mv‡_ mymgfv‡e cwiewZ©Z nq e‡j †h †Kvb mgq e¨eav‡b Zvi Mo gvb H
1
mgq e¨eav‡bi ïiæ I †k‡li †e‡Mi gvb؇qi mgwói A‡a©K| A_©vr v x ( v xo v x ), v x Gi GB gvb (1) bs
2
1 1
mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q cvB, x x o ( v xo v x ) t x x o ( v xo v x ) t mgxKiYwU cÖwZcv`b Kiv nj|
2 2
1
(M) x xo vxo t ax t 2 cÖwZcv`b:
2
g‡bKwi, X Aÿ eivei GKwU e¯‘ ax mylg Z¡i‡Y MwZkxj| Av‡iv awi, GB MwZi cÖviw¤¢K kZ©vw` nj mgq Mbbvi ïiæ‡Z
A_©vr hLb t = 0 ZLb Avw` Ae¯’vb x = xo Ges Avw`‡eM vx = vxo | Av‡iv awi, t mgq ci e¯‘wUi Ae¯’vb x = x Ges
Ges †eM vx = vx| ‡h‡nZz †h †Kvb gyn‡~ Z©i mg‡qi mv‡c‡ÿ †Kvb KYvi †eM e„w×i nvi‡K Z¡iY e‡j|
dvx
myZivs, ax
dt
dvx ax dt hLb t = 0 ZLb vx = vxo Ges x = xo Avevi, hLb t = t ZLb vx = vx Ges x = x GB
mxgvi g‡a¨ mgxKiY‡K mgvKjb K‡i cvB,
vx t
dv x a x dt ax aª æeK
v xo 0
v x vxxo ax t o
v t
vx vxo ax t 0
vx vxo ax t ... ... ... ... ... (1) †h †Kvb gyû‡Z© e¯‘i miY e„w×i nvi‡K †eM e‡j| D³
dx dx
(1) mgxKi‡Y vx ewm‡q cvB, v xo a x t
dt dt
v x dv x ax dx
v xo xo
vx
v2
x a xx
x x
2 vxo o
v 2x v 2xo
ax ( x x o )
2
v 2x v 2xo 2a x ( x x o ) mgxKiYwU cÖwZcv`b Kiv nj|
Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î me©vwaK D”PZvq †cŠQ‡Z mgq wbY©q :
g‡bKwi, †Kvb GKwU e¯‘‡K Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K vo †e‡M †Qvov nj| G †ÿ‡Î e¯‘i Dci wµqviZ Z¡iY = -g, KviY g
c„w_exi †K›`ªvwfgyLx| t mgq c‡i †Kvb wbw`©ó D”PZvq e¯‘wUi †eM v n‡j, MwZi mgxKiY n‡Z cvB, v = vo gt Kv‡RB
†`Lv hv‡”Q †h, Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘i †eM ax‡i ax‡i Kg‡Z _v‡K| †Kvb wbw`©ó D”PZvq hLb gt Gi gvb vo Gi mgvb
ZLb †kl †eM v = 0 n‡e| A_©vr e¯‘wU Avi Dc‡i DV‡Z cvi‡e bv| GB D”PZvB m‡Ÿ©v”P D”PZv| awi, m‡e©v”P D”PZvq
Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘i †ÿ‡Î DÌv‡bi, cZ‡bi, DÌvb cZ‡bi mgq wbY©q :
g‡bKwi, †Kvb GKwU e¯‘‡K Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K vo †e‡M †Qvov nj| G †ÿ‡Î e¯‘i Dci wµqviZ Z¡iY = g, KviY g
c„w_exi †K›`ªvwfgyLx| t mgq c‡i h D”PZvq e¯‘wUi †eM v n‡j MwZi mgxKiY n‡Z cvB,
v = vo – gt ... ... ... ... (1)
Ges v 2 v 2o 2gH ... ... ... (2)
myZivs †`Lv hv‡”Q †h, Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘i †eM ax‡i ax‡i Kg‡Z _v‡K| GB †eM GK mgq 0 (k~b¨) n‡e| A_©vr
e¯‘wU Avi Dc‡i DV‡e bv| d‡j e¯‘wU †h D”PZvq D‡V ZvB-B e¯‘ KZ©…K AwZµvšÍ me©vwaK D”PZv H| awi GB D”PZvq
†h‡Z mgq jv‡M t1 myZivs (1) bs mgxKiY n‡Z cvB,
0 = vo – gt1
v
t1 o ... ... ... ... ... (3)
g
v
me©vwaK D”PZvq DÌvb Kvj t 1 o , Avevi (2) mgxKiY n‡Z cvB,
g
2
0 v o 2gH
v o2
H ... ... ... ... (4) me©vwaK D”PZvq e¯‘i †kl‡eM k~b¨| Kv‡RB m‡e©v”P D”PZv n‡Z f~wg‡Z
2g
covi mgq Gi Avw`‡eM n‡e k~b¨ Ges ïay AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Y e¯‘wU wb‡P co‡Z _vK‡e| m‡e©v”P we›`y †_‡K f~wg‡Z wd‡i
Avm‡Z t2 mgq jvM‡j, MwZi mgxKiY †_‡K cvB,
1
H 0 t 2 gt 22
2
1 v2
gt 22 H 0
2 2g
v o2
t 22
g2
v
t 2 o ... ... ... ... (5)
g
DÌvb cZ‡bi †gvU mgq T n‡j T = t1+t2
v v
T o o
g g
2v
T o BnvB DÌvb cZ‡bi †gvU mgq|
g
Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wbwÿß e¯‘ fywg‡Z wd‡i Avmvi mgq wbY©q :
g‡bKwi, †Kvb GKwU e¯‘‡K Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K vo Avw`‡e‡M †Qvov nj| G †ÿ‡Î e¯‘i Dci wµqviZ Z¡iY = g,
KviY g c„w_exi †K›`ªvwfgyLx| d‡j e¯‘wUi †eM ax‡i ax‡i Kg‡Z _vK‡e Ges GKwU wbw`©ó D”PZvq †eM k~b¨ n‡e A_©vr
e¯‘wU Avi Dc‡i DV‡ebv| Kv‡RB GB D”PZvq e¯‘ K©Z…K AwZµvšÍ Í m‡e©v”P D”PZv| awi m‡e©v”P D”PZv H, d‡j MwZi
mgxKiY †_‡K cvB, v 2 v 2o 2gH
0 v o2 2gH
1
1 2 0 2 t 22
7| s t 3 3t m~Îvbymv‡i GKwU e¯‘ mij †iLvq Pj‡Q| 2
3 2
t2 2
2 †m‡KÛ ci Gi †eM KZ n‡e?
Avgiv Rvwb, t 2 2 1.414s
ds ‡k‡li 1m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡Z mgq
v jv‡M, t t 2 t1 (1.414 1) s 0.414s (Ans.)
dt GLv‡b,
d 1 mgq, t = 2 Sec
v t 3 3t 10| GKwU ‡Uªb w¯’i Ae¯’vb n‡Z 10ms-2 Z¡i‡Y Pj‡Z Avi¤¢ Kij| GKB
dt 3 ‡eM, v =?
mgq GKwU Mvwo 100ms-1 mg‡e‡M †Uª‡bi mgvšÍiv‡j Pjv ïiæ Kij| †Uªb
1 MvwowU‡K KLb wcQ‡b †dj‡e?
v 3t 2 3
3 g‡b Kwi, t mgq ci †Uªb MvwowU‡K wcQ‡b †d‡j P‡j hv‡e,
v t2 3 t mgq †Ub KZ…K AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡,
v 2 2 3 [t Gi gvb ewm‡q] 1 GLv‡b,
x 0 at 2 Mvwoi mg‡eM, V = 100ms-1
v 7 GKK („Ans.) 2
1 ‡Uª‡bi Z¡iY, a = 10ms-2
8| 54 kmh1 †e‡M PjšÍ GKwU †ij Mvwo‡Z †÷mb †_‡K wKQy `y‡i x 10 t 2 mgq, t = ?
2
0.75ms-2 g›`b m„wóKvix †eªK ‡`Iqvq MvwowU †÷m‡b G‡m †_‡g †Mj|
†÷mb ‡_‡K KZ `~‡i †eªK †`Iqv n‡qwQj Ges MvwowU _vg‡Z KZ x 5t 2 ... ... ... (1)
mgq †j‡MwQj? t mg‡q Mvwo KZ…K AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡, x Vt
Avgiv Rvwb, x 100 t ... ... ... (2)
v2 = u22as GLv‡b, kZ©g‡Z †Uªb hLb MvwowU‡K AwZµg Ki‡e ZLb x x n‡e|
2
0 15 2 0.75 s Avw`‡eM, u = 54 kmh-1 5t 2 100 t
15 15 54 1000 1 100
s m ms t t 20s (Ans.)
2 0.75 3600 5
s 150 m (Ans.) =15ms-1
Avevi, v = u at g›`b, a = 0.75ms-2 11| w¯’ive¯’v †_‡K Pj‡Z Avi¤¢ K‡i 625m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡j GKwU
0 15 0.75 t †kl‡eM, v = 0 e¯‘i †eM 125ms-1 nj| Z¡iY wbY©q Ki|
15 mgq, t = ? Avgiv Rvwb,
t s GLv‡b,
0.75 miY, s=? v 2 u 2 2as Avw`‡eM, u = 0
t 20s (Ans.) 125 2 0 2 a 625 AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡ , s = 625m
125 2 ‡kl †eM, v = 125 ms-1
a ms 2 Z¡iY, a =?
9| GKwU e¯‘ w¯’i Ae¯’vb n‡Z hvÎv ïiæ K‡i cÖ_g †m‡K‡Û 1m 2 625
`~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i| cieZ©x 1m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡Z KZ mgq a 12.5ms 2 (Ans.)
jvM‡e|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
Avw`‡eM, u = 0 12| 64m DuPz `vjv‡bi Qv` †_‡K 5kg f‡ii GKwU cv_i †Q‡o w`‡j
1 f~wg‡Z †cuŠQv‡Z Gi KZ mgq jvM‡e?
s1 ut 1 at12 mgq, t1 = 1s
2 Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
miY, s1 =1m
1 1 Avw`‡eM, u = 0
1 0 a (1) 2 Z¡iY, a=? h ut gt 2
2 2 AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡ , h = 64m
a fi, m= 5kg
1 1
64 0 9.8 t 2 mgq, t =?
2 2
a 2ms 2 64 4.9t 2
GLb cÖ_g †_‡K s2 = (1m+1) =2m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡Z mgq
64
jv‡M = t2 t t 3.61 s. (Ans.)
1 2 4.9
s 2 ut 2 at 2
2
13| w¯’i Ae¯’vb n‡Z hvÎv Avi¤¢ K‡i GKwU e¯‘ cÖ_g †m‡K‡Û 2m 14| GKwU e¯‘ cÖ_g `yB †m‡K‡Û 30m I cieZ©x Pvi †m‡K‡Û 150m
`~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i| cieZ©x 2m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡Z e¯‘wUi KZ ‡Mj| Z¡iY AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡j e¯‘wU Gi ci GK †m‡K‡Û KZUv c_
mgq jvM‡e| AwZµg Ki‡e? GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb, `~iZ¡, s1 = 30m
Avgiv Rvwb, 1 mgq, t1 = 2s
GLv‡b, s1 ut1 at 12
1 2 miY, s2 = (30+150)
s1 ut1 at 12 Avw`‡eM, u = 0
2 1 =180m
1 mgq, t1 = 1s 30 u 2 a 2 2
2 0 a(1) 2 2 miY, s7 =?
2 miY, s1 =1m u a 15..........(1)
a Z¡iY, a =? cÖ_g †_‡K t2= (2+4)= 6 †m‡K‡Û e¯‘wU hvq s2=(30+150)m=180m
2
2 1
a 4ms 2 s2 ut2 at 22
2
1
GLb cÖ_g †_‡K s2 = (2m+2m) = 4m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡Z 180 u 6 a 6 2
mgq jv‡M = t2 2
u 3a 30..........(2)
1 2
s 2 ut 2
at 2 u a 15..........(1)
2
1 we‡qvM K‡i, 2a= 15 a 7.5ms 2
4 0 4 t 22 GLb (1) bs mgxKi‡Y a Gi gvb ewm‡q,
2
2
t2 2 u 7.5 15 u 7.5ms 1
6 ‡m‡K‡Ûi c‡ii †m‡KÛ A_©vr 7g †m‡K‡Û AwZµvšÍ `~iZ¡,
t 2 2 1.414s a
‡k‡li 2m `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡Z mgq st u (2t 1)
2
jv‡M, t t 2 t 1 (1.414 1) s 0.414s (Ans.) 7.5
s7 7.5 ( 2 7 1)
2
7.5
s7 7.5 13
2
s7 7.5 48.75
s7 56.25m ( Ans)
(L) r r 1 (v v )t cÖwZcv`b|
0 2 0
awi, GKwU e¯‘ a mgZ¡i‡Y †Kvb Z‡j MwZkxj| GB MwZi cÖviw¤¢K kZ©vw` nj hLb ti 0 ZLb Avw` Ae¯’vb †f±i
r r0 Ges Avw`‡eM v v0 Avevi, t f t mg‡q e¯‘wUi Ae¯’vb †f±i r Ges †eM v |
myZivs KYvwUi t mgq e¨eav‡b Mo†eM V n‡j
1t
V v dt
t0
1 t dr dr
V dt [ v ]
t 0 dt dt
1r
V dr
t r0
1
V [r ]rr0
t
1
V (r r0 )
t
r r0 V t
r r0 12 (v v0 )t V 1
2
( v v0 )
r r0 12 (v v0 )t
awi, GKwU e¯‘ a mgZ¡i‡Y †Kvb Z‡j MwZkxj| GB MwZi cÖviw¤¢K kZ©vw` nj hLb ti o ZLb Avw` Ae¯’vb †f±i
r r0 Ges Avw`‡eM v v0 Avevi, t f t mg‡q e¯‘wUi Ae¯’vb †f±i r Ges †eM v |
‡h †Kvb gyn‡~ Z© mg‡qi mv‡c‡ÿ e¯‘i †eM e„w×i nvi‡K Z¡iY e‡j|
dv
Z¡ iY a
dt
ev, dv adt
hLb t = 0 ZLb v v0 Ges hLb t = t ZLb v v GB mxgvi g‡a¨ Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY‡K mgvKjb K‡i cvB,
v
t
dv a dt
v0 0
v vvo at 0t
cÖÖkœt Abyfywg‡Ki mv‡_ wZh©Kfv‡e wbwÿß cÖv‡mi MwZc‡_i mgxKiY wbb©q Ki Ges †`LvI †h, GB MwZc_ Awae„ËvKvi|
DËit g‡bKwi, evqyga¨w¯’Z O we›`y n‡Z GKwU cÖvm‡K wb‡ÿc Kiv nj|
wb‡ÿc †eM ev Avw`‡eM = vo
wb‡ÿc ‡KvY =
g wb‡Pi w`‡K wµqvkxj| AZGe ay = -g; ax = 0;
wb‡ÿc we›`y I g~j we›`y GKB nIqvq xo = yo = 0
Avw`‡e‡Mi Abyf~wgK Dcvsk = voCoso
Ges Avw`‡e‡Mi Dj¤^ Dcvsk = voSino
X Aÿ eivei MwZi cwieZ©b D³ Aÿ eivei Z¡i‡Yi Dci wbf©ikxj| Y Aÿ eivei MwZi cwieZ©b D³ Aÿ
eivei Z¡i‡Yi Dci wbf©ikxj| G `ywU Aÿ eivei MwZi cwieZ©b Awbf©ikxj|
awi t mg‡q cÖvmwU P(x,y) Ae¯’v‡b _v‡K| ZLb Gi †eM = v
Abyf~wg‡Ki w`‡K Z¡iY, ax= 0
Abyf~wg‡Ki w`‡K miY = x
x = voCoso t + 1
2 axt2
ev, x = voCoso t + 0 [ax= 0]
ev, x = voCoso t
x
t .......................(1)
vo Cos o
Dj¤^ w`‡K Z¡iY ay=g;
Dj¤^ w`‡K miY y; Abyiƒcfv‡e
y=voSinot 12 gt2
2 g
y bx cx awi, aª æeK tan θo b Ges 2 2
c
2voCos θo
Dc‡iv³ mgxKiYwU GKwU Awae„‡Ëi mgxKiY| cÖv‡mi MwZc_ GKwU Awae„Ë (c¨viv‡evjv)|
cÖkœt cÖgvY Ki, evqynxb Ae¯’vq f~wg n‡Z D”PZvq Aew¯’Z †h †Kvb Ae¯’vb n‡Z Abyf~wgK Awfgy‡L wbwÿß e¯‘i MwZc_
GKwU Awae„Ë|
g‡bKwi, k~‡b¨ Aew¯’Z O we›`y n‡Z vo †e‡M f~wgi mgvšÍiv‡j GKwU e¯‘KYv wbwÿß nj| e¯‘ KYvwU g Gi cÖfv‡e
bx‡P co‡e| awi cÖ‡ÿcb Z‡j Abyf~wgK OX †iLv X Aÿ Ges OY †iLv Y Aÿ| awi t mgq c‡i e¯‘ KYvwU MwZ c‡_i
P(x,y) we›`y‡Z gyn‡~ Zi Rb¨ Ae¯’vb Ki‡e| g bx‡Pi w`‡K wµqvkxj|
AZGe ay = g; ax= 0 ;
Avw`‡e‡Mi Abyf~wgK Dcvsk = vo
Ges Avw`‡e‡Mi Dj¤^ Dcvsk = 0
tmg‡q AwfKl©RZ¡iYnxb Abyf~wgK miY x = vot
x 2 v o2 t 2 ... ... ... ... ... ... (1 )
tmg‡q Dj¤^ miY y = 0.t + 12 gt2
y= 1
2 gt2... .... .... .... .... .... .... (2)
(1) ‡K (2) Øviv fvM K‡i cvB
x2 v 2t 2
1o 2
y 2 gt
x 2 2 v 2o
y g
2v 2
x 2 o y
g
2vo2
x 2 4ay awi , 4a aª æeK
g
Dc‡iv³ mgxKiYwU GKwU Awae„‡Ëi mgxKiY| ZvB wbwÿß e¯‘i MwZc_ GKwU Awae„Ë (c¨viv‡evjv)|
cÖkœt Abyfywg‡Ki mv‡_ wZh©K fv‡e wbwÿß e¯‘i ‡ÿ‡Î (K) m‡e©v”P D”PZvq †cŠQ‡Z mgq (L) m‡e©v”P D”PZv (M) wePiY
Kvj (N) cvjøv (O) me©vwaK cvjøv wbb©q Ki|
g‡b Kwi, evqyga¨w¯’Z O we›`y n‡Z GKwU cÖvm‡K vo †e‡M o †Kv‡Y wZh©Kfv‡e wb‡ÿc Kiv nj| cÖvmwU t mg‡q m‡e©v”P
D”PZv P(x,y) G Ae¯’vb Ki‡e Ges ZLb Gi †eM n‡e v|
(K) m‡e©v”P D”PZvq †cŠQ‡Z mgqt vo †e‡Mi Dj¤^ Dcvsk voSino
t mgq c‡i P we›`y‡Z †eM, vy = voSino gt.................(1)
P we›`yMvgx m‡e©v”P D”PZvq vy= 0..................................... (2)
cªkœt ˆiwLK †eM I †KŠwbK †e‡Mi msÁv `vI Ges G‡`i g‡a¨ m¤úK© ¯’vcb Ki| ev, v r ev , v r cÖgvb Ki |
ev, v r cÖgvY Ki |
‰iwLK †eM (Linear Velocity)t wbw`©ó w`‡K ˆiwLK c‡_ †Kvb e¯‘ GKK mg‡q †h `yiZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K H e¯‘i ‰iwLK
d
†eM e‡j| ˆiwLK †eM‡K v Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| wbw`©ó w`‡K e¯‘ t mg‡q d `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡j †eM v n‡e| †eM
t
GKwU †f±i ivwk| ˆiwLK †e‡Mi GKK ms-1
‡KŠwYK †eM (Angular Velocity) t mgq e¨eavb k~‡b¨i KvQvKvwQ n‡j †Kvb we›`y ev Aÿ‡K †K›`ª K‡i e„ËvKvi c‡_
Pjgvb †Kvb e¯‘i mg‡qi mv‡_ †KŠwbK mi‡Yi nvi‡K †KŠwbK †eM e‡j| Ab¨ K_vq e„ËvKvi c‡_ †Kvb e¯‘ GKK mg‡q
†h †KŠwbK `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K H e¯‘i †KŠwbK †eM e‡j| †KŠwbK †eM‡K Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| wbw`©ó w`‡K e¯‘ t
mg‡q ‡KvY Drcbœ Ki‡j †KŠwbK †eM n‡e| †KŠwbK †e‡Mi GKK rad s-1
t
† KvY Pvc L
Gi gvÎv n‡”Q T-1
mgq e¨vmva© mgq L T
m¤úK© (Relation) t
g‡bKwi GKwU e¯‘KYv OC= OB = r e¨vmva© wewkó GKwU e„‡Ëi
cwiwa eivei‡KŠwbK †e‡M Nyi‡Q| hw` T †m‡K‡Û e¯‘ KYvwU e„‡Ëi cwiwa
eivei GKevi Ny‡i Av‡m Z‡e †KŠwbK `~iZ¡ = †iwWqvb n‡e|
2π
‡KŠwbK †eM, ω
T
2π
ev, T ... ... ... ... ...(1)
ω
GLb e¯‘ KYvwU hw` e„ËvKvi c‡_ bv Ny‡i H GKB mg‡q mij †iLv eivei PjZ Z‡e T mg‡q e¯‘KYvwU e„ËwUi
2πr
cwiwai mgvb c_ r `~iZ¡ AwZµg KiZ| ˆiwLK †eM v
T
2πr
T ... ... ... ... ...( 2)
v
(1) bs I (2) mgxKiYØq n‡Z cvB
2 2 r
v
†KŠwbK †eM I ˆiwLK †e‡Mi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ (Distinction between Angular Velocity and Linear Velocity)
µwgK †KŠwbK †eM ˆiwLK †eM
†KŠwbK c‡_ e¯‘i †KŠwbK mi‡bi nvi‡K †KŠwbK †eM wbw`©ó w`‡K ‰iwLK c‡_ †Kvb GKwU e¯‘i ¯’vb
1|
e‡j| cwieZ©‡bi nvi †K ‰iwLK †eM e‡j|
2| G‡K Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| G‡K Øviv v cÖKvk Kiv nq|
s
3| Gi mgxKiY Gi mgxKiY v
t t
4| Gi gvÎv mgxKiY [ T-1 ] Gi mgxKiY [ LT-1 ]
5| Gi GKK †iwWqvb/ †m‡KÛ Gi GKK wgUvi/ †m‡KÛ
‡K›`ªgyLx ej (Centripetal Force): hLb †Kvb e¯‘ e„ËvKvi c‡_ Nyi‡Z _v‡K ZLb †h ej e¯‘i Dci H e„‡Ëi †K›`ª
Awfgy‡L wµqv K‡i e¯‘wU‡K e„ËvKvi c‡_ MwZkxj iv‡L Zv‡K †K›`ªgyLx ej e‡j| m f‡ii e¯‘ r e¨vmva© wewkó e„ËvKvic‡_
v2
v mg`ªæwZ‡Z Nyi‡Z _vK‡j Zvi †K›`ªgyLx ej m |
r
†K›`ªwegyLx ej (Centrifugal Force): hLb †Kvb e¯‘ e„ËvKvi c‡_ Nyi‡Z _v‡K ZLb †h ej H e„‡Ëi †K‡›`ªi wecixZ
w`‡K cÖ‡qvM K‡i Zv‡K †K›`ªwegyLx ej e‡j| m f‡ii e¯‘ r e¨vmva© wewkó e„ËvKvic‡_ v mg`ªæwZ‡Z Nyi‡Z _vK‡j Zvi
v2
†K›`ªwegyLx ej m |
r
v2
m fi wewkó GKwU e¯‘ r e¨mv‡a©i e„ËvKvi c‡_ v mg`ªæwZ‡Z Nyi‡Q| (1) ‡`LvI †h, j¤^ Z¡iY a 2 r ev (2)
r
v2
j¤^ Z¡i‡Yi ivwkgvjv wbb©q Ki| (3) cÖgvY Ki †h, †K›`ªgyLx ej F m m 2 r ev, (4) e„ËvKvi c‡_ mg`ªæwZ‡Z
r
N~b©vqgvb †Kvb e¯‘i Dci wµqvkxj †K›`ªgyLx e‡ji gvb I w`K wbY©©q |
aiv hvK, m f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘ r e¨vmv‡a©i e„ËvKvi c‡_ v mg`ªæwZ‡Z Ges †KŠwbK †e‡M AveZ©biZ Av‡Q| awi AwZ ÿz`ª
mgq t e¨eav‡b e¯‘wU A n‡Z B we›`y‡Z A‡m| A we›`y‡Z e¯‘wUi †eM H we›`y‡Z ¯úk©K AC eivei| B we›`y‡Z e¯‘wUi †eM
H we›`y‡Z ¯úk©K BD eivei| BD †K †cQ‡b ewa©Z Ki‡j AC I BD Gi wgjb we›`y nq E|
‡KŠwbK Z¡iYt hLb †Kvb e¯‘KYv Amg †KŠwbK †e‡M Ny‡i, ZLb e¯‘wUi †KŠwbK †eM cwieZ©‡bi nvi‡K †KŠwbK Z¡iY
e‡j A_ev, mg‡qi mv‡_ Amg †KŠwbK †eM cwieZ©‡bi nvi‡K †KŠwbK Z¡iY e‡j| G‡K Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Gi GKK
†iwWqvb/†m‡KÛ2|
g‡bKwi, eËvKvi c‡_ Nyb©vqgvb e¯‘KYvi Avw`‡KŠwbK †eM i Ges t mgq ci Gi †kl †KŠwbK †eM f Kv‡RB
f i
†KŠwbK Z¡iY
t
cÖkœ: mg`ªæwZ‡Z Pjgvb e¯‘i Z¡ib _v‡K bv, wKš‘ e„ËvKvi c‡_ mg`ªwZ‡Z Pjgvb e¯‘i Z¡iY _v‡K †Kb? e¨vL¨v Ki|
mg`ªæwZ‡Z Pjgvb e¯‘i Z¡ib _v‡K bv, wKš‘ e„ËvKvi c‡_ mg`ªwZ‡Z Pjgvb e¯‘i Z¡iY _v‡K t
‡e‡Mi gvb n‡”Q `ªæwZ Ges †e‡Mi cwieZ©‡bi nvi n‡”Q Z¡iY| †Kvb e¯‘ hLb mij c‡_ mg `ªæwZ‡Z P‡j ZLb †e‡Mi
gv‡bi †Kvb cwieZ©b nq bv Avi mij c‡_ Pjvi Rb¨ w`‡Ki I †Kvb cwieZ©b
nq bv| d‡j e¯‘i †Kvb Z¡iY _v‡K bv|
wKš‘ e„ËvKvi c‡_ Nyievi mgq e¯‘i wbqZ w`‡Ki cwieZ©b nq, KviY
†e‡Mi AwfgyL me©`vB e„‡Ëi ¯úk©K eivii nq| Gfv‡e AbeiZ w`K cwiewZ©Z
n‡Z _v‡K e‡j e¯‘ mg`ªæwZ‡Z Pj‡jI †eM mgvb _v‡Kbv| †e‡Mi GB cwieZ©‡bi
d‡j Z¡i‡Yi m„wó nq| GB Z¡i‡Yi AwfgyL e„ËvKvi c‡_i †K›`ª eivei n‡q _v‡K|
G Rb¨ e„ËvKvi c‡_ mg`ªæwZ‡Z Pjgvb e¯‘i Z¡iY _v‡K|
1| GKwU cÖv‡mi AbyfywgK cvjøv 96m Ges Avw`‡eM 66 ms-1| 1385 .632
wb‡ÿc †KvY KZ? R
9.8
Avgiv Rvwb,
R 141.39 m (Ans.)
v o2Sin 2 o 3| nvB‡Wªv‡Rb cigvbyi g‡W‡ji GKwU B‡jKUªb GKwU †cÖvU‡bi Pviw`‡K
R GLv‡b,
g AbyfywgK cvjøv, R = 96 m 5.2 ×10 -11 m e¨vmv‡a©i GKwU e„ËvKvi c‡_ 2.18 ×106 ms-1 †e‡M
R g Avw`‡eM, vo = 66ms-1 cÖ`wÿb K‡i| B‡jKUª‡bi fi 9.1 ×10-31 kg n‡j †K›`ªgyLx ej KZ?
ev , Sin2θ o Avgiv Rvwb,
v 20 AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g = 9.8ms-2
96 9.8 wb‡ÿc †KvY, = ? mv 2
ev, Sin2 o F
66 2 r
9.1 10 -31 (2.18106 )2
ev , 2θ o Sin 1 (0.2159) F
5.2 10-11
ev, 2θ o 12.47 F 8. 316 108 N (Ans.)
θ o 6.24 (Ans.) 4| 0.250kg f‡ii GKwU cv_i LÛ‡K 0.75m j¤^v GKwU myZvi GK
cÖv‡šÍ †eu‡a e„ËvKvi c‡_ cÖwZ wgwb‡U 90 evi Nyiv‡j myZvi Dci KZ Uvb
2| GKwU e¯‘‡K 40ms-1 †e‡M Ab~fywg‡Ki mv‡_ 60° ‡Kv‡Y wb‡ÿc co‡e|
Kiv nj| me©vwaK D”PZv Ges Abyf~wgK cvjøv wbY©q Ki| Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb, fi, m = 0.250 kg
F m2 r
2
e¨vmva©, r = 0.75 m
(v o Sin θ o ) 2 2πn mgq t = 1 min.
H F m r
2g t = 60s.
2 cvKmsL¨v, n = 90 cvK|
2 23.141690
H
40 Sin 60 GLv‡b, F 0.25
60
0.75 Uvb, F = ?
2 9.8 Avw`‡eM, v0 = 40ms-1
F 16.65 N (Ans.)
2 wb‡ÿc †KvY 60º
H
40 Sin 60
AwfKl©R Z¡iY,
5| 9.2 ms-1 †e‡M GKwU ÿz`ª e¯‘‡K Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wb‡ÿc Kiv nj|
2 9.8 GwU KZ mgq c‡i f~-c„‡ô wd‡i Avm‡e?
g = 9.8ms-2
Avgiv Rvwb,
H
40 0.86602 2 me©vwaK D”PZv, H = ?
2 v oSin o
2 9.8 AbyfywgK cvjøv, R = ? T
g GLv‡b,
H
34 .6408 2 2 9.2 Sin 90 Avw`‡eM, vo = 9.2 ms-1
2 9.8 T wb‡¶c †KvY, 0º
1199 .9850 9.8
H AwfKl©R Z¡iY,
2 9. 2 1
2 9 .8 T g = 9.8ms-2
H 61.22 m (Ans .) 9.8 DÌvb cZ‡bi †gvU
Avevi, 18.4 mgq T =?
T
2 9. 8
v 0 Sin 2θ o
R T 1.877s (Ans.)
g
40 2 Sin ( 2 60) 6| Abyfywg‡Ki mv‡_ 30°†KvY f~-c„ô †_‡K 50ms-1 †e‡M GKwU ey‡jU
R †Qvov nj| ey‡jUwU 50m `~‡i Aew¯’Z GKwU †`Iqvj‡K KZ D”PZvq
9.8
2 AvNvZ Ki‡e|
40 Sin ( 2 60 ) GLv‡b,
R Avgiv Rvwb, Avw`‡eM, v = 50 ms-1
o
9.8 g
y (tan 0 ) x x2 wb‡¶c †KvY, º
1600 Sin 120 )
R 2( v 0 cos 0 ) 2 AwfKl©R Z¡iY,
9.8 g = 9.8ms-2
1600 0.86602 AbyfywgK `~iZ¡, x=50m
R g Dj¤^ `~iZ¡, y=?
9.8 y (tan30 )x (50)2
2(v0 cos30 )2
g 8| GKwU ej‡K f~wgi mv‡_ 30°†KvY K‡i Dc‡ii w`‡K wb‡ÿc Kiv n‡j
y (tan30)50 2
(50)2 GwU 20m `~‡i GKwU `vjv‡bi Qv‡` wM‡q coj| wb‡ÿc we›`y †_‡K Qv‡`i
2(v0 cos30 )
D”PZv 5m n‡j ejwU KZ †e‡M †Qvov n‡qwQj|
9.8
y 0.577350269 50 (50) 2 Avgiv Rvwb,
)2
2(50 0.866025403 GLv‡b,
g
y 28.86751346 6.533333345 y (tan 0 ) x 2
x2 wb‡¶c †KvY, º
2( v 0 cos 0 ) AwfKl©R Z¡iY,
y 22.33 m (Ans.)
g = 9.8ms-2
9.8 AbyfywgK `~iZ¡, x=20m
7| GKwU cÖv‡mi AbyfywgK cvjøv 79.53 m Ges wePiYKvj 5.3 s 5 tan30 20 (20)2 Dj¤^ `~iZ¡, y=5m
n‡j wb‡ÿc †KvY I wb‡ÿc †eM KZ? 2v cos2 30
2
0 Avw`‡eM, vo = ?
Avgiv Rvwb, 9.8 400
GLv‡b, 5 0.577350269 20
v o2Sin 2 o Aby fywgK cvjøv, R = 79.53 m 2 v02 0.75
R
g wePiYKvj, T=5.3s 3920
5 11.54
v 2oSin 2 o wb‡¶c ‡eM, vo = ? v02 1.5
79.53 wb‡¶c †KvY, = ? 3920
9.8 6.54
2
v Sin 2 o 779.394.. ... (1)
o v 02 1.5
2 v oSin o 3920
Aevi, T v 02 v 0 20ms 1 (Ans.)
g 6.54 1.5
2v Sin o
5.3 o 9| GKRb †jvK 48 ms-1 †e‡M GKwU ej Lvov Dc‡ii w`‡K wb‡ÿc
9. 8
K‡i| ejwU KZ mgq k~‡Y¨ _vK‡e Ges m‡e©v”P KZ Dc‡i DV‡e?
2v oSin o 51.94 ... ... ... (2)
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
(1) bs mgxKiY‡K (2) bs mgxKiY Øviv fvM K‡i cvB, 2 v oSinθ o
T †eM, v0 = 48 ms-1
v o2Sin 2 o 779.394 g wb‡¶c †KvY, =º
2v oSin o 51.94 2 48 Sin 90 DÌvb cZ‡bi †gvU mgq,T =?
T D”PZv, H =?
v o2 2Sin o Coso 779.394 9.8
2 v oSin o 51.94 2 48 1
T
v 0 Cos o 15 ... ... .. (3) 9. 8
T 9.795 s. ( Ans.)
(2) bs mgxKiY‡K (3) bs mgxKiY Øviv fvM K‡i cvB, Avevi,
2v oSin o 51.94 v o2Sin 2 o
H
v 0 Cos o 15 2g
3.463 482 (Sin 90) 2
tan o H
2 9.8
2
H 117.5m (Ans.)
tan o 1.732
o tan 1 1.732 10| GKwU MÖv‡gv‡dvb †iKW© cÖwZ wgwb‡U 45 evi Ny‡i| Gi †K›`ª †_‡K
o 60(Ans.) 9cm `~‡i †Kvb we›`yi `ªæwZ KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
(3) bs mgxKi‡Y 0 Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB, GLv‡b,
v r
v 0 Cos60 15 2n mgq, t = 1m =60s
1 v r cvKmsL¨v, n=45
v 0 15 t
2 e¨vmva©,r =9cm=0.09m
2 3.14 45 0.09
v `ªæwZ, v =?
v 0 30ms 1 (Ans.) 60
1
v 0.42ms (Ans.)
এযবযস্টটর ভনন কযনতন ফনরয ম্পক গবতয ানথ বকন্তু বনউটননয ূ ত্র অনু মায়ী ফনরয ম্পক গবতয বযফতননয ানথ।
1 বনউটন = 7.2324 াউন্ডার 1 াউন্ডার= 13825.728 ডাইন।
উৎবত্ত অনু ানয ফর দু ই প্রকায। মথা-১। যভৌবরক ফর ২) মাবিক ফর।
বফনে যভৌবরক ফর ৪বট। মথাঃ (১) ভাকল ফর (২) দু ফর বনউবিয় ফর (৩) তাবড়ৎ যিৌম্বক ফর (৪) ফর বনউবিয় ফর।
30 40 42
যভৌবরক ফরগুনরায আনবক্ষক তীব্রতায অনু াত।মথাক্রনভ 1:10 :10 :10 [নমখানন ভাকল ফনরয তীব্রতা 1]
ারাভ য়ানয়ন ফাগ প্রভান কনযনেন দু ফর তাবড়ৎ যিৌম্বক ফর একই ফনরয দু বট ববনড়ফরূ।
ভাকল ফরঃ ফনিনয় দু ফর। Gravitation নাভক এক প্রকায কণায াযষ্পবযক বফবনভনয়য ভাধযনভ ভাকল ফর কামকয।
দু ফর বনউবিয়ায ফরঃ Intermediate vector bosons নাভক কণায াযস্পবযক বফবনভনয়য ভাধযনভ এ ফনরয ৃ বি।
Photon নাভক এক প্রকায কণায াযস্পবযক বফবনভনয়য ভাধযনভ তাবড়ৎ যিৌম্বক ফর কামকয য়।
ফর বনউবিয়ায ফরঃ বনউবিয়ায ফর আকলণ ধভী। স্বল্প াল্লা বফবি এফিং আধান বনযনক্ষ । যভন কণায াযস্পবযক বফবনভনয়য
ভাধযনভ ফর বনউবিয়ায ফর ৃ বি য়।
২য় ূ ত্র যথনক ১ভ ূ ত্র ায়া মায় অথাৎ ১ভ ূ ত্র ২য় ূ নত্রয একবট রূ।
১ভ ূ ত্র যথনক ায়া মায়ঃ ফর জড়তা
২য় ূ ত্র যথনক ায়া মায়ঃ ফনরয অববভুখ, ফনরয বযভা, ফনরয গুণগত রফবিয, ত্বযনণয ানথ ফনর ম্পক, ফনরয নীযনক্ষ নীবত।
বিবত জড়তায দৃ িান্তঃ
১। কানয উয যাি কাড তায উয ভুদ্রা যযনখ যটাকা বদনর ভুদ্রা কান নড় মানফ।
২। ঠ্াৎ গাবড় িরনত শুরু কযনর আনযাী বেনন যনর নড়।
৩। কযাযানভয যফানড একবট গুবটয উয আয একবট গুবট যযনখ স্ট্রাইক িাযা আঘাত কযনর নীনিয গুবট িনর মায়।
৪। ধু বরমু ি যালাক দবড় বদনয় আঘাত কযনর ভয়রা দূ য নয় মায়।
৫। কানিয জানারায় ফু নরট যোড়নর একবট বেদ্র বকন্তু বির যোড়নর একাবধক বেদ্র য়।
৬। যঘাড়া ঠ্াৎ যদৌড়ানত শুরু কযনর আনযাী বেনন যনর নড়।
গবত জড়তায দৃ িান্তঃ
১। িরন্ত ফা গঠ্াৎ যথনভ যগনর মাত্রী াভনন যনর নড়।
২। যদৌড় বদনয় রাপ বদনর।
৩। ধাফভান যঘাড়া যথনক উনযয বদনক রাপ যদয়া।
৪। িরন্ত গাবড়য কাভযায় যকান আনযাী যাজা উনযয বদনক বকেু যোড়নর।
৫। যর যদারনক একফায দু বরনয় বদনর অননক্ষণ দু রনত থানক।
ঘাত ফনরয দৃ িান্তঃ
১। ফযাট িাযা ফর আঘাত কযা।
২। াতুবড় বদনয় বন যাতা।
৩। স্ট্রাইকায িাযা গুবটনক আঘাত কযা।
৪। যেনন যেনন িংঘল।
৫। া বদনয় পুটফর বকক কযা।
৬। বফনফাযণ।
৭। কাভান নত যগারা যোড়া।
RoZv (Inertia):
c`v_© †h Ae¯’vq Av‡Q †mB Ae¯’vq _vK‡Z PvIqvi †h cÖeYZv ev †mB Ae¯’v ivL‡Z PvIqvi †h ag© Zv‡K RoZv e‡j|
RoZv `yB cÖKvi: h_v (1) w¯’wZ RoZv (2) MwZ RoZv
(1) w¯’wZ RoZv (Inertia of rest) t w¯’i e¯‘ w¯’i _vK‡Z Pvq e¯‘i GB ¸b‡K e¯‘i w¯’wZ RoZv e‡j|
D`vniYt w¯’i Mvwo nVvr †Q‡o w`‡j hvwÎiv wcQb w`‡K †n‡j c‡o| KviY Mvwo Pvjy nIqvi ms‡M ms‡M hvw·`i
kix‡ii wb‡Pi Ask Mvwoi mv‡_ mshy³ _vKvq mvg‡bi w`‡K GwM‡q hvq| wKš‘ kix‡ii Dc‡ii Ask w¯’wZ RoZvi Rb¨
wcwQ‡q c‡o|
(2) MwZ RoZv (Inertia of motion) t MwZkxj e¯‘ MwZkxj _vK‡Z Pvq e¯‘i GB ¸b‡K e¯‘i MwZ RoZv e‡j|
D`vniYt PjšÍ Mvwo nVvr †eªK Ki‡j hvwÎiv mvg‡bi w`‡K Sz‡K c‡o| KviY Mvwo ‡eªK Kivi Kvi‡Y Mvwo †_‡g
hvIqvi mv‡_ mv‡_ hvw·`i kix‡ii wb‡Pi Ask Mvwoi mv‡_ mshy³ _vKvq ‡_‡g hvq wKš‘ kix‡ii Dc‡ii Ask MwZ
RoZvi Rb¨ mvg‡bi w`‡K GwM‡q hvq|
ej (Force):
hv w¯’i e¯‘i Dci wµqv K‡i e¯‘‡K MwZkxj K‡i ev Ki‡Z Pvq A_ev MwZkxj e¯‘i Dci wµqv K‡i MwZi cwieZ©b K‡i ev
Ki‡Z Pvq Zv‡K ej e‡j| ej‡K F Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| m f‡ii e¯‘i Z¡iY a n‡j ej F=ma n‡e| ej GKwU †f±i
ivwk|
(1) gnvKl© ej t gnvwe‡k¦i †h †Kvb `ywU e¯‘i ga¨Kvi cvi¯úwiK AvKl©b ej‡K gnvKl© ej e‡j|
(2) ZvwoZ †PŠ¤^K ej t `ywU PvwR©Z KYv Zv‡`i Pv‡R©i Kvi‡Y G‡K Ac‡ii Dci †h AvKl©Y ev weKl©b ej cÖ‡qvM K‡i
Zv‡K ZvwoZ †PŠ¤^K ej e‡j|
(3) mej wbDwK¬q ej t cigvbyi wbDwK¬qv‡m wbDwK¬q Dcv`vb Z_v wbDwK¬qb¸‡jv‡K GK‡Î Ave× iv‡L †h kw³kvjx ej
Zv‡K mej wbDwK¬q ej e‡j|
(4) `~e©j wbDwK¬q ej t †h ¯^í cvjøvi I ¯^í gv‡bi ej wbDwK¬qv‡mi g‡a¨ †gŠwjK KYv¸wji g‡a¨ wµqv K‡i A‡bK
wbDwK¬qv‡m Aw¯’wZkxjZvi D™¢e NUvq Zv‡K `~e©j wbDwK¬q ej e‡j|
fi‡eM (Momentum) t fi I †e‡Mi ¸bdj‡K fi‡eM e‡j| fi‡eM‡K P Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| m f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘i †eM
v n‡j fi‡eM P = mv n‡e| fi‡e‡Mi GKK kg-ms-1| Gi gvÎv [MLT-1]
tf
J F dt [ F aª æe ]
ti
tf
J Ft F [t f - t i ]
ti
J Ft
e‡ji Nv‡Zi mv‡_ fi‡e‡Mi m¤úK© (Relation with Impulse of Force and Momentum ) t
tf
cÖhy³ ej F n‡j e‡ji NvZ J Fdt
ti
dP
tf
dP
J dt F
ti
dt dt
Nl©Y (Friction) t
`ywU e¯‘ ci¯ú‡ii ms¯ú‡k© †_‡K hw` G‡Ki Dci w`‡q AciwU Pj‡Z †Póv Ki‡j e¯‘ ؇qi
¯úk© Z‡j GB MwZi weiæ‡× †h evavi DrcwË nq Zv‡K Nl©Y e‡j| Nl©Y mvaviYZ Pvi cÖKv‡ii n‡q _v‡Kt
(1) w¯’wZ Nl©Y (Static Friction),
(2) MZxq Nl©Y (Kinetic Friction),
(3) AveZ© Nl©Y (Rolling Friction),
(4) cÖevwn Nl©Y (Fluid Friction),
w¯’wZNl©Y ej t
‡h Nl©b ej Øviv †Kvb e¯‘ cÖh³
y ej‡K cÖwZnZ K‡i w¯’i _vK‡Z cÖqvm cvq Zv‡K w¯’wZNl©b ej e‡j|
w¯’wZ Nl©Y ¸Yv¼ t w¯’wZ Nl©‡Yi mxgvwšÍK gvb Ges Awfj¤^ cÖwZwµqvi AbycvZ‡K w¯’wZ Nl©Y ¸Yv¼ e‡j| G‡K s Øviv
cÖKvk Kiv nq| w¯’wZ Nl©‡Yi mxgvwšÍK gvb fs Ges Awfj¤^ cÖwZwµqv R n‡j w¯’wZ Nl©Y ¸Yv¼ n‡e
fs
s ... ... ... ... ... ... (2) fs I R Gi GKK GKB| Kv‡RB s Gi †Kvb GKK †bB|
R
8| 0.1kg f‡ii GKwU cv_i‡K 0.5m j¤^v myZvi mvnv‡h¨ e„ËvKvi 10| 200m e¨vmva© wewkó GKwU euvKv c‡_ 50.4 km.h-1 ‡e‡M Mvwo
c‡_ Nyivb n‡”Q| cv_iwU cÖwZwgwb‡U 30 evi c~Y© NyY©b m¤úbœ K‡i| Pvjv‡Z c_wU‡K KZ †Kv‡Y KvZ K‡i ivL‡Z n‡e? iv¯ÍvwUi cÖ¯’ 1m n‡j,
myZvi Uvb KZ? evB‡ii cvk¦© wfZ‡ii cvk¦© A‡cÿv KZ DuPz n‡Z n‡e? (g = 9.8 ms-2 )
Avgiv Rvwb,
F m2 r GLv‡b, Avgiv Rvwb,
2n
2 fi, m = 0.1kg v2 GLv‡b,
F m r e¨vmva©, r = 0.5m θ tan 1
t cvKmsL¨v, n = 30
rg †eM, v = 50.4 kmh -1
2 mgq, t = 1 min 14 2 50.4 1000 -1
2 3.14 30 θ tan 1 v= ms
F 0.1 0. 5 N = 60sec 200 9.8 3600
60 myZvi Uvb ej, F = ? 1
θ tan 0.1 v = 14 ms -1
F = 0.49298 N (Ans.) e¨vmva©, r = 200m
θ 5.71 (Ans)
g = 9.8 ms-2
9| c„w_exi Pvwiw`‡K P‡›`ªi Kÿc‡_i e¨mva© cÖvq 3.85×105 km|
‡KvY, =?
GKevi cÖ`wÿb Ki‡Z mgq jv‡M 27.3 w`b| Pv‡`i †KŠwbK `ªæwZ
wbY©q Ki| x=1m, h=?
GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb,
e¨mva© r=3.85×105 km h
2n =3.85×108 m sin 5 . 71
1
t mgq t= 27.3 w`b
cvK msL¨v=1cvK
h
2 3.1416 1 0 . 0995 h 0 . 0994 m 0 . 1m ( Ans .)
1
27.3 24 3600 †KŠwbK `ªæwZ =?
6 1
2.66 10 rads (Ans.)
প্রমু ি ফর ফনরয অববভুনখ প্রনয়াগ বফন্দুয যনণয উািংনয গুণপর িাযা কানজয বযভা কযা য়। কাজ , W = F. S ফা F×S cosθ
বি: যকান ফস্ত্ত্ত ফা ফযফিায কাজ কযায াভথযনক বি ফনর।
ক্ষভতা: যকান একবট উৎনয কাজ কযায াযনক ক্ষভতা ফনর। ক্ষভতা, p =
বিয বনতযতায ূ ত্র: ভাবফনেয যভাট বিয বযভাণ বনবদি অবযফতনীয়।
িংযক্ষণীর ফর: যম ফর িাযা ফস্ত্ত্তনক একবট বনবদি থ ঘুবযনয় ঐ নথ আননর কৃত কানজয বযভাণ ূ নয য় ঐ ফরনক
িংযক্ষণীর ফর ফরা য়। যমভন: অববকল ফর, রফদু যবতক ফর আদ বরিং এয বফকৃবত প্রবতনযাধ কাযী ফর ইতযাবদ।
অিংযক্ষণীর ফর: যম ফর িাযা কৃত কাজ ূ নয না য় এফিং ম্পাবদত কাজ শুধু ভাত্র দু বট বফন্দুয অফিাননয উয বনবয কনয
তানক অিংযক্ষণীর ফর ফনর। যমভন ঘলণ ফর, াদ্রতা ফর ইতযাবদ।
কাজ- বি উাদয: যকান ফস্ত্ত্তয উয প্রমু ি ফর িাযা কৃত কাজ ফস্ত্ত্তবটয গবতবিয বযফতননয ভান।W = ∆k
১. কাজ, বি ক্ষভতা এই বতনবট অবদক ফা যস্করায যাব।
২. কাজ ফা বিয যভ একক: F. P. S দ্ধবতনত Ft-poundal C. G. Sদ্ধবতনত erg M. K. S ফা S.I দ্ধবতনত Jole
৩. এক অববকলীয় একক কাজ = এক অববকলীয় একক ফর × একক যণ।
৪. কানজয যক্ষনত্র অববকলীয় এককনক যভ একনক রূান্তনযয ভয় িাযা গুণ কযনত য় এফিং যভ এককনক অববকলীয় একনক
রূান্তনযয ভয় িাযা বাগ কযনত য়।
৫. ক্ষভতায যভ একক: আন্তজাবতক দ্ধবতনত ক্ষভতায একক Jol/sec ফা watt.
৬. ভাত্রা ভীকযণ: কাজ: [ML2T-2] বি: [ML2T-2] ক্ষভতা: [ML2T-3]
৭. ূ ম প্রবত বভবননট 25 যকাবট টন বয াযায় এফিং ূ নময আয়ু 27 বফবরয়ন ফেয।
৮. একজন ভানু নলয গড় ক্ষভতা 0.143 H.P।
৯. ফর যনণয ভধযফতী যকাণ 900 নর এফিং তানদয ভান আরদা আরাদা বানফ ূ নয নর কানজয ভান ূ নয য়।
১০. ফৃ ত্তনথ আফতনযত ফস্ত্ত্ত ূ নয কানজয উদাযণ।
0 <θ < 900 নর ফনরয িাযা কৃতকাজ ধনাত্মক। 900 <θ< 1800 নর ফনরয বফরুনদ্ধ কাজ ফুঝায় এফিং এই কাজ ঋণাত্মক।
১১. মাবিক দক্ষতা = মি িাযা কৃত কানজয ায মনি যফযাকৃত বিয ায
KvR (Work):
‡Kvb e¯‘i Dci ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j hw` e¯‘i miY N‡U Z‡e ej I e‡ji w`‡K mi‡Yi Dcvs‡ki ¸bdj‡K KvR e‡j|
KvR‡K W Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| g‡b Kwi, †Kvb KYvi Dci GKwU aªæe ej F Gi wµqvq KYvwUi
e‡ji Awfgy‡L mij‡iLv eivei miY S n‡j KYvwUi Dci ejØviv K…Z KvR W FS n‡e|
KvR GKwU Aw`K ivwk| Kv‡Ri GKK Ryj|
aªæe ej hw` KYvwUi miY S Gi †KvY Drcbœ K‡i, Zvn‡j GB miY Kv‡j K…Z KvR
W (F cos )S
ev, W F(S cos ) A_©vr, KvR = ej × e‡ji w`‡K mi‡Yi Dcvsk
‡f±i iƒ‡c wjL‡j, W F.S
Ryj: GK wbDUb ej cÖ‡qv‡M e¯‘ hw` e‡ji w`‡K GK wgUvi m‡i hvq Z‡e †h KvR nq Zv‡K GK Ryj KvR e‡j|
e‡ji Øviv KvR (Work done by the force): hw` ej cÖ‡qv‡Mi d‡j e¯‘ e‡ji w`‡K m‡i hvq Z‡e ev e‡ji w`‡K mi‡Yi
Dcvsk _v‡K Z‡e †mB ej Ges e‡ji w`‡K mi‡Yi Dcvs‡ki ¸b dj‡K abvZ¡K KvR ev e‡ji Øviv KvR e‡j|
e¨vL¨v: W F.S FS cos mgxKiY †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h, cos abvZ¡K n‡j W abvZ¡K nq| ej F Ges miY S Gi
AšÍ©fy³ †KvY Gi gvb 90º Gi Kg n‡j A_©vr 0 90 n‡j cos abvZ¥K nq, ZLb e‡ji w`‡K mi‡Yi Dcvsk
_v‡K; d‡j e‡ji Øviv KvR ev abvZ¥K KvR nq|
D`vniY: GKwU e¯‘ Dci †_‡K gvwU‡Z †d‡j w`‡j e¯‘wU AwfKl© e‡ji cÖfv‡e gvwU‡Z co‡e| G‡ÿ‡Î cÖhy³ ej Z_v e¯‘i
IRb mg Ges S GKB w`‡K A_©vr wb‡Pi w`‡K nq, d‡j e¯‘i Dci AwfKl© ej Øviv KvR n‡q‡Q ev abvZ¥K KvR n‡q‡Q
eySvq|
e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR (Work done against the force): hw` ej cÖ‡qv‡Mi d‡j e¯‘ e‡ji wecixZ w`‡K m‡i hvq Z‡e ev
e‡ji wecixZ w`‡K mi‡Yi Dcvsk _v‡K Z‡e †mB ej Ges e‡ji wecixZ w`‡K mi‡Yi Dcvs‡ki ¸b dj‡K FbvZ¡K KvR
ev e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR e‡j|
e¨vL¨v: W F.S FS cos mgxKiY †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h, cos FbvZ¡K n‡j W FbvZ¡K nq| ej F Ges miY S Gi
AšÍ©fy³ †KvY Gi gvb 90º Gi ‡ekx n‡j A_©vr 90 0 180 0 n‡j cos FbvZ¥K nq, ZLb e‡ji wecixZ w`‡K
mi‡Yi Dcvsk _v‡K; d‡j e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR ev FbvZ¥K KvR nq|
D`vniY: GKwU e¯‘ gvwU †_‡K Dc‡i DVv‡bv nj| Zvn‡j e¯‘i Dci AwfKl© ej Z_v e¯‘i IRb mg Lvov wb‡Pi w`‡K
Ges S Lvov Dci w`‡K wµqv K‡i| G‡ÿ‡Î AwfKl© ej I miY wecixZ gyLx nIqvq AwfKl© e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR n‡q‡Q ev
FbvZ¥K KvR n‡q‡Q eySvq|
aivhvK, †Kvb e¯‘i Dci F(x) ej cÖ‡qv‡Mi d‡j nq x1 †_‡K x2| GLb GB miY‡K x ˆ`‡N©¨i ÿz`ª ÿy`ª As‡k fvM Kwi|
g‡b Kwi fvM msL¨v N (wPÎ-1)| e¯‘ x1 Ae¯’vb †_‡K x1+x Ae¯’v‡b A_©vr x ÿz`ª mi‡Yi Rb¨ ej cÖvq aªæeK we‡ePbv
Kiv hvq| g‡bKwi GB aªæe ej F1| Zvn‡j GB As‡k K…Z KvR,
W1=F1x
Avevi x1+x †_‡K x1+2x Ae¯’v‡b miv‡Z A_©vr x mi‡Yi Rb¨ aªæe ej F2 n‡j G‡ÿ‡Î K…Z KvR,
W2=F2x
Gfv‡e, cieZ©x x mi‡Yi Rb¨ aªæe ej F3 n‡j G‡ÿ‡Î K…Z Kv‡Ri cwigvb,
W3=F3x
GLb e¯‘‡K x1 Ae¯’vb †_‡K x2 Ae¯’v‡b miv‡Z †gvU K…Z KvR n‡e G ai‡bi N msL¨K ÿz`ª ÿz`ª Kv‡Ri mgwói mgvb|
†gvU KvR W n‡j,
W = W1+W2+W3+.........................+WN
= F1x + F2x + F3x +......................... +FNx
N
F x
i
i 1
GLb Kv‡Ri mwVK gvb †c‡Z n‡j x1 †_‡K x2 ch©šÍ miY‡K AmsL¨ ÿy`ª ÿz`ª As‡k fvM Ki‡Z n‡e| (wPÎ-2) A_©vr hLb
x 0 Ges fvMmsL¨v N n‡e ZLb K…Z Kv‡Ri cwigvb n‡e,
N
W lim F x
x 0 i
i 1
x2
lim F( x )dx K¨vjKzjv‡mi fvlvq
x 0
x1
Ges GB K…Z KvR n‡e ej ebvg miY †jLwPÎ Øviv X A‡ÿi mv‡_ Ave× †ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎd‡ji mgvb hv wPÎ-3 G Qvqv hy³
AÂj Øviv †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q| †h‡nZz GLv‡b ej I mi‡Yi AšÍ©fy³ ‡KvY 0º ZvB, †jLv hvq,
x2
W Fdx cos 0
x1
x2
F . dx [µm ¸Y‡Yi wbqgvbymv‡i]
x1
GwUB GKgvwÎK †ÿ‡Î cwieZ©x ej Øviv K…Z Kv‡Ri ivwkgvjv|
x
x2
W k
2
x
0
1 1
W k x 2 x 2 GUvB wb‡Y©q Kv‡Ri ivwkgvjv| hw`, x0= 0 nq Z‡e, W kx 2 | w¯cÖs msKzwPZ ev cÖmvwiZ hvB
2 0 2
1
†nvK A_©vr x abvZ¡K ev FbvZ¡K hvB †nvK bv †Kb Gi eM© me©`v abvZ¡K| d‡j mgxKiY W kx 2 †_‡K ejv hvq,
2
w¯cÖs ej Øviv KvR me©`v FbvZ¡K n‡e|
GKwU w¯cÖs –Gi ms‡KvPb ev cÖmvi‡Yi Rb¨ mwÂZ wefe kw³i ivwkgvjvt
g‡b Kwi, GK cÖv‡šÍ `„pfv‡e Ave× GKwU w¯cÖs Gi gy³ cÖv‡šÍ m f‡ii GKwU
e¯‘ AvUKvb Av‡Q| e¯‘wU GKwU Nl©Y wenxb Z‡ji Dci PjvPj Ki‡Z cv‡i|
Avgiv Rvwb, w¯cÖs‡K Uvb Uvb Ki‡Z w¯cÖs e‡ji weiæ‡× KvR Ki‡Z n‡e|
w¯cÖs e‡ji weiæ‡× K…Z GB KvRB w¯cÖs G wefe kw³ wnmv‡e weivR K‡i|
w¯cÖswU‡K hLb Zvi wkw_j Ae¯’v x=0 †_‡K x=x Ae¯’v‡b Uvb Uvb Kiv nq,
ZLb e¯‘wUi Dci cÖhy³ w¯cÖs Gi ej Fs= kx| GLb e¯‘wU‡K x `~iZ¡
miv‡Z Zvi Dci Gi mgvb I wecixZgyLx F=ks ej cÖ‡qvM K‡i KvR Ki‡Z n‡e| GB ej Øviv K…Z KvRB n‡e e¯‘wUi
mwÂZ wefe kw³|
x
wefe kw³ U Fdx
0
x
ev, U kx dx
0
x
ev, U k x dx
0
x
x2
ev, U k
2 0
1
U kx 2 BnvB wefe kw³i ivwkgvjv|
2
r
b GMm
W dr
r r2
a
r
b
W GMm r 2 dr
r
a
rb
r 21
W GMm
1 ra
1 1
W GMm
rb ra
1 1
W GMm BnvB wb‡Y©q Kv‡Ri ivwkgvjv|
ra rb
kw³ (Energy) t
‡Kvb e¯‘ ev e¨e¯’vi KvR Kivi mvg_©‡K kw³ e‡j| KvR I kw³i cwigvc, GKK I gvÎv GKB| kw³i GKK Ryj, kw³i
gvÎv [ML2T-2]| Ae¯’v †f‡` gnvwe‡k¦ kw³ wewfbœ iƒ‡c Ae¯’vb K‡i, †hgbt hvwš¿K kw³, Zvc kw³, kã kw³, we`¨yr kw³,
Pz¤^K kw³, Av‡jvK kw³, cvigvYyweK kw³ BZ¨vw`|
v
v2
K m
2
0
1
K mv 2 e¯‘i fi m GKUv aªæeK Kv‡RB
2
K aª æeK v 2
K v 2 A_©vr, wbw`©ó f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘i MwZkw³ Gi †e‡Mi e‡M©i mgvbycvwZK|
MwZ kw³i mv‡_ fi‡e‡Mi m¤úK© (Relation with Kinetic Energy and Momentum) t
1
MwZkw³, K mv 2
2
1 m
K mv 2 [ni I je‡K m Øviv ¸b]
2 m
1 m 2v2
K
2 m
p2
K [mv = fi‡eM p] BnvB MwZkw³ I fi‡e‡Mi g‡a¨ m¤úK©h³
y mgxKiY|
2m
Gi ci hw` e¯‘wU‡K cyYivq BDA c‡_ A we›`y‡Z Avbv nq, Z‡e G †ÿ‡ÎI Nl©Y ej e¯‘i wecixZ w`‡K wµqv Ki‡e|
Kv‡RB K…Z Kv‡Ri cwigvb, W2 Fdx
d
e¯‘wU A we›`y n‡Z B we›`y‡Z Ges B we›`y n‡Z A we›`y‡Z hvZvqv‡Zi Rb¨ Nl©Y e‡ji weiæ‡× †gvU KvR,
W W1 W2 Fdx Fdx 0 Kv‡RB Nl©Y ej GKwU Amsiÿbkxj ej|
c d
aªæe e‡ji Rb¨ cÖwZcv`b: awi v0 †e‡M MwZkxj m f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘i Dci F aªæe ej wµqv K‡i| Gi d‡j †eM e¯‘wUi nq
v Ges H mg‡q e¯‘wUi e‡ji w`‡K x `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i|
myZivs ej Øviv K…ZKvR, W=Fx
GB ej cÖ‡qv‡Mi d‡j e¯‘i aªæe Z¡iY a n‡j, wbDU‡bi MwZi wØZxq m~Îvbyhvqx, F=ma
W=max
wKš‘ MwZi mgxKiY †_‡K Avgiv Rvwb,
v 2 v 2 2ax
0
2
v v2 2ax
0
v2 v2
0
ax
2
v v
2 2
myZivs, W m 0
2
1 1 1 1
W mv 2 mv02 wKš‘ mv02 n‡”Q e¯‘i Avw` MwZkw³ K0 Ges mv 2 n‡”Q e¯‘i †kl MwZkw³ K |
2 2 2 2
W K K 0 K
A_©vrej Øviv K…Z KvR = e¯‘i MwZkw³ cwieZ©b|
cwieZ©bkxj e‡ji Rb¨ cÖwZcv`b: aiv hvK, †KvY KYvi Dci cwieZ©bkxj ej wµqv Ki‡Q| e‡ji gvb cwieZ©bkxj
n‡jI Gi w`K AcwieZ©bkxj| †m †ÿ‡Î KYvwUi mi‡Yi AwfgyL e‡ji w`‡KB n‡e| aiv hvK, KYvwU x- Aÿ eivei
x
MwZkxj| GLb KYvwU‡K x0 Ae¯’vb †_‡K x Ae¯’v‡b miv‡Z cÖhy³ ej Øviv K…Z Kv‡Ri cwigvY, W Fdx
x0
dv dv dx dv dv
wKš‘ wbDU‡bi MwZi wØZxq †_‡K Avgiv Rvwb, F=ma Avevi, a . .v v
dt dx dt dx dx
W K K 0 K
A_©vrcwieZ©bkxj ej Øviv K…Z KvR = e¯‘i MwZkw³i cwieZ©b|
mij ‡`vj‡Ki mvnv‡h¨ hvwš¿K kw³i wbZ¨Zvi m~‡Îi cÖgvY (Conservation law of energy in case of simple pendulum)t
aiv hvK, OA GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki mvg¨ve¯’vb| e‡ei fi m| GwU `yj‡Z `yj‡Z †Kvb GK mgq m‡e©v”P we›`y
C-‡Z †cuŠwQ‡j ÿwb‡Ki Rb¨ w¯’i n‡e| C we›`y, e‡ei mvg¨ve¯’vb A n‡Z AN D”PZvq Aew¯’Z|
C we›`y‡Z mg¯Í kw³ wefe kw³|
C we›`y‡Z wefe kw³ EP = mg ×AN
Ges C we›`y‡Z MwZ kw³ EK = 0
C we›`y‡Z ‡gvU kw³ EP +EK = mg ×AN + 0
C we›`y‡Z ‡gvU kw³ = mg ×AN
‡`vjKwU †Kvb GK mgq B we›`y‡Z †cŠQ‡e| B we›`y‡Z e‡ei wefe kw³ I
MwZkw³ DfqB _vK‡e|
B we›`y‡Z wefe kw³ EP = mg ×AM
1
B we›`y‡Z MwZ kw³ E K m(u 2 2gh )
2
1
E K m(0 2 2gh )
2
1
E K m 2gh
2
E K mgh
E K mg NM [GLv‡ b, h NM ]
EK mg(AN AM)
B we›`y‡Z ‡gvU kw³ = EP +EK = mg ×AM+ mg (AN AM)
= mg ×AM+ mg ×AN mg × AM
= mg ×AN = C we›`y‡Z ‡gvU kw³, Gfv‡e †`Lvb hvq †h, e‡ei MwZ c‡_i me©Î †gvU kw³
aªæeK| AZGe, mij †`vj‡Ki †ÿ‡Î kw³i wbZ¨Zv m~Î cÖgvwYZ nj|
ÿgZv (Power) t
†Kvb e¨vw³ ev h‡š¿i KvR Kivi nvi‡K ÿgZv e‡j| ÿgZv‡K P Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| t mg‡q W KvR Ki‡j ÿgZv
W
P n‡e| ÿgZvi GKK IqvU| ÿZvi gvÎv [ML2 T 3 ]
t
IqvU (Watt) t
1 †m‡K‡Û 1 Ryj KvR Kivi ÿgZv‡K GK IqvU ÿgZv e‡j| IqvU †K W Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| IqvU = Ryj/ †m‡KÛ|
6| GKwU gUi 4.9 wgwb‡U 10000 wjUvi cvwb 6m Dc‡i DVv‡Z 9| GKRb †jvK I GKRb evjK GK‡Î †`Šov‡”Qb| evjKwUi fi †jv‡Ki
cv‡i| gUiwUi ÿgZv 80 % Kvh©Ki n‡j Gi ÿgZv KZ wbY©q Ki| f‡ii A‡a©K Ges †jvKwUi MwZkw³ evjKwUi MwZkw³i A‡a©K| †jvKwU
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, hw` Zvi †eM 1ms-1 e„w× K‡ib Z‡e Zvi MwZkw³ evjKwUi MwZkw³i
mgh MfxiZv, h = 6 m
P1 mgq, t = 4.9min = 60×4.9s
mgvb nq| G‡`i Avw`‡eM wbY©q Ki|
t
1wjUvi cvwbi fi, =1 †KwR
10000 9.8 6 10000 wjUvi cvwbi fi,
ev,P1 W g‡b Kwi, evjKwUi Avw`†eM= v1
60 4.9 m =10000 †KwR ‡jv‡Ki Avw`†eM = v2
P1 2000 W Kvh©Kix ¶gZv,
P1 = 80% ‡jv‡Ki fi = m
Avevi, P 80% P1 m
cÖK…Z ¶gZv, P = ? evj‡ Ki fi
80 2
P 2000
100 1
cÖkœvbymv‡ i, † jvKwUi MwZkw³ evjKwUi MwZkw³
2000 100 2
P W 1 1 1 m
80 ev, mv 22 v12
P 2500 W (Ans.) 2 2 2 2
2
v
7| GKwU gUi N›Uvq 2.5×107 kg cvwb 50m Dc‡i DVv‡Z cv‡i| ev , v 22 1
4
gUiwUi ÿgZv 45 % Kvh©Ki n‡j Gi ÿgZv wbY©q Ki| v
Avgiv Rvwb, ev, v 2 1 ... ... ... ... (1)
GLv‡b, 2
mgh
P1 MfxiZv, h = 50 m 1 1 m
t Avevi cÖkœvbymv‡ i, m(v 2 1) 2 v12
7 mgq, t = 3600sec. 2 2 2
2.5 10 9 . 8 5 0
ev, P1 W fi, m =2.5×107 kg v12
3600
Kvh©Kix ¶gZv, ev, (v 2 1) 2
ev, P1 3402777.77 W 2
P1 = 45% v1
Avevi, P 45% P1 cÖK…Z ¶gZv, P = ? ev, v 2 1
45 2
P 3402777.77 v v
100 ev, 1 1 1
3402777.77 100 2 2
P W ev, 0.5v1 1 0.707 v1
45
P 7561728 . 38 W (Ans.) ev, 0.207v1 1
1
v1 4.83 ms 1 (Ans.)
8| 30m D”PZv †_‡K GKwU e¯‘‡K webv evavq co‡Z w`‡j 0.207
†Kv_vq Dnvi MwZ kw³ wefe kw³i wظb n‡e? v1 4.83
Ges, v 2 2.42 ms -1 (Ans.)
g‡b Kwi e¯‘wUi fi m, Ges f‚c„ô †_‡K h D”PZvq e¯‘wUi MwZkw³ 2 2
wefe kw³i wظb nq|
kZ©vbymv‡i, 10| GKwU KYvi Dci F 6 î 3 ĵ 2 k̂ N ej cÖ‡qv‡M KYvwUi
1 2
mv 2mgh r 2î 2ˆj k̂ m miY nq| ej KZ…K m¤úvw`Z Kv‡Ri cwigvb
2 wbY©q Ki|
v 2 4 gh
0 2 2 g (30 h) 4 gh Avgiv Rvwb,
30 h 2h W F.r
3h 30 W (6î 3 ĵ 2k̂ ). ( 2î 2 ĵ k̂ )
30 W (6)(2) (3)(2) ( 2)(1)
h
10 W 12 6 2
h 10 m W 4 J (Ans.)
DËi: 10m D”PZvq MwZ kw³ wefe kw³i wظb n‡e|
11| GKwU cvwbc~Y© Kzqvi MfxiZv 12m Ges e¨vm 1.8m | GKwU 13| 200 gm f‡ii GKwU e¯‘ 10m Dci †_‡K bx‡P c‡o hvq| f~c„ô
cv¤ú 24 wgwb‡U KzqvwU‡K cvwbk~Y¨ Ki‡Z cv‡i| cv¤úwUi Ak¦ÿgZv ¯úk© Kivi c~e© gyn‡~ Z© Gi MwZ kw³ wbY©q Ki|
KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb, Avgiv Rvwb,
GLv‡b,
fi m r 2 l 1 fi,
E k mv 2 mgh
m 3.14 (0.9) 2 12 10 3 GLv‡b, 2 m = 0.2 kg
m 30520.8 Kg 1. 8 0.2 9.8 10 19.6J (Ans.) h=10m
e¨vmva© r = = 0.9m MwZkw³, Ek = ?
Avevi, 2
mgh MfxiZv l = 12m
P cvwb DVv‡bvi Mo D”PZv
t
12 14| h wgUvi DuPy ¯’vb ‡_‡K GKwU e¯‘ co‡Q| †Kv_vq Zvi MwZ-kw³
30520.8 908 6 h= m = 6m
P Watt 2 w¯’wZ-kw³i A‡a©K n‡e?
24 60 mgq t = 24 wgt = 24× 60 †mt
30520.8 908 6 cv¤úwUi Ak¦¶gZv P = ?
P H.P
24 60 746 g‡b Kwi e¯‘wUi fi m, Ges f‚c„ô †_‡K x D”PZvq e¯‘wUi MwZ-kw³
P 1.67 H.P (Ans.) w¯’wZ-kw³i A‡a©K n‡e?
kZ©vbymv‡i,
12| 6kg fi wewkó GKwU e¯‘ w¯’i Ae¯’vq wQj| 30N ej cÖ‡qvM 1
2 mv 2 mgx
Kivq 10s ci e¯‘wUi MwZkw³ KZ n‡e? 2
Avgiv Rvwb, v 2 gx
F = ma GLv‡b, 0 2 2 g (h x) gx
30=6×a mgq, t = 10s.
a = 5ms-2 2( h x ) x
fi, m = 6kg
Avevi, 2h 2 x x 3x 2h
ej F =30N
v u at 2h
MwZkw³, Ek =? x
v 0 5 10 3
v 50ms 1 DËi: 2h/3 D”PZvq MwZ kw³ wefe kw³i A‡a©K n‡e|
Avevi,
1 2
Ek mv
2
1
K 6 502
2
K 7500J(Ans.)
ভাকলীয় প্রাফরযঃ ভাকলীয় যক্ষনত্র যকান বফন্দুনত একক বয ম্পনড়ফ একবট ফস্ত্ত্ত িান কযনর, ফস্ত্ত্তবট যম আকলণ ফর অনু বফ কনয
তানক ঐ যক্ষনত্রয দরুন ঐ বফন্দুয তীব্রতা ফা প্রাফরয ফনর।
-1
গাবণবতক বানফ, এবট একবট বদক যাব। এয একক (S.I.) Nkg
ভাকলীয় বফবফঃ ভাকলীয় যক্ষনত্রয যকান বফন্দুয বফবফ ফরনত একক বয ম্পনড়ফ একবট ফস্ত্ত্তনক অীভ যথনক অথাৎ যক্ষনত্রয ফাবয
যথনক ঐ বফন্দুনত আননত ভাকনলয বফরুনদ্ধ যম বযভাণ কাজ কযনত য় তানক ফু ঝায়।
ভাকলীয় যক্ষত্রঃ ফৃ ৎ বযবফবি যকান ফস্ত্ত্তয জন ফস্ত্ত্তয িাযবদনক যম অঞ্চনরয ভনধয এয আকলণ ফর অনু বূত য়, য
অঞ্চরনক ঐ ফস্ত্ত্তয ভাকলীয় যক্ষত্র ফনর।
ভুবিনফগঃ ফবনভড়ফ যম যফনগ যকান ফস্ত্ত্ত বনবক্ষপ্ত নর তা আয ৃ বথফীনত বপনয আনফ না য যফগনক ভুবি যফগ ফনর। এয ফবনভড়ফ
-1 -1
ভান নে 11.18kms ফা 6.98mils
যকরানযয ূ ত্রঃ
প্রভ ূ ত্র (কনক্ষয ূ ত্র): প্রনতযকবট গ্রনই ূ মনক প্রবতবনয়ত নাববনত (Focas) যযনখ উফৃ ত্তাকায নথ প্রবতবনয়ত ূ মনক
প্রদবক্ষন কযনে।
বিতীয় ূ ত্র (নক্ষত্রপনরয ূ ত্র): যম যকান গ্র এফিং ূ নময ানথ িংনমাগকাযী যযখা ভান ভনয় ভান যক্ষত্রপর অবতক্রভ কনয।
তৃতীয় ূ ত্র (মায়কানরয ূ ত্র): প্রবতবট গ্রনয মায়কানরয ফগ ূ ম নত ঐ গ্রনয গড় দূ যনত্বয ঘনপনরয ভানু াবতক।
১৯৫৭ ানরয ৪ঠ্া অনক্টাফয যৌববনয়ত ইউবনয়াননয বফজ্ঞানীযা ফ প্র ভ কৃবত্রভ উগ্র স্পু টবনক-১ যপ্রযনণয ভাধযনভ ভাূ নয
অববমাননয থ প্রদন কনয।
একবট কৃবত্রভ উগ্রনক ৃ বথফীনক প্রায় 9.30 বক: বভ: ফা 7 ভাইর যফনগ বননক্ষ কযনত াযনরই তনফ তা ৃবথফীনক বযক্রভন কযনত থাকনফ।
G এয ভান ফ ভয়ই ধ্রুফ থানক ফনর এনক বফেজনীন ভাকলীয় ধ্রুফক ফনর।
অববকল ফনরয প্রবানফ ভুিবানফ ড়ন্ত ফস্ত্ত্তয যফগ ফৃ বদ্ধয াযনক অববকলজ ত্বযণ ফনর। অববকলজ ত্বযণ ‘g’ যকান ধ্রুফ
িংখযা নয়। িাননবনদ এয বযফতন য়। g এয ভান যভরুনত যফী (983.217cm/s2) এফিং বফলূ ফীয় অঞ্চনর কভ (978.039
cm/s2) বূ -ৃষ্ঠ যথনক উনযয বদনক ফা বননিয বদনক g এয ভান কভ এফিংনকনদ্রতা ূ নয (0)।
ৃ বথফীয গড় ফযাাধ, R = 6.37× 106m ৃ বথফীয গড় ঘনত্ব, ρ = 5.5 × 103 kgm-3
ৃ বথফীয বয, M = 5.975 × 1027gm
ূ নময অববকলজ ত্বযনণয ভান ৃবথফীয 27 গুণ এফিং িনদ্রতা g এয ভান ৃবথফীয 1/6 বাগ।
gnvKl© (Gravitation)t
gnvwe‡k¦i cÖvZwU e¯‘ KYvB G‡K Aci‡K wb‡Ri w`‡K AvKl©b K‡i| GB AvKl©b e‡ji gvb ïay e¯‘؇qi fi I G‡`i
ga¨Kvi `~i‡Z¡i Dci wbf©i K‡i G‡`i AvK…wZ, cÖK…wZ, AwfgyL I gva¨‡gi cÖK…wZi Dci wbf©i K‡i bv| gnvwe‡k¦i †h
†Kvb `ywU e¯‘i ga¨Kvi GB AvKl©Y ej‡K gnvKl© e‡j|
e¨vL¨vt aivhvK, m1 I m2 f‡ii `ywU e¯‘ ci¯úi n‡Z d `~i‡Z¡ Aew¯’Z| G‡`i
ga¨Kvi AvKl©b ej F n‡j gnvKl© m~Îvbymv‡i,
F m1m 2 hLb d aªæe _v‡K Ges
1
F hLb m1 I m2 aªæe _v‡K|
d2
mm
Abycv‡Zi m~Îvbymv‡i, F 1 2
hLb m1, m2 I d cwiewZ©Z nq|
2
d
mm
ev, F G 1 2
... ... ... (1) GLv‡b G GKwU mgvbycvwZK aªæeK| Gi gvb gnvwe‡k¦i me©Î
2
d
GKB †mB Rb¨ G‡K wek¦Rbxb ev me©Rbxb gnvKl©xq aªæeK e‡j|
msÁvt GKK f‡ii `ywU e¯‘ KYv GKK `~i‡Z¡ †_‡K ci¯úi‡K †h e‡j AvKl©b K‡i Zvi gvb‡K gnvKl©xq aªæeK e‡j| G
mm Fd 2
Gi GKK, F G 1 2
G GB mgxKi‡Y Wvb cv‡k¦©i ivwk¸‡jvi GKK emv‡j G-Gi GKK cvIqv hvq|
d2 mm
1 2
Gm AvB c×wZ‡Z G Gi GKK n‡”Q Nm2 kg -2, Gm AvB c×wZ‡Z G Gi gvb me©m¤§Z gvb 6.673× 10-11 Nm2 kg -2,
G Gi gvb 6.673× 10-11 Nm2 kg -2 ej‡Z GB eywS ‡h, 1 kg e‡ii `ywU e¯‘ 1m `~‡i †_‡K ci¯úi‡K 6.673× 10-11 N
e‡j AvKl©Y K‡i|
2 2 2 L2
G Gi gvÎv: G Fd ej `~ iZ¡ MLT = [M-1L3 T-2]
mm
1 2 fi 2 M2
wnmve I MYbv t
g‡b Kwi, cÖwZwU eo †Mvj‡Ki fi = M Ges cÖwZ †QvU †Mvj‡Ki fi = m| `‡Ûi mvg¨ve¯’vq eo I †QvU †Mvj‡Ki
†K›`ªØ‡qi ga¨eZ©x `~iZ¡ = d n‡j, gnvKl© m~Îvbymv‡i cvB,
GMm
F ... ... ... (1)
d2
R `‡Ûi `yB cÖv‡šÍ GB cwigvb ej wµqv Kivq GKwU ؇›Øi m„wó nq| GB ؇›Øi bvg we‡ÿcx Ø›Ø| R `‡Ûi ˆ`N©¨ l n‡j
we‡ÿcx ؇›Øi åvgK = F l
GMml
... ... ... (2)
d2
GB ؇›Øi wµqvq R `Û Ny‡i hvq| d‡j Szjb Zv‡i cvK c‡o| Zv‡ii w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv GB cvK Lyj‡Z cÖqvm cvq| myZivs,
Szjb GKwU cÖZ¨qbx ؇›Øi m„wó nq| R `‡Ûi we‡ÿc‡KvY n‡j,
cÖZ¨qbx ؇›Øi åvgK = ... ... ... ... (3) GLv‡b n‡jv Szjb Zv‡ii cvK aªªæeK| R `‡Ûi mvg¨ve¯’vq,
we‡ÿcx ؇›Øi åvgK = cÖZ¨qbx ؇›Øi åvgK
GMml
d2
d 2
G ... ... ... (4)
Mml
GLv‡b, , d, M, m I l -Gi gvb Rvbv Av‡Q| Gi gvb wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e| GLb eo †MvjKØq‡K mwi‡q, R
`Û‡K e¨eZ© †`vj‡b †`vj †`qv nq Ges †`vjb Kvj T wbY©q Kiv nq| R `‡Ûi RoZvi åvgK I n‡j,
I
T 2
4 2 I
ev, T 2
2
4 I
GB Gi gvb (4) bs mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q cvB,
2
T
4 I d 2
2
G ... ... ... (5) GB mgxKi‡Yi Wvb cv‡k¦i ivwk ¸wji gvb ewm‡q G Gi gvb cvIqv hvq|
2
MmlT
K¨v‡fwÛm Zvi cixÿvq †h gvb cÖvß nb Zv nj G = 6.673× 10-11 Nm2 kg -2 |
cÖkœt AwfKl©R Z¡iY‡K wKfv‡e c„w_exi fi, e¨vmva© Ges gnvKl© aªæe‡Ki mvn‡h¨ cÖKvk Kiv hvq †`LvI|
DËit f~-c„ô n‡Z h `~‡i m f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘i Dci AwfKl© e‡ji wµqv we‡ePbv Kiv hvK, c„w_exi fi M Ges e¨vmva© R
GMm
n‡j, e¯‘wUi Dci AwfKl© ej, F Avevi, AwfKl©R Z¡iY g n‡j
(R h ) 2
wbDU‡bi MwZ m~Îvbyhvqx Avgiv cvB, F = mg d‡j, mg GMm 2
(R h )
GM
g ... ... ... (1)
(R h ) 2
GUvB AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi Av`k© mgxKiY| G †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h, AwfKl©R Z¡iY mswkøó e¯‘i f‡ii Dci wbf©i K‡i bv|
GM
Avevi f~-c„‡ô h=0 AvZGe, g ... ... ... (2) mgxKiY (2) n‡Z ejv hvq, g -Gi gvb c„w_exi e¨vmv‡a©i Dci
R2
wbf©i K‡i| f~-c„‡ôi †Kvb ¯’v‡b me©Rb M„nxZ gvb 9.8 ms-2| f~-c„‡ôi †Kvb ¯’v‡b g Gi gvb 9.8 ms-2 ej‡Z GB eywS †h,
H ¯’v‡b f~-c„‡ô gy³ fv‡e cošÍ e¯‘i †eM cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û 9.8ms-1 nv‡i e„w× cvq| mgxKiY (1) I (2) AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi
mv‡_ c„w_exi fi, e¨vmva© Ges gnvKl© aªæe‡Ki mv‡_ m¤úK©h³
y mgxKiY|
f~-c„ô †_‡K D”PZ¡i I wb¤§Z¡i †Kvb ¯’v‡b AwfKl©xq Z¡iY g Gi gv‡bi wKiƒc cwieZ©b nq MvwbwZK we‡køl‡bi mvnv‡h¨
†`LvI| f~-c„ô n‡Z h D”PZvq AwfKl©R Z¡iY :
GM
g‡b Kwi, c„w_exi fi M Ges e¨vmva© R n‡j f~-c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g ... ... ... (1) Avevi f~-c„ô n‡Z h
R2
D”PZvq A_©vr c„w_exi †K›`ª n‡Z (R+h) Dc‡i AwfKl©R Z¡iY g n‡j (9) bs mgxKiY Abymv‡i,
GM
g ... ... ... (2)
(R h ) 2
(2) bs mgxKiY‡K (1) bs mgxKiY Øviv fvM K‡i cvB,
g GM R2
g (R h ) 2 GM
g R2
g (R h ) 2
g 1
g R h 2
R
g 1
2
g h
1 R
g h 2
1 GB mgxKiY‡K evB‡bvwgqvj ZË¡¡vbymv‡i we¯Í…wZ K‡i Ges h ÿz`ª e‡j Gi D”PNvZ AMÖvn¨ K‡i cvB,
g R R
g 2h
1
g R
AwfKl© †K›`ª (Gravitational Center) t GKwU e¯‘‡K †h fv‡eB ivLv †nvK bv †Kb e¯‘i wfZ‡i Aew¯’Z †h we›`yi ga¨w`‡q
†gvU IRb wµqv K‡i †mB we›`y‡K e¯‘i AwfKl© †K›`ª e‡j|
gnvKl©xq †ÿÎ (Gravitational Field) t †Kvb e¯‘i Av‡k cv‡k †h AÂje¨vcx Gi gnvKl© cÖfve eRvq _v‡K A_©vr
Ab¨‡Kvb e¯‘ ivLv n‡j †mwU AvKl©b ej jvf K‡i, Zv‡K H e¯‘i gnvKl©xq †ÿÎ e‡j|
gnvKl©xq †ÿÎ cÖvej¨ (Gravitation Field Strength or Gravitation Intensity)t gnvKl©xq †ÿ‡Îi †Kvb we›`y‡Z GKK
f‡ii GKwU e¯‘ ¯’vcb Ki‡j †mwU †h ej jvf K‡i Zv‡K H we›`yi gnvKl©xq †ÿÎ cÖvej¨ e‡j|
K…wÎg DcMÖn (Artificial Satellites) t gbyl¨ †cÖwiZ †h mKj gnvk~b¨hvb wbw`©ó Kÿc‡_ †_‡K c„w_ex‡K cwiågb K‡i,
Zv‡K K…wÎg DcMÖn e‡j|
i‡K‡Ui mvnv‡h¨ K…wÎg DcMÖn‡K wbw`©ó D”PZvq Zz‡j f~-c„‡ôi mgvšÍiv‡j wbw`©ó †e‡M Qy‡o †`qv nq| d‡j DcMÖnwU
c„w_ex‡K cÖ`wÿY Ki‡Z _v‡K|
f~-w¯’i DcMÖn (Geo-stationary Satellites)t ‡h mKj DcMÖ‡ni AveZ©b Kvj wbR A‡ÿi Pviw`‡K c„w_exi AveZ©b Kv‡ji
mgvb, Zv‡`i f~-w¯’i DcMÖn e‡j| Giƒc DcMÖ‡ni MwZ‡eM Ggb †`qv nq, †hb GUv 24 N›Uvq c„w_ex‡K GKevi cÖ`wÿb
K‡i| †mB Rb¨ f~-c„ô n‡Z GK Rb ch©‡eÿK DcMÖnwU‡K me mgq GKB RvqMvq †`‡L|
we›`y f‡ii Rb¨ gnvl©xq †ÿ‡Î ‡Kvb we›`y‡Z gnvKl©xq wef‡ei ivwkgvjv wbY©q (Gravitational Potential due to Point Mass)t
g‡b Kwi, A we›`y‡Z GKwU we›`y fi M Aew¯’Z| M fi †_‡K gnvKl©xq
‡ÿ‡Îi g‡a¨ r `yi‡Z¡ B we›`y‡Z wefe wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e| AB †hvM Kwi|
B we›`y‡Z GKK fi ¯’vcb Ki‡j Zvi Dci wµqvkxj gnvKl©xq ej,
M 1 GM
FG 2 , BA eivei| aiv hvK, B we›`yi wefe V| GLb
r2 r
hw` GB GKK f‡ii e¯‘wU M f‡ii e¯‘wUi mv‡_ AvKl©Y ej F Gi d‡j e‡ji Awfgy‡L ÿz`ªvwZÿz`ª `~iZ¡ dr m‡i C we›`y‡Z
Av‡m, Zvn‡j KvR n‡e Fdr cos 0º Ges wef‡ei cwieZ©b dV=Fdr cos 0º
dV=Fdr×1=Fdr GLb GB mgxKiY‡K r ‡_‡K r = r GB mxgvi g‡a¨ mgvKjb K‡i B we›`y‡Z wefe V n‡j,
r
V Fdr
r
GM
V dr
r2
r
dr
V GM
r2
r
V GM r 2dr
r
1
V GM
r
1 1
V GM
r
GM
V GUvB wb‡Y©q wefe| GL‡b FbvZ¡K wPý wb‡`©k K‡i †h, gnvKl© wef‡ei gvb Amx‡g †ekx| Amxg n‡Z
r
†ÿ‡Îi w`‡K G¸‡Z _vK‡j wef‡ei gvb Kg‡Z _v‡K|
gyw³ †eM (Escape Velocity) t me©v‡cÿv Kg †h †e‡M k~‡b¨ wbwÿß e¯‘ AwfK‡l©i cÖfve KvwU‡q gnvk~‡b¨ P‡j hvq, Zv‡K
gyw³ †eM ev wb¯ŒgY †eM e‡j| G‡K ve Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
gyw³ †e‡Mi ivwkgvjv (Magnitude of Escape Velocity) t c„w_exi fi M n‡j Gi †K›`ª n‡Z r `~‡i m f‡ii †Kvb e¯‘i
Dci wµqviZ AwfKl© ej, F GMm2
GB e‡ji wµqvq m f‡ii e¯‘wU‡K dr ÿz`ª `~i‡Z¡ miv‡Z K…Z KvR,
r
dW Fdr
GMm
dW 2 dr c„w_exi e¨vmva© R n‡j f~-c„ô n‡Z m f‡ii e¯‘‡K gnvk~‡b¨ A_©vr, Amx‡g †cÖi‡Yi Rb¨ K…Z
r
†gvU KvR, W dW
R
GMm
W dr
R
r2
W GMm r 2 dr
R
r 21
W GMm
1 R
1
W GMm
r R
1 1
W GMm
R
GMm
W ... ... ... ... (1)
R
e¯‘wU‡K gnvk~‡b¨ Mg‡bi Rb¨ GB cwigvb Kv‡Ri mgZzj¨ MwZkw³ AR©b Ki‡Z n‡e| AZGe, gyw³‡eM ve n‡j, Avgiv
1 GMm
cvB, mv e2
2 R
2GM
ve
R
2GMR
cybivq, ve
R2
GM
ve 2gR ... ... ... ... (2) g R 2 BnvB gyw³ †e‡Mi ivwkgvjv|
MÖ‡ni MwZ msµvšÍ †Kcjv‡ii m~‡Îi eY©bv (Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion) t
cÖ_g m~Ît
K‡ÿi m~Ît cÖwZ MÖnB m~h©‡K GKwU †dvKv‡m ( focus) †i‡L Dce„ËvKvi c‡_ Ny‡i|
wØZxq m~Ît
†ÿÎd‡ji m~Ît MÖn Ges m~‡h©i ms‡hvRK mij‡iLv mgvb mg‡q mgvb †ÿÎdj AwZµg K‡i|
Z…Zxq m~Ît AveZ©b Kv‡ji m~Ît m~‡h©i Pviw`‡K cÖwZwU MÖ‡ni AveZ©bKv‡ji eM© m~h©‡_‡K H MÖ‡ni Mo `~i‡Z¡i Nbd‡ji
mgvbycvwZK|
4| c„w_exc„‡ó g Gi gvb 9.8ms-2| c„w_exi e¨vmva© 7| c„w_ex‡K 6.4×106 m e¨vmv‡a©i Ges 5.5gm/cc Nb‡Z¡i †MvjK g‡b
R = 6.4l×103km I gnvKl©xq aªeK G = 6.7×10-11 Nm2kg-2 K‡i Gi c„‡ô AwfKl©R Z¡iY wbY©q Ki| G = 6.673×10-11 Nm2kg-2
n‡j c„w_exi fi wbY©q Ki| Avgiv Rvwb,
GLv‡b, GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb, GM
AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g = 9.8 ms-2 g 2 e¨vmva©, R = 6.4×106 m
GM R gnvKl©xq aªeK,
g e¨vmva©, R = 6.41×103km
R 2 =6.41×106 m 4 G = 6.673×10-11 Nm2kg-2
gnvKl©xq aªeK,
G R 3
gR 2 3 c„w_exi NbZ¡ , = 5.5gm/cc
ev, M G=6.7×10-11 Nm2kg-2 g 2 = 5.5×103kg/m3
G c„w_exi fi, M = ?
R
AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g =?
9| f‚-c„‡ô †Kvb †jv‡Ki IRb 684N n‡j wZwb Puv‡` wM‡q KZUzKz IRb
G 4R nviv‡eb? c„w_exi fi I e¨vmva© h_vµ‡g Puv‡`i fi I e¨vmv‡a©i 81 Ges 4
g ¸b| Avgiv Rvwb,
3
6.673 10 11 4 3.14 6.4 10 6 5.5 10 3 GM M
g gM ........(1)
3 R 2M
2
g 9.83 ms (Ans.) GM E
gE ........(2)
R 2E
8| c„w_ex ‡_‡K 1600 km D”PZvq GKwU K…wÎg DcMÖn c„w_ex‡K g M M M R 2E
†K›`ª K‡i e„ËvKvi c‡_ cÖ`wÿb Ki‡Q| Gi †eM †ei Ki| ‡`qv 2
gE RM ME
Av‡Q c„w_exi e¨vmva© 6.4×103 km, c„w_exi fi 6×1024 kg Ges
G = 6.67×10-11Nm2kg-2| gM M (4R) 2
GLv‡b,
ev, 2
gE R 81M
Avgiv Rvwb, e¨vmva©, R = 6.4×106 m
gnvKl©xq aªeK, g 16
GM M ...........(6)
v G = 6.67×10-11 Nm2kg-2 g E 81
Rh c„w_exi fi,
c„w_ex c„‡ô IRb WE = 684N Ges Puv‡` IRb WM n‡j,
-11 24 M=6.0×1024 kg
6.67 10 6.0 10 D”PZv h = 1600000m WM g M WM 16 16
v WM WE
6.4 10 6 1600000 DcMÖ‡ni †eM v =? WE gE WE 81 81
v 7072.84ms 1 (Ans.) 16
WM 684 N 135.11N
81
Puv‡` IRb nviv‡e, = (684-135.11) N = 548.89N (Ans.)
K¤úv¼ (Frequency):
GKK mg‡q hZ¸‡jv c~Y© ¯ú›`b m¤úbœ nq Kv‡K K¤úv¼ e‡j| G‡K f ev n Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Gi GKK Hz|
we¯Ívi (Amplitude):
mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`bkxj †Kvb KYv Gi mvg¨ve¯’vb †_‡K †h †Kvb GK w`‡K †h m‡e©v”P `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K Gi we¯Ívi
e‡j| we¯Ívi‡K a Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Gi GKK wgUvi|
`kv (Phase):
mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`bkxj †Kvb KYvi `kv ej‡Z H KYvi †h †Kvb gyn‡~ Z© MwZi mvg¨K Ae¯’v A_©vr KYvwUi miY, †eM, Z¡iY,
ej BZ¨vw` eySvq|
mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi e¨eKjbxq mgxKi‡Yi mgvavb (Solution of Differential Equation of SHM) :
mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi e¨eKjbxq mgxKiY
d2x
2
2 x 0
dt
a‡i ‡bB, Gi GKwU mgvavb nj, x A sin (t ) GLb GwU †h, e¨eKjbxq mgxKi‡Yi GKwU mgvavb Zv Avgiv
wb‡b¥v³ Dcv‡q hvPvB Ki‡Z cvwi| mgxKiY x A sin (t ) †K mg‡qi mv‡c‡ÿ cici `yB evi e¨eKjb K‡i cvB,
dx d
A sin( t )
dt dt
dx
A cos (t )
dt
d2x
2 2 A sin (t )
dt
d2x
2 2 x A sin (t ) x
dt
d2x d2x
2
2
x GB gvb 2
2 x 0 mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q cvB,
dt dt
evgcÿ = x x 0
2 2
ee (Bob) : ‡h fvix e¯‘‡K myZvi mvnv‡h¨ Szwj‡q mij †`vjK ˆZix Kiv nq Zv‡K ee e‡j| wP‡Î ee C
Syjb we›`y (Point of suspension): †h we›`y †_‡K myZvi mvnv‡h¨ ee‡K Szjvb nq ‡mB we›`y‡K Szjb we›`y e‡j| wP‡Î O
n‡”Q Szjb we›`y|
Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ : Szjbwe›`y †_‡K e‡ei fvi‡K›`ª ch©šÍ `~iZ¡‡K mij †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ e‡j| wP‡Î Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ OC=L
| †`vj‡Ki myZvi ˆ`N©¨ l Ges e‡ei e¨vmva© r n‡j Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L= l+r n‡e|
¯^í we¯Ív‡i ¯úw›`Z mij †`vj‡Ki MwZ mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b MwZ :
g‡bKwi, AB GKwU mij †`vjK| B Gi fvi‡K›`ª| m Gi fi| †`vjKwU‡K †`vj w`‡j †KŠwbK miY m„wó K‡i AC
Ae¯’v‡b Av‡m| GLb C we›`y‡Z Gi IRb mg Lvov wb‡Pi w`‡K wµqv K‡i| GB IRb‡K `ywU ci¯úi j¤^ Dcvs‡k fvM Kiv
hvq| GKwU myZvi ˆ`N©¨ eivei CD -Gi w`‡K mgcos Ges AciwU mgsin Gi mv‡_ j¤^fv‡e ¯úk©K eivei CE
Gi w`‡K wµqv K‡i| mgcos DcvskwU myZvi Uvb T Øviv wbw®Œq nq, myZivs GKgvÎ Kvh©Kix ej F n‡”Q mgsin Ges Gi
w`K mg¨ve¯’v‡bi w`‡K|
F = mgsin‡h‡nZz Kvh©Ki ej mi‡Yi wecixZ w`‡K ZvB FbvZ¥K wPý
e¨envi Kiv n‡q‡Q| GKvh©Kix e‡ji Rb¨ Z¡iY a n‡j,
F = ma
ma = mgsin
a = gsin
Gi gvb Lye Kg n‡j, A_©vr 4º Gi †ekx bv n‡j sin†iwWqvb‡jLv hvq|
a = g
Pvc Pvc
a g
e¨vmva e¨vmva
Pvc BC
a g
e¨vmva AC
‡h‡nZz BC n‡”Q miY x Ges AC n‡”Q Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L|
x
a g
L
g g
a x wKš‘ wbw`©ó ¯’v‡b wbw`©ó †`vj‡Ki Rb¨ GKwU aªæeK| G‡K Øviv cÖKvk Ki‡j
L L
a 2 x ... ... ... (1) GwU mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡bi kZ©|
myZivs ¯^í we¯Ív‡i ¯úw›`Z mij †`vj‡Ki MwZ mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b MwZ, †h †ÿ‡Î
1g m~Î, mgKvj m~Î : †KŠwbK we¯Ívi 4º Gi †ekx bv n‡j Ges †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡j †Kvb wbw`©ó ¯’v‡b
GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki cÖwZwU †`vj‡bi Rb¨ mgvb mgq jvM‡e|
2q m~Î, ˆ`‡N©¨i m~Î: †KŠwbK we¯Ívi 4º Gi †ekx bv n‡j †Kvb wbw`©ó ¯’v‡b GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki ‡`vjb Kvj Gi Kvh©Kix
ˆ`‡N©¨i eM©g~‡ji mgvbycvwZK| †`vjbKvj T Ges Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L n‡j
m~Îvbyhvqx, T L n‡e, hLb AwfKl©R Z¡iY g = aªæeK|
3q m~Î, Z¡i‡Yi m~Î: †KŠwbK we¯Ívi 4º Gi †ekx bv n‡j Ges †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡j †Kvb ¯’v‡b GKwU
mij †`vj‡Ki ‡`vjb Kvj H ¯’v‡bi AwfKl©R Z¡i‡Yi eM©g‡~ ji e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK| †`vjbKvj T Ges AwfKl©R Z¡iY g n‡j
1
m~Îvbyhvqx, T n‡e, hLb Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L = aªæeK|
g
4_© m~Î, f‡ii m~Î : †KŠwbK we¯Ívi 4º Gi †ekx bv n‡j Ges †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡j †Kvb wbw`©ó
¯’v‡b GKwU mij †`vj‡Ki ‡`vjb Kvj e‡ei fi, AvqZb, Dcv`vb BZ¨vw`i Dci wbf©i K‡i bv| wewfbœ fi, AvqZb ev
Dcv`v‡bi e‡ei Rb¨ †`vjbKvj GKB n‡e|
LT2 ‡jL wP‡Îi cÖK…wZ †Kgb n‡e?
mij †`vj‡Ki 2q m~Î †_‡K Avgiv cvB,
T L
ev, T 2 L
T 2 aªæeK L
GKwU QK KvM‡R X A‡ÿi w`‡K L Ges Y A‡ÿi w`‡K T2 Gi Abylw½K gvb ¯’vcb K‡i GKwU †jLwPÎ AsKb Ki‡j
†jLwPÎwU g~jwe›`y Mvgx GKwU mij †iLv n‡e| BnvB LT2 ‡jL wP‡Îi cÖK…wZ|
AwfKl©R Z¡iY (Acceleration due to gravity): AwfKl© e‡ji cÖfv‡e gy³fv‡e cošÍ e¯‘i †eM e„w×i nvi‡K AwfKl©R
Z¡iY e‡j| AwfKl©R Z¡iY‡K g Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| mij ‡`vj‡Ki †`vjbKv‡ji mgxKiY †_‡K Avgiv Rvwb,
L
T 2
g
L
T 2 4 2
g
L
g 4 2 2 ... ... ... ... (3)
T
GB mgxKiY †_‡K †Kvb ¯’v‡b L Kvh©Kix ˆ`‡N©¨i mij †`vj‡Ki †`vjbKvj T
wbY©q K‡i H ¯’v‡bi AwfKl©R Z¡iY g wbY©q Kiv hvq|
mij †`vjK ˆZix : ÷v‡Ûi mvnv‡h¨ GKwU ûK †_‡K †Kvb k³ myZv Øviv GKwU ÿz`ª fvix †MvjK Szwj‡q mij †`vjK ˆZix
Kiv nq| GB †MvjK‡K ee e‡j|
Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L wbY©q: ‡`vj‡Ki Szjb we›`y †_‡K e‡ei fvi‡K›`ª ch©šÍ `~iZ¡‡K mij †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L e‡j| cÖ_‡g
GKwU wgUvi †¯‹‡ji mvnv‡h¨ myZvi Szjb we›`y A_©vr ûK †_‡K e‡ei Dcwic„ô ch©šÍ `~iZ¡ l †g‡c †bIqv nq| Gici GKwU
aªyeK K¨vwjcv‡m©i mvnv‡h¨ e‡ei e¨vm wbY©q K‡i e¨vmva© r wbY©q Kiv nq| Zvn‡j †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L=l+r |
†`vjbKvj T wbY©q: mij †`vj‡Ki GKwU c~Y© †`vj‡bi Rb¨ †h mgq jv‡M Zv‡K †`vjb Kvj e‡j| †`vjKwU‡K mvg¨ve¯’v
†_‡K GKcv‡k Ggbfv‡e GKUz †U‡b †Q‡o †`qv nq hv‡Z GwU `yj‡Z _v‡K Ges †KŠwbK we¯Ívi 4º -Gi †ekx bv nq| GKwU
_vgv Nwoi mvnv‡h¨ 20 ev 25 wU †`vj‡bi mgq wbY©q K‡i H mgq‡K †`vjb msL¨v w`‡q fvM K‡i GKwU †`vj‡bi mgq
A_©vr †`vjbKvj T †ei Kiv nq|
L
Mo wbY©q: myZvi ˆ`N©¨ cwieZ©b K‡i †`vj‡Ki Kvh©Kix ˆ`N©¨ L cwieZ©b Kiv nq Ges wewfbœ Kvh©Kix ˆ`‡N©¨i Rb¨
T2
L L L
†`vjbKvj L wbY©q K‡i cÖwZ †ÿ‡Î 2
†ei K‡i Mo 2 wbY©q Kiv nq| GB 2 Gi Mo gvb (3) bs mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q g
T T T
Gi gvb wbY©q Kiv nq|
‡jLwPÎ †_‡K L I T2 wbY©q: GKwU QK KvM‡Ri X A‡ÿi w`‡K L -Gi wewfbœ gvb Ges
Y A‡ÿi w`‡K Avbylw½K T2 -Gi gvb ¯’vcb K‡i †jL A¼b Kiv nq| †jLwU g~jwe›`y Mvgx
GKwU mij †iLv nq| GB mij †iLvi Dci †h †Kvb GKwU we›`y P wb‡q P n‡Z X A‡ÿi
Dci PM Ges Y A‡ÿi PN j¤^ Uvbv nq| Zvn‡j †h †Kvb ˆ`N©¨ L=OM -Gi Rb¨
†`vjbKv‡ji eM© T2 = ON cvIqv hvq|
djvdj: †jL †_‡K cÖvß GB L I T2 -Gi gvb (3) bs mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q g -Gi gvb wn‡me Kiv nq|
L
g 4 2
T2
OM
g 4 2
ON
‡m‡KÛ †`vjK: †h †`vj‡Ki †`vjbKvj 2 †m‡KÛ A_©vr †h †`vj‡Ki GK cÖvšÍ †_‡K Aci cÖv‡šÍ †h‡Z GK †m‡KÛ mgq
jv‡M Zv‡K †m‡KÛ †`vjK e‡j| †m‡KÛ †`vjK 1 †m‡K‡Û GKwU Aa©‡`vjb m¤úbœ K‡i|
w¯cÖs RwbZ ¯ú›`b: GKwU w¯cÖs Gi †ÿ‡Î ch©vq Kv‡ji mv‡_ ej aªæeK I f‡ii g‡a¨ m¤úK© wbb©q:
‡Kvb w¯cÖs-Gi GK cÖvšÍ GKwU `„p Aej¤^‡bi mv‡_ mv‡_ hy³ K‡i G‡Z GKwU fi Szjv‡j w¯cÖswU Uvb Uvb Ae¯’vq _vK‡e|
AZtci fiwU‡K GKUz †U‡b †Q‡o w`‡j GUv mij Qw›`Z ¯úw›`Z n‡e| A_©vr, w¯cÖswU ch©vqµ‡g msKzwPZ I cÖmvwiZ n‡e
Ges fiwU Dc‡i wb‡P ¯úw›`Z n‡e| A_©vr, w¯cÖswU ch©vqµ‡g msKzwPZ I cÖmvwiZ n‡e Ges fiwU Dc‡i I wb‡P ¯úw›`Z
n‡e| wPÎ(K) bs wP‡Î w¯cÖswU ¯^vfvweK Ae¯’vq i‡q‡Q| hw` w¯cÖswUi mv‡_ m fi Szjv‡bv Ae¯’vq w¯cÖswU e cwigv‡Y
cÖmvwiZ n‡q mvg¨ve¯’vq _v‡K| [wPÎ (L)], Z‡e GB Ae¯’vq w¯cÖs -Gi Uvb
n‡e, To = mg ... ... ... (1)| w¯cÖswU hw` w¯’wZ¯’vcKZvi mxgv AwZµg bv K‡i, Z‡e û‡Ki m~Îvbymv‡i, To e
To= k e ... ... ... (2) GLv‡b, k n‡jv w¯cÖs Gi ej aªæeK ev w¯cÖs aªæeK| AZGe fi Szjv‡bv Ae¯’vq (1) I (2) n‡Z
Avgiv cvB, mg = k e ... ... ... ... ... (3)
GLb m fi‡K wb‡Pi w`‡K LvwbKUv †U‡b †Q‡o w`‡j GwU Dc‡i-wb‡P
`yj‡Z _v‡K| aiv hvK, †Kvb GK mgq mvg¨ve¯’vb n‡Z fiwUi miY x
[wPÎ (M)] Ges GB Ae¯’vq w¯cÖs-Gi Uvb, T k(x e) ... ... ... (4) ;
fiwUi Z¡iY a n‡j, F ma ... ... ... ...(5) mgxKiY e¨envi K‡i cvB,
mg T ma ... ... ... ...(6)
(6) bs mgxKi‡Y mg I T Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
k e k(x e) ma
ma kx
k
a x
m
k 2
a ω 2 x ... ... ... ... (7) m ω
(7) bs mgxKiY mij Qw›`Z MwZi mgxKiY| AZGe m fiwU mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`‡b ¯úw›`Z nq| G†ÿ‡Î m f‡ii
k
†KŠwbK K¤úv¼, ω Ges ch©vq Kvj T 2π 2π m ... ... ... ... (8)
m ω k
m e e
mg = k e ... ... ... (3) e¨envi K‡i cvB, T 2π
k g g
(8) bs mgxKiY ch©vq Kv‡ji mv‡_ ej aªæeK I f‡ii g‡a¨ m¤úK© |
1 1 1 k
MwZ kw³ : x Ae¯’v‡b KYvi MwZkw³, K mv 2 m 2 (A 2 x 2 ) m (A 2 x 2 )
2 2 2 m
1
ev, K k (A 2 x 2 ) ... ... ... ... (2)
2
w¯’wZkw³ ev wefe kw³ : ga¨ ¯’vb (x =0) †_‡K x mi‡Yi Rb¨ cÖZ¨qbx e‡ji weiæ‡× †h cwigvY KvR m¤úbœ n‡e Zv
e¯‘‡Z w¯’wZkw³ iƒ‡c mwÂZ _vK‡e| cÖZ¨qbx ej, F kx; awi miY m„wóKvix ej F; hv F Gi mgvb I wecixZgyLx|
F kx ;
AwZ Aí dx mi‡Yi Rb¨ cÖZ¨qbx e‡ji weiæ‡× K…Z KvR F dx;
x x x
x2 x
†gvU KvR = w¯’wZkw³ U Fdx kx dx k x dx k
o o o 2o
x2 1 1
k 0 kx 2 ev, U kx 2 ... ... ... (3)
2 2 2
1 1 1
†gvU kw³, E K U k (A 2 x 2 ) kx 2 kA 2
2 2 2
1
E kA 2 ... ... ... ... ... (4)
2
AZGe, wbw`©ó we¯Ív‡ii Rb¨ †gvU kw³ aªæe _v‡K| Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY †_‡K Av‡iv Rvbv hvq †h, EA 2
AvšÍtAvbweK ej: (Intermolecular force): mKj c`v_©B ÿz`ª ÿz`ª KYv w`‡q MwVZ hv c`v‡_©i me ¸Y eRvq iv‡L| G me
ÿy`ª KYv‡K AYy e‡j| c`v_© MV‡bi mgq AYy¸‡jv ci¯ú‡ii cvkvcvwk _v‡K Ges Zv‡`i g‡a¨ AwZ ÿz`ª cwigv‡bi duvKv
¯’vb _v‡K| GB duvKv ¯’vb‡K AvšÍtAvbweK ej ¯’vb e‡j| AvšÍtAvbweK `~i‡Z¡i cwigvb 10-9 †_‡K 10-10m| AYy¸‡jv GB
cwigvb `~i‡Z¡ †_‡K ci¯úi‡K GKwU e‡j AvKl©Y K‡i| GB AvKl©Y ej‡K AvšÍtAvbweK ej e‡j|
w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv (Elasticity):
†h a‡g©i d‡j e‡ji wµqvq weK…Z e¯‘ cÖhy³ ej Acmvi‡b cye©ve¯’vq wd‡i Av‡m ev Avm‡Z Pvq, Zv‡K w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv e‡j
Ges H e¯‘‡K w¯’wZ¯’vcK e¯‘ e‡j|
c~Y© w¯’wZ¯’vcK e¯‘ (Absolute Elastic Body): evwn¨K ej AcmvwiZ n‡j hw` weK…Z e¯‘ wVK Av‡Mi AvKvi I AvqZb
wd‡i cvq Zvn‡j H e¯‘‡K c~Y© w¯’wZ¯’vcK e¯‘ e‡j|
w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgv (Elastic Limit): †h gv‡bi ej ch©šÍ †Kvb e¯‘ c~Y© w¯’wZ¯’vcK e¯‘i b¨vq AvPiY K‡i A_©vr me©v‡cÿv †ekx
†h ej cÖ‡qvM K‡i ej AcmviY Ki‡j e¯‘wU c~e©ve¯’vq wd‡i hvq Zv‡K e‡ji †mB m‡e©v”P mxgv‡K w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgv e‡j|
`„p e¯‘ (Rigid Body): evwn¨K e‡ji wµqvq hw` †Kvb e¯‘i weKvi bv nq Z‡e Zv‡K `„p e¯‘ e‡j|
cøvw÷K e¯‘ (Plastic Body): evwn¨K e‡ji wµqvq †Kvb e¯‘i weK…wZ NU‡j Ges cÖhy³ e‡ji AcmvwiZ n‡j hw` e¯‘i
weK…Z Ae¯’v eRvq _v‡K Z‡e Zv‡K cøvw÷K e¯‘ e‡j|
weK…wZ (Strain): evwn¨K e‡ji wµqvq †Kvb e¯‘i KvwqK cwieZ©b n‡j e¯‘wU weK…Z n‡q‡Q ejv nq| e¯‘i GKK gvÎvq
y~x
cwieZ©‡bi cwigvb‡K weK…wZ e‡j| †Kvb e¯‘i Avw` gvÎv x Ges weK…wZi ci gvÎv y n‡j Gi weK…wZ n‡e,
x
weK…wZi †Kvb GKK ev gvÎv †bB KviY Giv `yBwU GKB cÖKvi ivwki AbycvZ|
cxob (Stress): evwn¨K e‡ji wµqvq †Kvb e¯‘i weK…wZ NU‡j Gi Af¨šÍ‡i GKUv cÖwZwµqvg~jK e‡ji D™¢e N‡U, hv
e¯‘Uv‡K c~e©ve¯Ívq wdwi‡q Avb‡Z cÖqvm cvq| e¯‘i GKK †ÿ‡Îi Dci wµqviZ GB cÖwZwµqv g~jK ej‡K cxob e‡j| A
F
†ÿÎd‡j F ej cÖhy³ n‡j cxob = n‡e| †ÿÎd‡ji w`K I e‡ji w`K GKB| ZvB ej I †ÿÎd‡ji fvMdj w`K
A
wbi‡cÿ nq| ZvB cxob †¯‹jvi ivwk|
e‡ ji gvÎv MLT 2
cxo‡ bi gvÎv ML T
1 2
† ¶ Îd‡ ji gvÎv L2
w¯’wZ¯’vcK K¬vwšÍ (Elastic Fatigue): †Kvb Zv‡ii Dci µgvMZ cÖhy³ cxo‡bi n«vm e„w× Ki‡j e¯‘i w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv ag© n«vm
cvq| Gi d‡j ej Acmvi‡Yi mv‡_ mv‡_ e¯‘ Av‡Mi Ae¯’v wd‡i cvq bv wKQyUv †`ix nq| e¯‘i GB Ae¯’v‡K w¯’wZ¯’vcK
K¬vwšÍ e‡j| ZLb Amn fv‡ii †P‡q Kg fv‡i GgbwK w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨B e¯‘wU wQ‡o †h‡Z cv‡i|
Amnfvi: me©v‡cÿv Kg †h fv‡ii wµqvq †Kvb e¯‘ †f‡½ ev wQ‡o hvq, Zv‡K Amnfvi e‡j|
Amncxob: Amnfv‡ii wµqvq e¯‘‡Z †h cxob nq, Zv‡K Amncxob e‡j| A_©vr, Amncxob Amnfvi
† ¶ Îdj
û‡Ki m~Î (Hooke's Law):
w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ e¯‘i cxob Gi weK…wZi mgvbycvwZK|
A_©vr, cxob weK…wZ|
ev, cxob = aªyeK × weK…wZ|
cxob
aª æeK
weK … wZ
GB aªæe‡Ki gvb e¯‘i Dcv`vb Ges GK‡Ki c×wZi Dci wbf©i K‡i| GB aªæe msL¨v‡K e¯‘i Dcv`v‡bi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼
ev w¯’wZ¯’vcK aªæeK e‡j|
fvwb©qvi c×wZ‡Z B¯úv‡Zi Zv‡ii BqsGi ¸Yv¼ wbY©q (Determination of Young's Modulus of Steel by Verneer Method )t
ZË¡t w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgvi g‡a¨ e¯‘i ‰`N©¨ cxob I ‰`N©¨ weK…wZi AbycvZ GKwU aªæe msL¨v| GB aªæe msL¨v‡K e¯‘i Dcv`v‡bi
BqsGi ¸Yv¼e‡j| BqsGi ¸bv¼‡K Y Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
BqsGi ¸bv¼ Y =
Bqs Gi ¸Yv¼ GKwU †¯‹jvi ivwk| A cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj I L ‰`N©¨ wewkó GKwU Zvi †Kvb `„p Aej¤^b n‡Z Szwj‡q hw`
ZviwUi wb‡Pi cÖv‡šÍ F ej cÖ‡qvM Kiv nq Zvn‡j Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ l e„w× †c‡j,
F
l F FL
‰`N©¨ weK…wZ Ges ‰`N©¨ cxob myZivs Y A hw` ZviwUi wb‡P M fi Szjvb nq
L A l Al
L
Zvn‡j. F=Mg, GLv‡b g = AwfKl©R Z¡iY| Avevi ZviwUi e¨vmva© r n‡j †ÿÎdj A = r2| †m‡ÿ‡Î
MgL
Y
r 2 l
DcwiD³ mgxKi‡Y Wvbw`‡Ki ivwk¸‡jv cixÿvi mvnv‡h¨ †ei K‡i Avgiv Bqs Gi ¸Yv¼ wbY©q Ki‡Z cvwi|
h‡š¿i eY©bv: †h c`v‡_©i BqsGi ¸Yv¼ wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e †mB c`v‡_©i GKB e¨v‡mi `ywU Zvi AB I CD †K GKwU `„p
Aej¤^b ‡_‡K Szjvb nq| AB cixÿvaxb Zvi I CD mnvqK Zvi| CD Zv‡ii mv‡_ wgwjwgUv‡i `vMvw¼Z GKwU cÖavb
†¯‹j Ges AB Zv‡ii mv‡_ GKwU fvwb©qvi †¯‹j Ggbfv‡e AvUKvb _v‡K hv‡Z fvwb©qvi †¯‹jwU cÖavb †¯‹‡ji Mv †e‡q
euvavnxb fv‡e DVvbvgv Ki‡Z cv‡i| CD Zv‡ii †¯‹‡ji wb‡P GKwU ûK jvMv‡bv _v‡K| GB û‡Ki mv‡_ GKwU IRb Szwj‡q
CD ZviwU‡K UvbUvb K‡i ivLv nq|
‰`N©¨ wbY©q : GKwU wgUvi †¯‹‡ji mvnv‡h¨ cixÿvaxb Zvi A_©vr ABGi Szjb we›`y A †_‡K
fvwb©qvi ‡¯‹‡ji k~b¨ `vM O ch©šÍ ˆ`N©¨ AO †g‡c †bqv nq| GwU nj Zv‡ii Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L|
e¨vmva© wbY©q : ¯Œz M‡Ri mvnv‡h¨ AB Zv‡ii wewfbœ RvqMvq e¨vm †g‡c wb‡q Mo e¨vm d wbY©q Kiv
nq| GLb Mo e¨vm‡K `yB w`‡q fvM K‡i e¨vmva© r cvIqv hvq|
Amnfvi wbY©q: e¨vmva© wbY©‡qi ci cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj A=r2 †ei Kiv nq| GLb cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i
‡ÿÎdj‡K Zv‡ii Amn cxob w`‡q ¸b Ki‡j Amn fvi cvIqv hvq| AB Zv‡i Amn fv‡ii A‡a©K
ev ZviI Kg fi Pvcv‡j, w¯’wZ¯’vcK mxgv AwZµg Ki‡e bv|
fvi I ˆ`N©¨ m¤cÖmviY wbY©q: GLb cÖavb †¯‹j I fvwY©qvi †¯‹‡ji cvV †`‡L †bqv nq| GwU n‡”Q
Avw` cvV| Gici AB Zv‡ii û‡K Avav kg IRb Szjvb nq| d‡j AB Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ e„w× nIqvq
fvwb©qvi †¯‹jwU wb‡P †b‡g hvq| GB Ae¯’vq cÖavb †¯‹j I fvwb©qvi †¯‹‡ji cvV †bIqv nq|
GB cvV I Avw` cv‡Vi cv_©K¨B nj Avav kg fv‡ii Rb¨ Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ cÖmviY| Giƒc fv‡e µgš^‡q
Avav kg K‡i fvi e„w× K‡i cÖwZ †ÿ‡Î cÖavb †¯‹j I fvwb©qvi †¯‹‡ji cvV †bIqv nq| cÖwZeviB
cÖvß cvV †_‡K Avw` cvV we‡qvM K‡i †gvU fv‡ii Rb¨ m¤cÖmviY wbY©q Kiv nq| Gici GKwU GKwU
K‡i Avav kg fvi bvwg‡q cÖ‡Z¨K evi cvV †bqv nq| G‡Z ˆ`N©¨ n«vm cvIqv hvq| Gi d‡j cÖ‡Z¨K
fv‡ii Rb¨ `ywU K‡i cvV cvIqv hv‡e| GKwU fvi e„w×i mgq AciwU fvi n«v‡mi mgq| GB `yB
cv‡Vi Mo ‡_‡K mswkøó fv‡ii Rb¨ ˆ`N©¨ m¤cÖmviY cvIqv hvq| Gfv‡e wewfbœ fvi Ges Zvi Rb¨ ˆ`N©¨ e„w× wbY©q Kiv
nq|
MgL
djvdjt GLb Y mgxKi‡Y , M, g, L, r I l Gi ewm‡q wnmve Ki‡j Y Gi gvb cvIqv hv‡e|
r 2l
mZK©Zv:
1| Zvi `ywU GKB c`v‡_©i Ges GKB ˆ`‡N©¨i nIqv DwPZ|
2| cÖ_‡g wKQy IRb Pvwc‡q UviwU‡K UvbUvb K‡i wb‡Z nq|
3| wcQb ÎæwU cwinvi K‡i ¯ŒzMR‡K GKB w`‡K Nyivb nq|
4| Amn fv‡ii A‡a©K ev Zvi Kg fvi Pvcvb nq|
Zv‡ii m¤cÖmvi‡b K…ZKvR (Work done in stretching wire) ev mwÂZ wefe kw³ (Elastic Potential Energy) wbY©q ev,
†Kvb e¯‘i GKK AvqZ‡b mwÂZ w¯’wZ¯’vcK wefe kw³ cxob I weK…wZi ¸bd‡ji A‡a©K Gi cÖgvYt
g‡b Kwi, L ˆ`N©¨ I A cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj wewkó GKwU Zvi‡K †Kvb `„p Aej¤^b †_‡K Szwj‡q G‡Z F ej cÖ‡qvM Kivi
d‡j Gi ˆ`N©¨ dl cwigvb e„w× †cj| myZivs Zv‡i mwÂZ wefe kw³i cwieZ©b ev K…ZKvR n‡e = ej × ˆ`N©¨ e„w×
K…Z KvR dW Fdl
GB mgxKiY‡K l=0 †_‡K l=l GB mxgvi g‡a¨ mgvKjb K‡i mwÂZ †gvU wefe kw³ ev K…ZKvR cvB,
l
W Fdl ... ... ... ... (1)
0
FL
Bqs Gi ¸bv¼ †_‡K Avgiv Rvwb †h, Y †hLv‡b L Zv‡ii Avw` ˆ`N©¨ Ges A Zv‡ii cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i ‡ÿÎdj Ges l
Al
YAl
ˆ`N©¨ e„w×, F ej F (1) bs mgxKi‡Y F Gi gvb emv‡j,
L
l
YAl
W dl
0
L
l
YA
L 0
W l dl
l
YA l 2
W
L 2 0
YA l 2
W
L 2
1 YAl 2
W
2 L
W
GKK AvqZ‡b mwÂZ wefe kw³ ev GKK AvqZ‡b K…Z KvR
V
1 YAl 2 1
2 L V
2
1 YAl 1
[ V AL]
2 L AL
2
1 Yl
2 L2
1 Yl l
2 L L
B¯úvZ ivev‡ii †P‡q †ekx w¯’wZ¯’vcK (Steel is more elastic than Rubber):
GK UzKiv ivev‡ii wd‡Z Uvb‡j mn‡RB j¤^v nq| wKš‘ GKwU B¯úv‡Zi Zvi Uvb‡j Zv mn‡R j¤^v nq bv| GKB cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i
†ÿÎdj I ˆ`N©¨ wewkó `ywU wfbœ e¯‘i g‡a¨ †h e¯‘‡Z hZ †ekx cÖwZ‡iva e‡ji m„wó nq †mB e¯‘i w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv ZZ †ekx|
cÖwZ‡iva ej cÖhy³ e‡ji mgvb e‡j wbw`©ó weK…wZ m„wó Ki‡Z †h e¯‘‡Z hZ †ekx ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z nq Zv‡K ZZ †ekx
w¯’wZ¯’vcK ejv nq| GB wn‡m‡e †`Lv hvq †h, GKB ˆ`N©¨ I cÖ¯’‡”Q` wewkó ivevi I B¯úv‡Zi Zv‡i mgvb ˆ`N©¨ e„w×
Ki‡Z ivev‡ii Zzjbvq B¯úv‡Zi Zv‡i ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z nq A‡bK †ekx| G Rb¨ ivev‡ii Zzjbvq B¯úv‡Zi w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv
A‡bK †ekx|
awi, GKB ˆ`N©¨ L Ges GKB cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj A wewkó GKwU B¯úvZ I GKwU ivev‡ii Zv‡i mgcwigvb ej F
cÖ‡qvM Kivq Zv‡`i ˆ`N©¨ e„w× h_vµ‡g ls I lr nj|
FL
myZivs B¯úv‡Zi Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼, Ys ... ... ... ... (1)
Al s
FL
Ges ivev‡ii Bqs-Gi ¸Yv¼, Yr ... ... ... ... (2)
Alr
(1) bs mgxKiY‡K (2) bs mgxKiY Øviv fvM K‡i cvB,
Ys FL Al r
Yr Al s FL
Y l
s r wKš‘ l r l s Ys Yr myZivs B¯úvZ ivevi A‡cÿv †ekx w¯’wZ¯’vcK|
Yr ls
1| 1 eM© wgwjwgUvi cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj wewkó GKwU B¯úv‡Zi 4| GKwU Zv‡ii Bqs Gi ¸bv¼ 2.35×1011 Nm-2 Ges ZviwUi e¨vm
Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ kZKiv 2 fvM e„w× Ki‡Z KZ ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e? 2mm| ZviwUi ˆ`N©¨ 0.25% e„w× Ki‡Z n‡j KZ ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e?
B¯úv‡Zi Bqs Gi ¸bv¼ 2×1011 Nm-2 | Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
e¨vm, d = 2mm
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, FL
2 Y e¨vmva©, r=1mm=0.001m
FL cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †¶Îdj, A = 1 mm Al
Y cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †¶Îdj
Al =1×10-6 m2
YA l A=r
YA l Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = x (awi) F × (0.001)2 m2
F ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l x 2
L =3.14×10-6 m2
L 11 6
100 2.35 10 3.14 10 0.25x Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L=x (awi)
2 1011 1106 2x Bqs Gi ¸bv¼, Y = 2×1011 Nm-2 F
F x 100 x 0.25
ej F = ? ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l m
x 100 F 1844 . 75 N (Ans.) 100
F 4 0 00 N (Ans.) Y 2.35 1011 Nm 2
ej, F ?
2| 1×10-10 m2 cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdjwewkó GKwU B¯úv‡Zi Zv‡i 5| GKwU Zv‡ii Bqs Gi gvbv¼ 2×1011 Nm-2 ZviwUi ˆ`N©¨ 15% e„w×
KZ ej cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j Gi ˆ`N©¨ wظb n‡e [ Y=2×1011 Nm-2 ] Ki‡Z cÖh³
y cxob wbY©q Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, GLv‡b,
FL awi Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = x
FL cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †¶Îdj, Y
Al
Y A = 1×10-10 m2 F Yl ˆ`N©¨e„w×, l x 15
Al Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = x (awi) 100
YA l A L
F ‰`N©¨ e„w×, Y 2 1011 Nm 2
F 2 1011 x 15
L l (2 x x ) x F
A x 100 cxob, ?
2 1011 11010 x Bqs Gi ¸bv¼,
F A
F Y = 2×1011 Nm-2 3 1010 Nm 2 (Ans)
x ej, F = ? A
F 2 0 N (Ans.)
6| 200cm j¤^v Ges 1mm2 cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj wewkó GKwU B¯úv‡Zi
3| 6 m `xN© Ges 1mm2 cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj wewkó GKwU Zv‡ii Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ 1×10-3 m e„w× Ki‡Z cÖ‡qvRbxq Kv‡Ri cwigvb 0.05J |
cÖv‡šÍ 20kg Gi GKwU fi Szwj‡q †`Iqv nj| Zv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi Zv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi BqsGi ¸bv¼ wbY©q Ki|
Bqs Gi ¸bv¼ 2.35×1011 Nm-2 n‡j ZviwU KZUzKz e„w× cv‡e? Avgiv Rvwb,
FL GLv‡b, 1 YAl 2 GLv‡b,
Y Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = 6 m W
Al 2 L Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = 200cm=2m
cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †¶Îdj,
FL 1 Y 10 6 (10 3 ) 2 cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †¶Îdj,
l A = 1mm2 = 1×10-6 m2 0.05 A = 1mm2 = 1×10-6 m2
YA Bqs Gi ¸bv¼, 2 2 KvR, W = 0.05 J
20 9.8 6 Y = 2.35×1011 Nm-2 0.05 2 2
l Y Nm 2 ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l = 1×10-3m
ej, F = 20kg-Wt
2.35 1011 1 10 6 = 20 × 9.8 N
1 10 -12 Bqs Gi ¸bv¼, Y = ?
l 5 10 3 m (Ans.) ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l ? Y 2 1011 Nm -2 (Ans.)
8| 1m `xN© †Kvb Zv‡ii e¨vm 5×10-3m Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ eivei GKwU 9| 200cm j¤^v Ges 1mm2 cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †ÿÎdj wewkó GKwU B¯úv‡Zi
ej cÖ‡qv‡M Gi ˆ`N©¨ 1×10-2m e„w× cvq| cqm‡bi AbycvZ 0.2 Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ 1×10-3 m e„w× Ki‡Z cÖ‡qvRbxq Kv‡Ri cwigvb wbY©q Ki|
n‡j Zv‡ii e¨vm -Gi n«vm wbY©q Ki| Zv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi BqsGi ¸bv¼ Y 2 1011 Nm-2
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = 1m
dL 1 YAl 2 Avw` ˆ`N©¨, L = 200cm=2m
e¨vm, D = 5×10-3m W cÖ¯’‡”Q‡`i †¶Îdj,
Dl ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l = 1×10-2m 2 L A = 1mm2 = 1×10-6 m2
d 1 cqm‡bi AbycvZ, = 0.2 2 1011 10-6 (10-3 )2 ‰`N©¨ e„w×, l = 1×10-3m
0.2 e¨vm n«vm d=? W
5 10 1 10 2
3
22 Y 2 1011 Nm -2
d 0.2 5 10 3 1 10 2 KvR, W = ?
W 0.05 J(Ans.)
d 10 5 m(Ans.)
MLT 2 Lx M y L yT y Lz T z
MLT 2 Lx y z M y T y z
M, L I T -Gi Rb¨ Dfq cv‡k¦©i m~PK mgvb a‡i cvB,
y =1 ... ... ... ... (2)
x y+ z = 1 ... ... (3)
y z= 2 ... ... ... (4)
(4) bs mgxKi‡Y y Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
1z= 2
z =1
(3) bs mgxKi‡Y yI z Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
x1 +1=1
x =1
(1) bs mgxKi‡Y x, y I z Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
F kr 1 1v1
F kr v
F 6r v GB mgxKiYwU †÷vKm& me©cÖ_g cÖwZcv`b K‡ib ZvB Gi bvg nq †÷vKm& Gi mgxKiY|
4 4
‡Mvj‡Ki IRb, W r 3 s g Ges U r 3 f g
3 3
cÖevnxi mv›`ªZv mnM n‡j, F = 6rv
‡÷vK&‡mi m~Îvbymv‡i †MvjKwU AšÍ‡eM cÖvß n‡j,
F+U=W
4 4
6rv r 3 f g r 3 s g
3 3
4 4
6rv r 3 s g r 3 f g
3 3
4 3
6rv r g ( s f )
3
2
2r ( s f ) g
v BnvB AšÍ †e‡Mi ivwkgvjv|
9
‡÷vK&‡mi m~‡Îi mvnv‡h¨ Zi‡ji mv›`ªZv mnM wbY©q (Determinition of Co-efficient of Viscosity by Stoke's law):
‡h Zi‡ji mv›`ªZv mnM wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e Zv GKwU eo AvKv‡ii gvc †Pv‡O †bqv nq| GLb r
e¨vmv‡a©i †QvU †MvjK (†hgb ejweqvwis) GB Zi‡j Lyeax‡i †Q‡o †`qv nq| †MvjKwU GK mgq
AšÍ-‡eM cÖvß n‡q wb‡P bvg‡Z _v‡K|
A `vM †_‡K B `vM ch©šÍ c_ †h‡Z †MvjKwUi †h mgq jv‡M Zv _vgv Nwoi mvnv‡h¨ wbY©q
Kiv nq| awi GB mgq t| g‡b ivL‡Z n‡e A †hb Zi‡ji †ek wfZ‡i nq hv‡Z †MvjKwU A Ae¯’v‡b
‡cŠQvi c~‡e©B AšÍ-†eM cÖvß nq|
AB
G‡ÿ‡Î, v , GLb hw` cÖevnxi NbZ¡ f I †Mvj‡Ki NbZ¡ s nq Zvn‡j Avgiv cvB,
t
2
AB 2r ( s f ) g
GLv‡b, g AwfKl©R Z¡iY|
t 9
GLb ¯Œ M‡Ri mvnv‡h¨ †Mvj‡Ki e¨vmva© r Gi gvb †ei K‡if Ges s Gi gvb †R‡b
2r 2 ( s f ) gt
wb‡q Gi gvb wb‡¤§v³ mgxKiY G ewm‡q Gi gvb mn‡RB wbY©q Kiv hvq|
9 AB
mskw³ ej (Cohesive Force) :
GKB c`v‡_©i wewfbœ AYyi g‡a¨ cvi¯úwiK AvKl©Y ej‡K mskw³ ej ejv nq|
AvmÄb-ej (Adhesive Force):
wewfbœ c`v‡_©i AYyi wfZi cvi¯úwiK AvKl©Y ej‡K AvmÄb ej e‡j|
R 60 10 -3 2 0.93969262
r h
100 0.1 10 -3 800 9.8
10 3 h 0.1438m (Ans.)
r m 10 5 m
100
W 4 3.14{10 6 (10 5 ) 2 - (10 -3 ) 2 } 72 10 -3 J
তাভাত্রায রু যস্কর : ুরু ূ নয তাভাত্রানক ূ নয ধনয রতবয তাভাত্রায যস্করনক তাভাত্রায যভ যস্কর ফনর।
যভ যস্কনরয াঠ্ = যবিনগ্রনড াঠ্ + ২৭৩
নভাষ্ণ বযফতন : বিয তাভাত্রায় িানয ানথ একবট বনবদি বনযয যকান ফস্ত্ত্তয আয়তননয বযফতননক
ভতাীয় ফা নভাষ্ণ বযফতন ফনর। এনক্ষনত্র গযা ফনয়নরয ূ ত্র যভনন িনর অথাৎ PV= ধ্রুফক।
রুদ্ধতাীয় বযফতন : ফাবয নত যকান তা গ্রন ফা ফজন না কনয যকান ফস্ত্ত্তয যবৌত অফিায বযফতননক
বিয িান গযানয আনবক্ষক তা
রুদ্ধতাীয় বযফতন ফনর। অথাৎ Pvγ= ধ্রুফক, যমখানন, γ =
বিয আয়তনন গযানয আনবক্ষক তা
আনবক্ষক আদ্রতা : যকান বনবদি তাভাত্রায় একবট বনবদি আয়তননয ফায়ু নত যম বযভাণ জরীয় ফাষ্প থানক ঐ
তাভাত্রায় ঐ আয়তননয ফায়ু নক ম্পৃ ি কযনত যম বযভাণ জরীয় ফানষ্পয প্রনয়াজন য় তানদয
ববযানে জরীয় ফানষ্পয িা
অনু াতনক আনবক্ষক আদ্রতা ফনর। আনবক্ষক আদ্রতা= × 100%
ফায়ু য তাভাত্রায় ম্পৃি জরীয় ফানষ্পয িা
ববযািংকঃ যম তাভাত্রায় ফায়ু ভন্ডনরয যকান বনবদি আয়তননয ফায়ু এয ভনধয অফবিত জরীয় ফাষ্প িাযা ম্পৃ ি
য়, য তাভাত্রানক ববযািংক ফনর।
ক্রাবন্ত তাভাত্রাঃ নফাচ্চ যম তাভাত্রায় যকান গযানক শুধু িা প্রনয়াগ কনয তযনর বযণত কযা মায় তানক ক্রান্তি
তাভাত্র ফনর।
ক্রাবন্ত আয়তনঃ ক্রান্তি তাভাত্রা ক্রান্তি িান এক গ্রাভ বনযয যকান গযানয আয়তননক ঐ গযানয ক্রান্তি আয়তন
ফনর।
আদ গযাঃ যমকর গযা কর তাভাত্রায় ফনয়র িার এয ূ নত্র যভনন িনর তানদযনক আদ গযা ফনর।
যকান গযাই আদ গযা নয়।
রত্রধ বফন্দুঃ যম তাভাত্রায় বফশুদ্ধ ফযপ, াবন ম্পৃ ি জরীয় ফাষ্প তাগত অফিানন থানক তানক াবনয রত্রধ
বফন্দু ফনর। াবনয রত্রধবফন্দু 0.160C ফা 273.16k (4.58mm াযদ)।
স্বাবাবফক িান কক্ষ তাভাত্রায় গযানয অনু গুনরায ভনধয িংঘনলয িংখযা প্রবত যনকনন্ড প্রায় 109
তা প্রনয়ানগ গযানয প্রাযণ তযনরয যিনয় অননক যফী এফিং একই তাভাত্রা ফৃ বদ্ধনত কর গযানয প্রাযণ
একই য়।
-23 -1
PV= KT ভীকযণ K যক যফাল্টজভযান ধ্রুফক ফনর। এই ধ্রুফনকয ভান 1.38×10 JK |
ক্রাবন্ত তাভাত্রা ক্রাবন্ত িা ক্রাবন্ত আয়তন
0
Co2 এয ক্রাবন্ত তাভাত্রা 31.1 C Co2 এয ক্রাবন্ত িা 73 atm Co2 এয ক্রাবন্ত আয়তন 2.17 ঘন য.বভ.
O2 এয ক্রাবন্ত তাভাত্রা 1190C O2 এয ক্রাবন্ত িা 50 atm O2 এয ক্রাবন্ত আয়তন 2.320 ঘন য.বভ.
H2 এয ক্রাবন্ত তাভাত্রা -2400C H2 এয ক্রাবন্ত িা 13 atm H2 এয ক্রাবন্ত আয়তন 32.2 ঘন য.বভ.
e‡qj -Gi m~Î ev, w¯’i DòZvq Pvc I AvqZ‡bi g‡a¨ m¤úK© (Boyle's Law or, Relation between Pressure and
Volume at constant temperature):
w¯’i DòZvq GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb Gi Pv‡ci e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK|
e¨vL¨v: aivhvK, T †Kjwfb ZvcgvÎvq P Pv‡c GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb V; Zvn‡j e‡qj Gi eY©bv
1
Abymv‡i, V
P
1
V K
P
PV K ... ... ... ... (1) GLv‡b, K GKwU mgvbycvwZK aªæeK| hw` w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq P1, P2, P3, ........, Pn Pv‡c
GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb h_vµ‡g V1, V2, V3, ..............,Vn nq, Z‡e mgxKiY (1) Abymv‡i Avgiv wjL‡Z cvwi,
P1V1=P2V2=P3V3=.........= PnVn = K ... ... ... ... (2) BnvB e‡qj- Gi m~‡Îi MvwYwZK e¨vL¨v|
Pvj©m -Gi m~Î (Charle's Law):
1
m~‡Îi eY©bv: w¯’i Pv‡c cÖwZ wWwMÖ DòZv cwieZ©‡b GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb, Gi k~b¨ wWwMÖ AvqZ‡bi ev,
273
0.00366 Ask cwiewZ©Z nq|
e¨vL¨v: aiv hvK, w¯’i Pv‡c 0ºC DòZvq GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb Vo; Zvn‡j cÖwZ 1ºC DòZv e„wׇZ M¨v‡mi
1 1
AvqZb Ask e„w× cvq| hw` DòZv 1ºC nv‡i K‡g hvq, Z‡e M¨v‡mi AvqZb Ask K‡g hv‡e|
273 273
V
1ºC DòZvq M¨v‡mi AvqZb Vo o
273
2Vo
2ºC DòZvq M¨v‡mi AvqZb Vo Abyiƒcfv‡e,
273
θV
ºC DòZvq M¨v‡mi AvqZb Vo o
273
θV
Vθ Vo o
273
θ
Vθ Vo 1
273
273 θ
Vθ Vo GLb ZvcgvÎvi AvšÍ©RvwZK GK‡K 273 ºC = T
273
T Vθ
Ges 273ºC =To K wjL‡j Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY `vovq, Vθ Vo ev,
T ev mvaviY fv‡e VT A_©vr w¯’i Pv‡c
To Vo To
GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb -Gi cig ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK|
cig k~b¨ ZvcgvÎv (Absolute Zero temperature):
†h ZvcgÎvq ZvwË¡K fv‡e M¨v‡mi AvqZb k~b¨ nq, hvi wb‡P †Kvb ZvcgvÎv _vKv m¤¢e bq, KviY Zvn‡j M¨v‡mi AvqZb
FbvZ¥K n‡Z nq, hv Am¤¢e, †mB Kíbv †hvM¨ ZvcgvÎv‡K cig k~b¨ ZvcgvÎv e‡j|
aiv hvK, w¯’i Pv‡c 0ºC DòZvq GKwU wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi AvqZb Vo; Zvn‡j cÖwZ 1ºC DòZv n«v‡m M¨v‡mi AvqZb
1 θ Vo
Ask K‡g hv‡e| d‡j C ZvcgvÎvq H M¨v‡mi AvqZb V n‡j Pvj©‡mi m~Î †_‡K cvIqv hvq, Vθ Vo
273 273
Av`k© M¨vm (Ideal Gas): †h me M¨vm MwZ Z‡Ë¡i ‡gŠwjK ¯^xKvh©mg~n, e‡qj, Pvj©m I Pv‡ci m~Î cy‡ivcywi †g‡b P‡j Ges
†gqv‡ii cÖKí Abyhvqx evqyk~b¨ ¯’v‡b cÖmvi‡Yi `iæb ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb n«vm N‡Ubv; Zv‡`i‡K Av`k© M¨vm e‡j|
ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡ci mv‡_ M¨v‡mi Nb‡Z¡i m¤úK©: w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb M¨v‡mi NbZ¡ Gi Pv‡ci mgvbycvwZK I w¯’i Pv‡c
†Kvb M¨v‡mi NbZ¡ Gi cigZvcgvÎvi e¨v¯ÍvbycvwZK:
m fiwewkó †Kvb M¨v‡mi p1 Pv‡c Ges T1K ZvcgvÎvq hw` AvqZb V1 Ges NbZ¡ nq, Ges H M¨v‡mi p2 Pv‡c Ges
T2K ZvcgvÎvq AvqZb V2 Ges NbZ¡ nq Z‡e,
1 m / V1 ev, V1 m / 1
Ges 2 m /V2 ev, V2 m / 2
p1V1 p2V2
Avgiv Rvwb, GB mgxKi‡Y V1 Ges V2 Gi ewm‡q cvB,
T1 T2
p1m p2 m
T1 1 T2 2
m¤ú„³ ev®ú t ‡Kvb Ae× ¯’v‡b Zij msjMœ ev®ú‡K H ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡j|
Am¤ú„³ ev®ú t hw` ‡Kvb Ae× ¯’v‡b wKQy ev®ú _v‡K wKš‘ †Kvb Zij bv _v‡K Z‡e H ev®ú‡K Am¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡j|
m¤ú„³ ev®ú I Am¤ú„³ ev‡®úi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ :
µwgK m¤ú„³ ev®ú Am¤ú„³ ev®ú
‡Kvb Ae× ¯’v‡b Zij msjMœ ev®ú‡K H hw` ‡Kvb Ae× ¯’v‡b wKQy ev®ú _v‡K wKš‘ †Kvb Zij bv
1|
ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡j| _v‡K Z‡e H ev®ú‡K Am¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡j|
2| m¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡q‡ji m~Î †g‡b P‡j bv| Am¤ú„³ ev®ú e‡q‡ji m~Î †g‡b P‡j|
3| m¤ú„³ ev®ú Pvj©m-Gi m~Î †g‡b P‡j bv| Am¤ú„³ ev®ú Pvj©m-Gi m~Î †g‡b P‡j|
ZvcgvÎv e„w× K‡i m¤ú„³ ev®ú‡K Am¤ú„³ ZvcgvÎv Kwg‡q Am¤ú„³ ev®ú‡K m¤ú„³ ev‡®ú
4|
ev‡®ú iƒcvšÍwiZ Kiv hvq| iƒcvšÍwiZ Kiv hvq|
wKš‘ wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb ¯’v‡bi Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc H ¯’v‡bi Rjxq ev‡®úi f‡ii mgvbycvwZK
wKš‘ †Kvb ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb ¯’v‡b Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc H ¯’v‡b wkwkivs‡K m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pv‡ci mgvb|
wkwkivs‡K m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc‡K f, evqyi ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev‡®úi Pvc‡K F w`‡q cÖKvk Ki‡j,
f f
R n‡e| Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv‡K mvaviYZ kZKiv wn‡m‡e cÖKvk Kiv nq, R 100 %
F F
Zvrch© : evqyi Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv 60% ej‡Z GB eywS †h, evqyi ZvcgvÎvq GKwU wbw`©ó AvqZ‡bi evqy‡K m¤ú„³ Ki‡Z †h
cwigvb Rjxq ev®ú cÖ‡qvRb, Zvi kZKiv 60 fvM Rjxq ev®ú evZv‡m Av‡Q|
nvB‡MÖvwgUvi (Hygrometer) :
‡h h‡š¿i mvnv‡h¨ †Kv ¯’v‡bi Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv wbY©q Kiv nq Zv‡K nvB‡MÖvwgUvi ev Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv gvcK hš¿ e‡j|
Av`ª I ﮋ evj¦ nvB‡MÖvwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ Av‡cwÿK Av`ªZv wbY©q (Determination of Relative
Humidity by Wet and Dry Bulb Hygrometer) :
h‡š¿i eY©bv : GB h‡š¿i cÖavb Ask n‡jv GKB iKg `yBwU cvi` _v‡g©vwgUvi T1 I T2|
_v‡g©vwgUviØq‡K GKwU Kv‡Vi ‡d«‡g Dj¤^ fv‡e cvkvcvwk ¯’vcb Kiv nq| T1
_v‡g©vwgUv‡ii evj¦‡K ﮋ ivLv nq| GwU evqyi DòZv wb‡`©k K‡i| T2 _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii ev‡j¦i mv‡_ gmwjb ev wj‡j‡bi cj‡Z
Rov‡bv _v‡K Ges GB cj‡Z GKwU cv‡Î ivLv cvwbi g‡a¨ Wyevb _v‡K| cvwb gmwjb ev wj‡jb †e‡q Dc‡i D‡V T2 Ges
_v‡g©vwgUv‡ii evj¦‡K me mgq wfRv iv‡L|
Kvh©cÖYvjx t ‡h ¯’v‡bi Av‡cwÿK Av`ª©Zv wbY©q Ki‡Z n‡e †mB ¯’v‡b Av‡cwÿK Av`ªZv gvcK
hš¿‡K †bIqv nq Ges _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii cvV †iKW© Kiv nq| hw` ﮋ I Av`ª evj¦ _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii cvV
h_vµ‡g 1ºC I 2ºC mswkøó ¯’v‡bi wkwkivsK ºC nq, Z‡e †Mømv‡ii m~Îvbymv‡i cvB,
1 =G(1 2)
= 1 G(1 2) ... ... ... (8)
GL‡b G †K †MøBmvi Drcv`K e‡j| GLb 1ºC A_©vr evqyi ZvcgvÎvq †MøBmv‡ii ZvwjKv n‡Z G
Gi gvb †R‡b wb‡q (8) bs mgxKi‡Yi evqyi wkwkivsK ºC wbY©q Kiv nq| Gici †i‡bvi
m¤ú„³ Rjxqev®ú Pvc ZvwjKv n‡Z wkwkivs‡K A_©vr ºC G m¤ú„³ Rjxqev®ú Pvc f Ges
f
evqyi ZvcgvÎvq A_©vr 1ºC G m¤ú„³ Rjxqev®ú Pvc F †R‡b wb‡q, R 100%
F
mgxKi‡Y f I F Gi gvb ewm‡q Av‡cwÿK Av`ªZv R wbY©q Kiv nq|
mZvK©Zv (Caution) : GB cixÿvq wb¤§iƒc mZK©Zv Aej¤^b Kiv nq:
1| my‡e`x _v‡g©vwgUvi e¨envi Kiv nq|
2| _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii cvi` w¯’i n‡j cvV wb‡Z nq|
3| cj‡Zi wb¤§ cÖvšÍ hv‡Z me©`v cvwb‡Z wbgw¾Z _v‡K †mw`‡K jÿ ivL‡Z nq|
awi wkwkivsK = 9| hw` R = 8.31 JK-1mol-1 nq Z‡e 72cm cvi` Pv‡c Ges 27°C
Avgiv Rvwb, ZvcgvÎvq 20g Aw·‡R‡bi AvqZb wbY©q Ki|
1 G (1-2) GLv‡b,
M¨vm ayªeK, R=8.31 JK-1mol-1 Pvc,
ev, 1 G (1-2) P = 72cmHg
ev, 1.65 () Avgiv Rvwb, = 0.72 mHg
PV nRT = 0.72×13.6×103×9.8 Pa
ev, = 95961.6 Pa
RT
°C ev, V n ZvcgvÎv, T = 27 ºC
evqyi ZvcgvÎv 30°C G m¤ú„³ Rjxqev®ú Pvc F = 31.85×10- P = (27+273)K=300K
3 20 8.31 300 20
m cvi` ev, V ‡ gvjmsL¨v, n
32 95961.6 32
26°C ‡_‡K 28°C A_©vr V 16.236963 10 3 m 3 (Ans.) AvqZb, V = ?
2°C ZvcgvÎv evo‡j ev®ú Pvc ev‡o = (28.4525.25)10-3 m
cvi`| 10| ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c bvB‡UÖv‡R‡bi NbZ¡ 1.25Kg- m-3 n‡j
-3
ev,1°C = 3.2 10 100°C ZvcgvÎvq bvB‡Uªv‡Rb AYyi Mo eM©‡e‡Mi eM©g~j wbY©q Ki|
Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó m cvi`|
2 Avgiv Rvwb,
-3
ev, 0.7°C Ó Ó Ó Ó ÕÕ = 3.2 10 0.7 m cvi`|
GLv‡b,
2 1T1
2 ZvcgvÎv, T1 = 0ºC =273 K
×10-3 m cvi`| T2
NbZ¡, = 1.25Kg-m-3
°C ZvcgvÎvq A_©vr 1.25 273
2 ZvcgvÎv T2 = 100ºC=373 K
wkwkivs‡K m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc f = (25.25 + )10-3 m 373
3 P =1.013×105Nm-2
cvi`| 2 = 0.914879356 kg m C= ?
Avevi,
= 26.37× 10-3 m cvi`|
f 3P 3 1.013 10 5
Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv, R 100% C 576.34 ms 1 (Ans.)
ρ2 0.91487935 6
F
26.37 10 -3 11| 27°C ZvcgvÎvq cÖwZ †gvj wnwjqvg M¨v‡mi MwZkw³ wbY©q Ki|
ev, R 100%
31.85 10 -3 (R= 8.31 JK-1 mol-1)
R 82.79 % (Ans.) Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
3 ZvcgvÎv T1 = 27ºC
8| ‡Kvb n«‡`i Zj‡`k †_‡K cvwbi DcwiZ‡j Avmvq GKwU evqy E RT =(273+27) K=300 K
2
ey`&ey&`& AvqZ‡b cuvP¸b nq| evqygÛ‡ji Pvc 105 Nm-2 n‡j n«‡`i R= 8.31 JK-1 mol-1
3 cÖwZ †gv‡j MwZkw³ E= ?
MfxiZv KZ? E 8.31 300J
Avgiv Rvwb, 2
P1V1 = P2V2 E = 3739.5 J
GLv‡b awi,
ev, ( P2 + hg)V = P2×5V n«‡`i Zj‡`‡k ey`ey‡`i AvqZb, V1 = V
12| ‡Kvb n«‡`i Zj‡`k †_‡K cvwbi DcwiZ‡j Avmvq GKwU evqy ey`&e‡y& `i&
ev, P2 + hg = 5P2 n«‡`i c„‡ô ey`ey‡`i AvqZb, V2 = 5 V e¨vm wZb ¸b nq| e¨v‡ivwgUv‡i cvi` ¯Í‡¤¢i D”PZv 75cm n‡j n«‡`i
ev, hg = 5P2 P2 cvwbi NbZ¡, 103 kg m-3 MfxiZv KZ? GLv‡b awi,
ev, hg = 4P2 AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g = 9.8 ms-2 Avgiv Rvwb, n«‡`i Zj‡`‡k ey`ey‡`i e¨vm = 2x
n«‡`i Zj‡`‡k Pvc, = P1 n«‡`i Zj‡`‡k ey`ey‡`i e¨vmva©= x
4P2 P1V1 = P2V2
ev, h n«‡`i c„‡ô evqygÛ‡ji Pvc, P2 = 105 Pa n«‡`i Zj‡`‡k ey`ey‡`i AvqZb, V1 4 x 3 V
3
ρg ev, ( P2 + hg)V = P2×27V n«‡`i c„‡ô ey`ey‡`i e¨vm = 6x
n«‡`i MfxiZv, h = ?
4 10 5 P1 = P2 + h MfxiZvq cvwbi Pvc ev, P2 + hg = 27P2 n«‡`i c„‡ô ey`ey‡`i e¨vmva©=3x
ev, h 3 n«‡`i c„‡ô ey`ey‡`i AvqZb, V2 43 π(3x) 3
P1 = P2 + hg ev, hg = 27P2 P2
10 9.8 V2 27 43 πx 3 27V
ev, hg = 26P2
h 40.81 m (Ans.) cvwbi NbZ¡, 103 kg m3
26P2
ev, h AwfKl©R Z¡iY, g = 9.8 ms-2
ρg n«‡`i Zj‡`‡k Pvc, = P1
n«‡`i c„‡ô evqygÛ‡ji Pvc,
26 99930.6 P2 =0 .75×13596×9.8 Pa
ev, h 3 = 99930.6Pa
10 9.8 n«‡`i MfxiZv, h = ?
h 265.122 m (Ans.) P1 = P2 + h MfxiZvq cvwbi Pvc
P1 = P2 + hg
13| ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c †Kvb Ave× M¨v‡mi NbZ¡ ﮋ evj&e Gi cvV 1= 20°C A_©vr evqyi ZvcgvÎv = 20°C
0.0892Kg m-3 n‡j M¨v‡mi AYyi Mo eM©‡e‡Mi eM©g~j wbY©q Ki| wm³ evj&e Gi cvV 2 = 12°C
Avgiv Rvwb, †MøBmv‡ii Drcv`K G = 1.79
3P GLv‡b, awi wkwkivsK =
C
ρ ZvcgvÎv, T = 0ºC =273 K Avgiv Rvwb,
NbZ¡, = 0.0892Kg m-3 1 G (1-2)
3 1.013 105
C P =1.013×105Nm-2 ev, 1 G (1-2)
0.0892 Mo eM©‡e‡Mi eM©g~j C =? ev, 20 -1.79 (20-12)
3 1.013 105 ev, 20 14. 32
C
0.0892 5.68°C
C 1845.79 ms 1 (Ans.) evqyi ZvcgvÎv 20°C G m¤ú„³ Rjxqev®ú Pvc, F = 17.6 mmHg
wkwkivsK 5.68 °C G m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc, f = 6.856 mmHg
14| ‡Kvb M¨vm AYy¸‡jvi Mo gy³ c_ 6×10-8 m I AYyi e¨vm f
Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv, R 100%
2.5×10-10 m, cÖwZ NbwgUv‡i AYyi msL¨ wbY©q Ki| F
Avgiv Rvwb, 6.856
1 GLv‡b, ev, R 100%
λ 17.6
πnσ 2
e¨vm, σ 2.5 10 -10 m R 38.95 % (Ans.)
1 Mo gy³c_, 6×10-8 m &DËi : wkwkivsK =5.68°C I Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv = 38.95 %
n cÖwZ NbwgUv‡i Abyi msL¨v, n= ?
π λσ 2
1 17| w¯’i Pv‡c KZ ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb M¨vm AYyi Mo eM©‡e‡Mi eM©g~j
n ¯^vfvweK Pvc I ZvcgvÎvi Mo eM©‡e‡Mi eM©g‡~ ji wظY n‡e?
3.14 6 10 (2.5 10-10 ) 2
-8
n 8 . 49 10 25
/m 3 (Ans.) 3RT1
Avgiv Rvwb, C1 .........(1)
M
GLv‡b,
15| ‡Kvb GKw`‡bi wkwkivsK 7.6°C Ges Kÿ ZvcgvÎv 16°C| 3RT2
I C2 ....(2) cÖv_wgK ZvcgvÎv ,
Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv wbY©q Ki| [7°C, 8°C I 16°C ZvcgvÎvq
M T1 = 273K
m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc h_vµ‡g 7.5 ×10-3 m, 8 ×10-3 m Ges
C2 T2 2C1 T2 †kl ZvcgvÎv, T2 =?
13.5 ×10-3 m cvi`|]
C2 = 2C1
7°C ‡_‡K 8°C A_©vr C1 T1 C1 T1
1°C ZvcgvÎv evo‡j ev®ú Pvc ev‡o = (87.5)10-3 m cvi`| T2 T
0.6°CÓ Ó Ó Ó Ó = 0.5×10-3 ×0.6 m cvi`| 4 4 2
T1 273
0.3×10-3 m cvi`|
7.6°C ZvcgvÎvq A_©vr T2 4 273K 1092 K ( Ans.)
wkwkivs‡K m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc f = (7.5+0.3)10-3 m cvi`|
= 7.8×10-3m cvi`| 18| ‡Kvb M¨vm AYyi e¨vmva© 3.9×10-10 m Ges cÖwZ Nb †mw›UwgUv‡i
16°C ZvcgvÎvq A_©vr AYyi msL¨v 2.69×1019 n‡j AYyi Mo gy³ c_ wbY©q Ki|
evqyi ZvcgvÎvq m¤ú„³ Rjxq ev®ú Pvc F = 13.5 ×10-3 m Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
cvi`| 1 e¨vm, σ 2 3.9 10 -10 m
λ
f π n σ2 σ 2 3.9 10-10 100 cm
Av‡cwÿK Av`©ªZv R 100%
F λ
1 σ 7.8 10-8 cm
3.14 2.69 1019 (7.8 10-8 ) 2 cÖwZ Nb †mw›UwgUv‡i Abyi msL¨v,
7.8 10 -3 6 n = 2.69×1019/cm3
R 100% λ 1.9410 cm
13.5 10 -3 Mo gy³c_, ?
R 57.78 % (Ans.)
λ 1.9510 8 m (Ans.)
16| GKwU ﮋ I Av`ª evj&e nvB‡MÖvwgUv‡i h‡š¿i ﮋ I Av`ª ev‡j¦i 19| ¯^vfvweK ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c bvB‡UÖv‡R‡bi NbZ¡ 1.25Kg- m-3 n‡j
ZvcgvÎv h_vµ‡g 20°C I 12°C n‡j wkwkivsK I Av‡cwÿK Gi Mo eM©‡e‡Mi eM©g~j wbY©q Ki|
GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb,
Av`ª©Zv wbY©q Ki| (20°C G †MøBmv‡ii Drcv`K 1.79 Ges 20°C ZvcgvÎv, T = 0ºC =273 K
Ges 5.68°C ZvcgvÎvq Rjxq ev‡®úi m‡e©v”P Pvc h_vµ‡g 17.6 3P 3 1.013 10 5 NbZ¡, = 1.25Kg-m-3
C
mmHg Ges 6.856 mmHg ) ρ 1.25 P =1.013×105Nm-2
C 493 . 07 ms 1 (Ans.) C=?
ZvcgvÎv (Temperature):
e¯‘i Zvcxq Ae¯’v‡K e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv e‡j| ZvcgvÎv ej‡Z e¯‘ KZUzKz Mig ev VvÛv Zv eySvq| ZvcgvÎv‡K ev T Øviv
cÖKvk Kiv nq| ZvcgvÎvi GKK ºC, K, ºF BZ¨vw`|
Zvc (Heat): Zvc GK cÖKvi kw³| hv cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j e¯‘ Mig nq Ges wbM©Z Ki‡j e¯‘ VvÛv nq Zv‡K Zvc e‡j| Zvc‡K
Q ev H Øviv Kiv nq| Zv‡ci GKK Ryj ev K¨vjwi| 1 K¨vjwi = 4.2 Ryj|
c`v‡_©i DòZvwgwZ ag© I DòZvwgwZK c`v_© (Thermometric Property and Thermometric Substance ):
c`v‡_©i KZK¸‡jv ag© ZvcgvÎv cwieZ©‡bi mv‡_ mv‡_ cwiewZ©Z nq| †hgbt ZvcgvÎv e„wׇZ Zi‡ji AvqZb ev‡o,
M¨v‡mi Pvc e„w× cvq, cwievnxi †iva e„w× cvq BZ¨vw`| c`v‡_©i †h me ag© ZvcgvÎvi mv‡_ wbqwgZ cwiewZ©Z nq †mB me
ag©‡K DòZvwgwZ ag© e‡j| †h mKj c`v‡_©i g‡a¨ DòZvwgwZ ag© we`¨gvb Zv‡`i‡K DòZvwgwZK c`v_© e‡j| c`v‡_©i
DòZvwgwZ ag© Kv‡R jvwM‡q _v‡g©vwgUvi wbg©vb Kiv nq|
ˆÎa we›`y (Triple Point): GKwU wbw`©ó Pv‡c †h ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb c`v_© KwVb, Zij I evqexq GB wZb iƒ‡c mvg¨ve¯’vq
_v‡K Zv‡K H c`v‡_©i ˆÎa we›`y e‡j|
cvwbi ˆÎa we›`y (Triple Point of water): ‡h wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq I Pv‡c cvwb KwVb (eid), Zij (cvwb) I evqexq
(Rjxqev®ú) GB wZb Ae¯’vq _vK‡Z cv‡i Zv‡K cvwbi ˆÎawe›`y e‡j| cvwbi ˆÎa we›`yi ZvcgvÎv 0ºC ev, 273.16K Ges
GB we›`y‡Z wbw`©ó Pvc 4.58 mmHg| GLv‡b K nj †Kjwfb, Avi †Kjwfb nj Gm AvB c×wZ‡Z ZvcgvÎvi GKK|
1
‡Kjwfb (Kelvin) : cvwbi ‰Îa we›`y ZvcgvÎvi †K 1K ev GK †Kjwfb e‡j| †Kjwfb ZvcgvÎvi Dci wfwË K‡i
273.16
cigk~b¨ ZvcgvÎv n‡”Q 0 K, eid we›`y 273.16K Ges ÷xg we›`y 373.16K|
ZvcgvÎvi cig †¯‹j ev, ZvcgvÎvi AvšÍ©RvwZK †¯‹j (Absolute scale of Temperature or, International Scale of
Temperature): cigk~b¨ ZvcgvÎv A_©vr 273ºC ZvcgvÎv‡K 0 (k~b¨) a‡i Ges †gŠwjK e¨eavb‡K 100 fvM K‡i
ZvcgvÎvi †h †¯‹j Kíbv Kiv nq Zv‡K ZvcgvÎvi cig †¯‹j ev ZvcgvÎvi AvšÍ©RvwZK †¯‹j e‡j| ZvcgvÎvi cig †¯‹j
Abyhvqx ˆÎa we›`yi ZvcgvÎv 273K I cvwbi ùzUbv¼ 373K|
wb¤œ w¯’i we›`y (Lower fixed point): †h ZvcgvÎvq cÖgvb Pv‡c weï× eid cvwbi mv‡_ mvg¨ve¯’vq _vK‡Z cv‡i A_©vr †h
ZvcgvÎvq weï× eid Mj‡Z ïiæ K‡i Zv‡K wb¤œ w¯’i we›`y ev eid we›`y (Ice Point) e‡j|
DaŸ© ©w¯’i we›`y (Upper fixed point): †h ZvcgvÎvq cÖgvb Pv‡c weï× cvwb Rjxq ev‡®úi mv‡_ mvg¨ve¯’vq _vK‡Z cv‡i
A_©vr †h ZvcgvÎvq weï× cvwb Rjxq ev‡®ú cwiYZ n‡Z ïiæ K‡i Zv‡K DaŸ© w¯’i we›`y ev ÷xg (Steam Point) we›`y e‡j|
‡gŠwjK e¨eavb (Fundamental Interval): DaŸ© w¯’i we›`y I wb¤œ w¯’i we›`yi ga¨eZ©x ZvcgvÎvi e¨veavb‡K †gŠwjK
e¨eavb e‡j| GB e¨eavb‡K myweav RbK KZK¸wj mgvbfv‡M wef³ K‡i GK GKwU fvM‡K DòZv ÁvcK msL¨v Øviv
wPwýZ K‡i ZvcgvÎvi †¯‹j wba©viY Kiv nq|
_v‡gv©wgUvi (Thermometer) : †h h‡š¿i mvnv‡h¨ †Kvb e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv ev DòZv cwigvc Kiv nq Zv‡K _v‡g©vwgUvi e‡j|
_v‡g©vwgUvi A‡bK cÖKv‡ii n‡q _v‡K, Gi g‡a¨ cÖavbZt †mjwmqvm, †Kjwfb, dv‡ibnvBU D‡jøL‡hvM¨|
cÖ¯‘Z cÖYvjx : cÖ_‡g m~ÿè I mymg wQ`ªwewkó GKwU KvP bj †bIqv nq| b‡ji GKcÖv‡šÍ GKwU evj¦ B Ges Aci cÖv‡šÍ A
†Lvjv _v‡K| bjwU‡K GKwU ÷¨v‡Ûi mvnv‡h¨ Lvov fv‡e ¯’vcb K‡i †Lvjv gy‡L GKwU dv‡bj F emv‡bv nq| dv‡b‡j wKQy
ﮋ I weï× ci` Xvjv nq| b‡ji wQ`ª Lye m~ÿè nIqvq cvi` b‡ji wfZi cÖ‡ek Ki‡Z cv‡i bv| GKwU w¯úwiU j¨v¤ú ev
eyb‡mb evwZ w`‡q evj¦wU‡K Aí Zvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡j evj¦ I b‡ji wfZ‡ii evqyi AvqZb e„w× cvq Ges wKQy evqy cvi‡`i
ga¨w`‡q ey`ey` AvKv‡i †ei n‡q hvq| Ÿvj¦wU‡K VvÛv Ki‡j evj¦ I b‡ji Aewkó evqyi AvqZb K‡g
hvq Ges evqyi Pv‡c wKQy cvi` b‡ji wfZi cÖ‡ek K‡i| Gfv‡e ch©vqµ‡g Mig I VvÛv K‡i bj
I evj¦ m¤ú~Y© fwZ© Kiv nq| Gi ci dv‡bj‡K mwi‡q wb‡q cvi` bv †dvUv ch©šÍ evj¦wU‡K Mig Kiv
nq| dzUšÍ Ae¯’vq cvi‡`i AvqZb e„w× cvIqvq DwÌZ cvi` ev®ú b‡ji wfZ‡ii evqy‡K †ei K‡i
†`q| Zxeª I miæ AwMœwkLvi mvnv‡h¨ bj Mwj‡q eÜ K‡i †`Iqv nq| evj¦ VvÛv n‡q KÿZvcgvÎvq
G‡j cvi` m¤ú~Y© evj¦ I b‡ji wKQy Ask c~Y© K‡i iv‡L Ges b‡ji evKx Ask evqyk~b¨ Ae¯’vq _v‡K|
`vMv¼b : ZvcgvÎv cwigv‡ci Rb¨ _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii b‡j GKwU `vMKvUv †¯‹‡ji cÖ‡qvRb nq| †¯‹j
ˆZwii Rb¨ `ywU wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎv‡K w¯’i aiv nq| G‡`i‡K _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii w¯’iv¼ e‡j| cvi`
_v‡g©vwgUv‡i ei‡di Mjbv¼‡K wb¤œw¯’iv¼ Ges cvwbi ùzUbv¼‡K Ea©w¯’iv¼ aiv nq|
wb¤œ w¯’iv¼ wbY©q : GKwU dv‡b‡j wKQy weï× MjšÍ eid UzKiv wb‡q Zvi g‡a¨ _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii evj¦ cÖ‡ek
Kiv‡bv nq| G‡Z ev‡j¦i cvi` m¼zwPZ nq, d‡j ˆKwkK b‡j cvi‡`i D”PZv Kg‡Z _v‡K| b‡j
cvi‡`i D”PZv GKwU wbw`©ó ¯’v‡b G‡m w¯’i n‡j Kv‡Pi Mv‡q `vM †K‡U H ¯’vb‡K wPwýZ Kiv nq| cvi` kx‡l©i GB
Ae¯’vbB wb¤œw¯’iv¼ wb‡`©k K‡i|
DaŸ©©w¯’iv¼ wbY©q : cvi` _v‡g©wgUv‡ii DaŸ©w¯’iv¼ wbY©‡qi Rb¨ Rb¨ wnc‡mvwgUvi bvgK hš¿ e¨envi Kiv nq| Gici
_v‡g©vwgUvi‡K wnc‡mvwgUv‡ii Zvgvi cv‡Î Ggbfv‡e ivLv nq hv‡Z Gi evj¦ cv‡Î iwÿZ cvwb ¯úk© bv K‡i| cvwb fwZ©
cv·K eyb‡mb evwZ ev w¯úwiU j¨v‡¤úi mvnv‡h¨ Zvc †`Iqv nq d‡j wKQyÿ‡Yi g‡a¨ cvwb dzU‡Z _v‡K Ges Drcbœ Rjxq
ev®ú _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii evj¦‡K DËß K‡i| b‡ji Af¨šÍi¯’ cvi` cÖmvwiZ nq Ges GK mgq ev‡®úi ZvcgvÎvi mgvb nq, ZLb
cvi` b‡ji g‡a¨ GK ¯’v‡b w¯’i nq| G Ae¯’vq cvi`kx‡l©i D³ Ae¯’v‡b b‡ji Mv‡q GKwU `vM KvUv nq| GUvB
_v‡g©vwgUv‡ii DaŸ© w¯’iv¼| DaŸ© I wb¤œ DaŸ©w¯’iv‡¼i ga¨eZ©x ¯’vb‡K 100 I 180 fv‡M fvM K‡i h_vµ‡g †mjwmqvm I
dv‡ibnvBU _v‡g©vwgUvi wnmv‡e e¨envi Kiv hvq|
Zvc-hyMj (_v‡g©vKvcj) I mx‡eK wµqv (Thermocouple & Seebeck-effect): `ywU wfbœ avZzi Zv‡ii `yB cÖvšÍ †Rvov
jvwM‡q Gi g‡a¨ GKwU M¨vjfv‡bvwgUvi AšÍf©y³ K‡i hw` eZ©bx ˆZix Kiv hvq
Ges Zvi `ywUi ms‡hvM ¯’j `ywU‡Z (Junctions) ZvcgvÎvi e¨eavb m„wó Kiv hvq,
Zvn‡j H eZ©bx‡Z Zwor cÖevwnZ n‡e, GB Zwor cÖevn‡K Zvc Zwor cÖevn e‡j|
1821 wLª÷v‡ã mx‡eK me© cÖ_g NUbvwU cÖ_g cÖZ¨ÿ K‡ib| ZvB G NUbv‡K mx‡eK
wµqv (Seebeck-effect) e‡j| `ywU wfbœ Zvi Øviv m„ó G e¨e¯’v‡K ejv nq Zvc-hyMj
(Thermocouple) Ges eZ©bx‡Z †h Zwo”PvjK kw³i D™¢e nq Zv‡K Zvcxq
Zwo”PvjK kw³ (Thermo electromotive force) ejv nq|
wbi‡cÿ ZvcgvÎv (Neutral Temperature): Zvc-hyM‡ji kxZj ms‡hvM‡K 0ºC ZvcgvÎvq †i‡L Dò ms‡hvM‡K †h,
ZvcgvÎvq ivL‡j eZ©bx‡Z Zvcxq Zwo”PvjK kw³i gvb me©vwaK nq †mB ZvcgvÎv‡K wbi‡cÿ ZvcgvÎv e‡j| Zvgv I
†jvnv hyM‡ji Rb¨ G ZvcgvÎv 275º C|
Drµg ZvcgvÎv (Inversion Temperature): Zvc-hyM‡ji kxZj ms‡hvM‡K 0ºC ZvcgvÎvq †i‡L Dò ms‡hvM‡K †h
ZvcgvÎvq ivL‡j Zvc Zwo”PvjK kw³i gvb k~b¨ nq Zv‡K H hyM‡ji Drµg ZvcgvÎv e‡j| Zvgv I †jvnv hyM‡ji Rb¨ G
ZvcgvÎv 550º C|
Zvc Zwor _v‡gv©wgUvi ev Zvc hyMj ev _v‡g©vKvc‡ji mvnv‡h¨ ZvcgvÎv wbY©q (Determination of Temperature By the
help of Thermocouple): g~jbxwZ: _v‡g©vKvcj‡K _v‡g©vwgUvi wn‡m‡e e¨envi Kiv hvq| Zvcxq Zwo”PvjK kw³
_v‡g©vKvc‡ji ms‡hvM؇qi ZvcgvÎvi cv_©‡K¨i Dci wbf©i K‡i| hw` _v‡g©vKvc‡ji GKwU ms‡hvM‡K ei‡di ms¯ú‡k© 0º
C ZvcgvÎvq ivLv nq Ges Aci ms‡hvM‡K †Kvb D”PZi ZvcgvÎv ºC G ivLv nq Zvn‡j eZ©bx‡Z †h Zwo”PvjK kw³i
D™¢e nq Zv wb‡¤œv³ mgxKiY †_‡K cvIqv hvq| Zvcxq Zwo”PvjK kw³ E n‡j,
E=+ ... ... ... (1) GLv‡b, I `ywU aªæeK hv‡`i
gvb _v‡g©vKvc‡ji cÖK…wZi Dci wbf©i K‡i| E,I Gi gvb †R‡b Gi gvb
wbY©q Kiv nq|
eZ©bx ms‡hvM : wPÎvbyhvqx c‡UbwkIwgUv‡ii A I B we›`yi mv‡_ GKwU A¨vwgUvi
A, e¨vUix Ba, Pvwe K Ges cwieZ©bkxj †iva Rh †kªYx mgev‡q hy³ Kiv nq|
e¨vUix Ba Gi abvZ¥K cÖvšÍ A we›`yi mv‡_ hy³ _v‡K| GLb Zvgv I †jvnvi Zvi
w`‡q ‰Zix _v‡g©vKvc‡ji Dò ms‡hvM ¯’‡ji mv‡_ †h Zvgvi Zvi _v‡K, †mB
cixÿv: Pvwe K eÜ K‡i c‡UbwkIwgUv‡i AB Zv‡i Zwor cÖevn Pvjbv Kiv nq| Gi ci cwieZ©bkxj †iv‡ai gvb Ggb
fv‡e mgwš^Z Kiv nq hv‡Z RwKwU‡K A we›`y‡Z ¯úk© Kiv‡j M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii KuvUv †h we‡ÿc ‡`q B we›`y‡Z ¯úk© Kiv‡j
Zvi wecixZ w`‡K we‡ÿc †`q| aiv hvK, RwKwU‡K C we›`y‡Z ¯úk© Kiv‡j M¨vjfv‡bvwgUv‡ii †Kvb we‡ÿc nq bv A_©vr C
we›`yB fvimvg¨ we›`y| GLb A I C Gi ga¨Kvi Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ l cwigvc Kiv nq Ges A¨vwgUvi †_‡K we`¨yr cÖev‡ni gvb I
wbY©q Kiv nq|
cvB‡ivwgUvi (Pyrometer) : †h h‡š¿i mvnv‡h¨ D”P ZvcgvÎv cwigvc Kiv nq Zv‡K cvB‡ivwgUvi e‡j| cvB‡ivwgUvi
mvaviYZt `yB ai‡bi n‡q _v‡Kt h_v (1) c~Yw© ewKiY cvB‡ivwgUvi (Total radiation pyrometer ) (2) Av‡jvK
cvB‡ivwgUvi (Optical pyrometer)
c~Y© wewKiY cvB‡ivwgUvi (Total radiation pyrometer) t c~Y© wewKiY cvB‡ivwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ †Kvb e¯‘ n‡Z wewKwiZ
Zvckw³ cwigvc K‡i w÷dv‡bi m~Î cÖ‡qvM K‡i ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Kiv nq| †dix (Fery) cÖ_g cÖ_g GB ai‡bi cvB‡ivwgUi
ˆZix K‡i ZvcgvÎv cwigvc K‡ib e‡j G‡K †dixi cvB‡ivwgUvi I ejv nq|
h‡š¿i MVbt GB h‡š¿ GKwU AeZj `c©Y M i‡q‡Q hv Zvgvi
cvZ w`‡q ˆZix| cv‡Zi Dci Zj wb‡Kj avZzi cÖ‡jc †`Iqv| `c©‡bi
gvSLv‡b GKwU wQ`ª Av‡Q hvi wcQ‡b Awf‡bÎ E hy³ _v‡K| M-Gi m¤§y‡L
GKwU †QvU wQ`ª D i‡q‡Q hvi wcQ‡bB GKwU avZe djK S _v‡K| `c©Y
AwfgyLx dj‡Ki c„‡ô Kv‡jv cÖ‡jc †`qv _v‡K| wQ`ª D `ywU Aa©e„ËvKvi `c©Y
Øviv MwVZ| S-Gi wcQb c„†ô _v‡g©vKvcj T hy³ _v‡K| _v‡g©vKvc‡j Drcbœ
Zwo”PvjK ej cwigv‡ci Rb¨ GwU wgwj‡fvë wgUv‡ii mv‡_ hy³ _v‡K|
djKwUi Dci e¯‘i wewKwiZ iwk¥ hv‡Z mivmwi AvcwZZ bv n‡Z cv‡i †mRb¨
djKwU GKwU ev‡· Ave× ivLv nq| GKwU ¯Œzi mvnv‡h¨ m¤úyY© e¨e¯’vwU mvg‡b
wcQ‡b miv‡bv hvq|
Kvh©bxwZ t †h e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Kiv nq †mwU n‡Z AvMZ iwk¥ AeZj `c©‡bi mvnv‡h¨ cÖwZwe¤^ wQ`ª D-Gi
ga¨w`‡q S-Gi Dci AvcwZZ nq| Awf‡bÎ E-G †PvL †i‡L ZvKv‡j mwVK †dvKvwms n‡j wQ`ª D e„ËvKvi †`Lv‡e| mwVK
†dvKvm bv n‡j D `yB Aa©vs‡k m‡i hvq| `c©b mvg‡b wcQ‡b mwi‡q †dvKvwms Kiv nq|
ZvcgvÎv wbY©q t wgwj‡fvë wgUv‡ii cvV V, Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv T Ges djK S -Gi ZvcgvÎv T0 n‡j, w÷dv‡bi m~Î
Abymv‡i, V (T 4 T 4 ), GLv‡b, w÷dvb aªæeK|
0
myZivs, V I T0 cwigvc K‡i GB cvB‡ivwgUv‡ii mvnv‡h¨ ARvbv ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Kiv hvq|
ZvcgvÎvi wewfbœ †¯‹‡ji g‡a¨ m¤úK© (Relation among different scales of temperature) t
‡mjwmqvm, dv‡ibnvBU I †Kjwfb †¯‹‡ji cvi¯úwiK m¤úK© wbY©‡qi Rb¨ GKwU cvi` _v‡g©vwgUvi AB
‡bB hvi eid we›`y I ÷xg we›`y h_vµ‡g A I B `v‡Mi mv‡_ wg‡j hvq| aiv hvK, †Kvb ZvcgvÎvq
AB _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii cvi`kxl© hLb M Ae¯’v‡b Av‡m ZLb †mjwmqvm, dv‡ibnvBU I †Kjwfb †¯‹‡j
ZvcgvÎv h_vµ‡g C, F I K|
Avgiv wjL‡Z cvwi,
MA C0 F 32 K 273
BA 100 0 212 32 373 273
C F 32 K 273
100 180 100
C F 32 K 273
BnvB ‡mjwmqvm, dv‡ibnvBU I †Kjwfb †¯‹‡ji cv¯úwiK m¤ú‡K©i ivwkgvjv|
5 9 5
GK w¯’i we›`yi cwi‡cÖwÿ‡Z _v‡g©vwgwZi g~j mgxKiY cÖwZcv`b t aivhvK, †h †Kvb GKwU _v‡g©vwgUv‡i ZvcwgwZK ag© X1
ZvcgvÎv T1 Gi mgvbycvwZK| MvwbwZKfv‡e, T1 X1 T1 aX1 GLv‡b a GKwU aªæeK|
AZGe, GKB _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii `ywU ZvcgvÎvi ZvcwgwZK ag© Zzjbv K‡i cvB,
T1 X1
... ... ... ... (1) GLv‡b, T1 ZvcgvÎvq ZvcwgwZK ag© X1 I T2 ZvcgvÎvq ZvcwgwZK ag© X2
T2 X 2
cvwbi ‰Îawe›`y‡Z A_©vr 273.16K ZvcgvÎvq ZvcwgwZK ag© Xtr Ges ‡h †Kvb ZvcgvÎv T †Z ZvcwgwZK ag© X n‡j (1)
T X X
bs mgxKiY Abymv‡i cvB, T 273.16 K
273.16 X tr X tr
l
(K) cvi` _v‡g©vwgUv‡ii †ÿ‡Î X Gi ¯’‡j cvi` ¯Í‡¤¢i ˆ`N©¨ l n‡j, T 273.16 K
l tr
7| †Kvb& ZvcgvÎvq †mw›U‡MÖW I dv‡ibnvBU †¯‹‡j cv‡Vi cv_©K¨ dv‡ibnvBU †¯‹‡j, x 10 27.5 10 17.5F
10°nq? wØZxq †ÿ‡Î, †mjwmqvm †¯‹‡j cvV, C= x
awi, †mjwmqvm †¯‹‡j cvV, C= x Ges dv‡ibnvBU †¯‹‡j cvV = x 10
dv‡ibnvBU †¯‹‡j cvV = x 10 x 10 ev, x 10 x x 10 32
Avgiv Rvwb,
5 9
C F 32 9 x 5x 210
1g †ÿ‡Î, †mjwmqvm †¯‹‡j cvV, C= x
5 9 9 x 5x 110
Ges dv‡ibnvBU †¯‹‡j cvV, F = x 10 4x 210
x x 10 32 210
x
5 9 4
9 x 5x 110 x 52.5 C
9 x 5x 110 dv‡ibnvBU †¯‹‡j, x 10 52.5 10 62.5F
4x 110 DËit -27.5°C I -17.5°F Ges -52.5°C I -62.5°F
110
x
4
x 27.5 C
Zv‡ci hvwš¿K mgZv (Mechanical equivalent of heat) : Ry‡ji Zvc MwZwe`¨vi 1g m~Î n‡Z Avgiv †h mgxKiY cvB Zv
nj W = JQ D³ mgxKi‡Y Q = 1 K¨vjwi n‡j W = J nq | A_©vr 1 K¨vjwi Zvc m¤úyb©iƒ‡c Kv‡R iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡j hZUzKz
KvR nq Zv‡K Zv‡ci hvwš¿K mgZv e‡j| hvwš¿K mgZv‡K J Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| J Gi gvb 4.2 Ryj/ K¨vjwi| J = 4.2
Ryj/ K¨jwi ej‡Z GB eywS †h, 1 K¨vjwi Zvc Kv‡R iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡j 4.2 Ryj KvR m¤úvw`Z nq|
ZvcMZxq cÖwµqv (Thermodynamic Process ): Pvc P, ZvcgvÎv T I AvqZb V ivwk¸‡jv‡K Zvc MZxq ¯’vbvsK ev Zvc
MZxq Pj ivwk e‡j| Zvc MZxq ¯’vbvs‡Ki mvnv‡h¨ †KvY e¨e¯’vi Ae¯’v cÖKvk Ki‡j, †m Ae¯’v‡K Zvc MZxq Ae¯’v e‡j|
†h cwieZ©‡bi Kvi‡Y Zvc MZxq ¯’vbvs‡Ki gvb cwiewZ©Z nq †m cwieZ©b‡K ZvcMZxq cÖwµqv e‡j|
ZvcMZxq ¯’vbvsK (Thermodynamic co-ordinates): ZvcMZxq Av‡jvPbvi Rb¨ †Kvb e¨e¯’vi Ae¯’v Pvc P , AvqZb V
I cig ZvcgvÎv T Gi mvnv‡h¨ cÖKvk Kiv nq| GB ivwk ¸wj‡K ZvcMZxq ¯’vbvsK e‡j|
ZvcMZxq Ae¯’v (Thermodynamic State): ZvcMZxq Av‡jvPbvi Rb¨ †Kvb e¨e¯’vi Ae¯’v Pvc P , AvqZb V I cig
ZvcgvÎv T Gi mvnv‡h¨ cÖKvk Kiv nq| GB ivwk ¸wj‡K ZvcMZxq ¯’vbvsK ev Zvc MZxq Pj ivwk e‡j| ZvcMZxq
¯’vbvs‡Ki mvnv‡h¨ †KvY e¨e¯’vi Ae¯’v cÖKvk Ki‡j †m Ae¯’v‡K ZvcMZxq Ae¯’v e‡j|
ZvcMZxq mvg¨ve¯’v (Thermodynamic Equilibrium): ‡Kvb wew”Qbœ e¨e¯’vi P‚ovšÍ AwePj Ae¯’v‡K ZvcMZxq mvg¨ve¯’v
e‡j| mvg¨ve¯’vq e¨e¯’vi mKj we›`y‡Z ZvcMZxq ¯’vbv¼ A_©vr Pvc P , AvqZb V I cig ZvcgvÎv T Gi gvb mgvb|
ZvcMZxq wm‡÷g ev e¨e¯’v (Thermodynamic system): ZvcMZxq wm‡÷g ej‡Z Zj ev †eóbx Øviv mxgve× †Kvb wbw`©ó
cwigvb e¯‘‡K eySvq| †hgb GKwU wc÷b hy³ wmwjÛv‡i A_ev GKwU †ejy‡b Ave× M¨vm|
iæ× Zvc cÖwµqvq M¨vm‡K msbwgZ Ki‡j Gi ZvcgvÎv e„w× cvq - Gi KviY:
iæ× Zvc cwieZ©‡b M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv KLbB w¯’i _v‡K bv| A_v©r iæ×Zvc cÖwµqvq M¨vm †Kvb Zvc MÖnb ev eR©b K‡i bv|
wKš‘ M¨vm Zvc MÖnb eR©b bv Ki‡jI M¨v‡mi AšÍt¯’ kw³ w¯’i _v‡K bv| hLb M¨vm‡K msbwgZ Kiv nq ZLb M¨v‡mi KvR
m¤úv`b Kiv nq| G‡Z M¨v‡mi kw³ e„w× cvq A_©vr M¨v‡mi AšÍt¯’ kw³i e„w× N‡U| KviY G †ÿ‡Î M¨vm Zvc eR©b Ki‡Z
cv‡i bv| G Rb¨ Gi ZvcgvÎv e„w× cvq|
M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc I †gvjvi ZvcaviY ÿgZvi (†gvjvi Av‡cwÿK Zvc) g‡a¨ m¤úK© (Relation between specific
heat of gas and molar thermal capacity of gas):
1 †gvj M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K evov‡Z ‡h cwigvb Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb Zv‡K †gvjvi Zvc aviY ÿgZv ev †gvjvi Av‡cwÿK Zvc
e‡j| †Kvb M¨v‡mi n msL¨K †gv‡ji ZvcgvÎv T cwigvb evov‡Z hw` Q Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb nq Z‡e
Q
1 †gvj M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K evov‡Z Zvc jvM‡e
nT
‡gvjvi Zvc aviY ÿgZv C Q
nT
1 ‡KwR M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K evov‡Z ‡h cwigvb Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb Zv‡K M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc e‡j| †Kvb M¨v‡mi m ‡KwR
M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv T cwigvb evov‡Z hw` Q Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb nq Z‡e
Q
1 kg M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K evov‡Z Zvc jvM‡e
mT
M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc Q
mT
m e¯‘ i fi ΔQ
GLv‡ b † gvj msL¨v n C
M AvbweK fi m
ΔT
M
ΔQ
ev, C M
mΔT
ev, C M M¨v‡ mi Av‡ cw¶ K Zvc
A_©vr †gvjvi Zvc aviY ÿgZv = AvbweK fi × M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc
M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc: 1 ‡KwR M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K evov‡Z ‡h cwigvb Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb Zv‡K M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc
e‡j|
w¯’i Pv‡c M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zvc (Specific heat of Gas at constant Pressure):
Pvc w¯’i †i‡L 1 ‡KwR f‡ii M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K e„w× Ki‡Z hZUzKz Zvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z nq Zv‡K w¯’i Pv‡c M¨v‡mi
Av‡cwÿK Zvc e‡j|
w¯’i Pv‡c M¨v‡mi †gvjvi Av‡cwÿK Zvc ev †gvjvi Zvc aviY ÿgZv (Molar specific heat of Gas at constant
Pressure):
Pvc w¯’i †i‡L 1 †gvj M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K e„w× Ki‡Z hZUzKz Zvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z nq Zv‡K w¯’i Pv‡c M¨v‡mi †gvjvi
Av‡cwÿK Zvc ev †gvjvi Zvc aviY ÿgZv e‡j| G‡K Cp Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
w¯’i AvqZ‡b M¨v‡mi †gvjvi Av‡cwÿc Zvc ev †gvjvi Zvc aviY ÿgZv (Molar specific heat of Gas at constant
Volume):
AvqZb w¯’i †i‡L 1 ‡gvj M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv 1K e„w× Ki‡Z ‡h cwigvb Zv‡ci cÖ‡qvRb nq Zv‡K w¯’i AvqZ‡bi M¨v‡mi
‡gvjvi Av‡cwÿK Zvc ev †gvjvi Zvc aviY ÿgZv e‡j| G‡K Cv Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq|
GKwU Av`k© M¨v‡mi Rb¨ Cp I Cv Gi g‡a¨ m¤úK© (Relation between Cp and Cv ) ev , Cp Cv = R Gi cÖgvY:
g‡b Kwi wc÷b hy³ GKwU wmwjÛv‡ii g‡a¨ P Pv‡c, T ZvcgvÎvq, V AvqZ‡b 1 †gvj Av`k© M¨vm Av‡Q| (wPÎ wb‡¤§)
Gevi M¨v‡m wKQy Zvc cÖ`vb Kiv nj| G Zvc M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv I Pvc e„w× Ki‡e Ges AvqZb I e„w× †c‡Z PvB‡e| d‡j
wc÷bwU Dc‡ii w`‡K DV‡Z †Póv Ki‡e| wc÷b‡K c~‡e©i Ae¯’v‡b ivL‡Z n‡j A_©vr AvqZb w¯’i ivLvi Rb¨ wc÷‡bi
Dci wKQy IRb Pvcv‡Z n‡e| g‡b Kwi dQ Zvc cÖ‡qvM Kiv nj Ges wc÷‡b dP IRb Pvwc‡q M¨v‡mi AvqZb V
AcwiewZ©Z ivLv nj|
dQ Zvc MÖnb K‡i M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv hw` dT cwigvb e„w× cvq|
Zvn‡j, dQ = 1. Cv dT [ M„nxZ Zvc = fi × Avt Zvc × DòZv e„w× ]
ev, dQ = Cv dT... ... ... ... ... (1)
Avevi Zvc MwZwe`¨vi 1g m~Î
dQ dUdW
Cv dT =dU dWewn¯’t Kv‡Ri cwigvb I (1) bs mgxKiY n‡Z dQ Gi gvbewm‡q]
dU =Cv dT ... ... ... ... ...
Gevi wc÷‡bi Dci †_‡K cÖv_wgK IRb †i‡L AwZwi³ dP IRb Zz‡j wb‡j wc÷b Dc‡ii w`‡K DV‡Z _vK‡e A_©vr
AvqZb e„w× cv‡e| [wPÎ - M]| AvqZb e„w×i Rb¨ M¨v‡mi wKQy KvR Ki‡Z n‡”Q| M¨v‡mi AšÍt¯’ kw³ e¨v‡q G KvR Ki‡Z
nq e‡j AšÍt¯’ kw³ n«vm cvq d‡j ZvcgvÎv I n«vm cvq| w¯’i Pv‡c M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv dT e„w×i Rb¨ M¨vm †h cwigvb KvR
Ki‡Q Zvi mgZzj¨ Zvc cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e| A_©vr G‡ÿ‡Î †h AwZwi³ Zvc mieivn Ki‡Z n‡e Zvi cwigvb PdV| GLv‡b
M¨v‡mi AvqZb e„w×i cwigvb dV Ges cÖ`Ë w¯’i Pvc P| G‡ÿ‡Î mieivnK…Z Zvc dQ
iæ× Zvcxq cwieZ©‡b M¨v‡mi Pvc I AvqZ‡bi g‡a¨ m¤úK© (Relation between Pressure and volume in an adiabatic
Process) A_©vr PV = aªæeK Gi cÖgvb I ZvcgvÎv I AvqZ‡bi g‡a¨ m¤úK© TV γ 1 aª æeK |
g‡b Kwi, 1 †gvj M¨vm‡K dQ cwigvb Zvc †`Iqvi d‡j Gi AvqZb I DòZvi cwieZ©b h_vµ‡g dV I dT nq| Zvc
MwZwe`¨vi 1g m~Î †_‡K cvB,
dQ = dU +dW
dQ = dU + PdV ... ... ... ... ... ... (1) [ dW = PdV ]
wKš‘ Avgiv Rvwb, 1 †gvj M¨v‡mi AšÍt¯’ kw³i e„w× dU nj w¯’i AvqZ‡b †gvjvi Av‡cwÿK Zvc Cv Ges ZvcgvÎv e„w× dT
Gi ¸Y d‡ji mgvb, A_©vr dU = Cv dT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (2)
(1) bs mgxKi‡Y dU = Cv dT ewm‡q cvB,
dQ = Cv dT + PdV ... ... ... ... ... ... (3)
wKš‘ iæ× Zvcxq cÖwµqvq dQ = 0, (3) bs mgxKi‡Y dQ = 0 ewm‡q cvB,
Cv dT + PdV = 0 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (4)
1 ‡gvj Av`k© M¨v‡mi Rb¨ Avgiv Rvwb,
PV = RT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (5)
GB mgxKiY‡K AšÍiKjb K‡i cvB,
PdV +VdP = RdT
PdV VdP
ev, dT Gi GB gvb (4) bs mgxKi‡Y ewm‡q cvB,
R
iƒ×Zvc †jL m‡gvò †jL A‡cÿv Lvov (An adiabatic Carve is Steeper than Isothermal Curve) :
iæ×Zvc cwieZ©‡bi †ÿ‡Î, Avgiv Rvwb,
PV = aªæeK, GB mgxKiY †K e¨eKjb K‡i cvB,
PV 1dV V dP 0
PV 1dV
dP
V
dP PV 1
dV Q V
dP P
... ... ... (1)
dV Q V
cybivq, m‡gvò cwieZ©‡b, PV = aªæeK, GB mgxKiY †K e¨eKjb K‡i cvB,
PdV + VdP = 0
dP P
... ... ... (2)
dV T V
dP P dP
mgxKiY (1) ‡K (2) Øviv fAM K‡i cvB, dV Q dV Q
V
dP P dP
dV T V dV T
Zvcxq † iLvi Xvj
AZGe, ev, iæ× Zvcxq‡iLvi Xvj = m‡gvò †iLvi Xvj ×
m‡ gvò † iLvi Xvj
wKš‘ Gi gvb 1 A‡cÿv †ekx| myZivs, mgxKiY (3) †_‡K ejv hvq †h, iæ×Zvc †j‡Li Xvj ev bwZ (Slope) m‡gvò
†j‡Li Xvj ev bwZi | †h †jL wP‡Îi Xvj hZ †ekx †m †jLwPÎ ZZ †ekx Lvov| myZivs iƒ×Zvc †jL m‡gvò †jL A‡cÿv
Lvov|
m‡gvò cÖwµqvq †Kvb wm‡÷g KZ…K K…Z KvR wm‡÷‡g mieivnK…Z Zvc kw³i mgvbt
aiv hvK, Avgv‡`i wm‡÷g n‡”Q GKwU M¨vmfwZ© wmwjÛvi hvi mv‡_ GKwU bobÿg wc÷b
jvMv‡bv Av‡Q| wmwjÛvi †`Iqv‡ji ga¨ w`‡q kw³ wm‡÷‡g cÖ‡ek Ki‡Z wK¤^v wm‡÷g
†_‡K †ewi‡q †h‡Z cv‡i|
hw` wm‡÷‡g Lye ax‡i ax‡i kw³ mieivn Kiv hvq Zvn‡j M¨v‡m Pvc I AvqZ‡bi cwieZ©b
n‡e hw`I Gi ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb cwieZ©b n‡e bv| Giƒc cwieZ©b‡K m‡gvò cwieZ©b e‡j|
Gi d‡j M¨v‡mi †h cÖmviY nq m‡gvò cÖmviY e‡j|
m‡gvò cÖwµqvq pV ˆiwLK wP‡Î †`Lvb n‡q‡Q| GB ˆiwLK wP·K m‡gv‡iL e‡j|
m‡gvò cÖwµqvq DòZv w¯’i _v‡K e‡j wm‡÷‡gi AšÍt¯’ kw³i †Kvb cwieZ©b nq bv| A_©vr dU = 0 |
myZivs, Zvc MwZwe`¨vi cÖ_g m~Î †_‡K cvB, dQ = 0 + dW dQ dW A_©vr m‡gvò cÖwµqvq †Kvb wm‡÷g KZ…K K…Z
KvR wm‡÷‡g mieivnK…Z Zvc kw³i mgvb| m‡gvò cÖwµqvq p1V1 p2V2 n‡e|
wewKiY ÿgZv: wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb e¯‘i GKK †ÿÎdj n‡Z cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û weKxY© Zv‡ci cwigvb I GKB
ZvcgvÎvq K…òe¯‘i GKK †ÿÎdj n‡Z cÖwZ ‡m‡K‡Û weKxY© Zv‡ci cwigvb, G `yÕGi AbycvZ‡K wewKiY ÿgZv e‡j|
Av‡cwÿK wewKiY ÿgZv: †Kvb e¯‘i wewKiY ÿgZv Ges GKwU K…ò e¯‘i wewKiY ÿgZvi AbycvZ‡K H e¯‘i Av‡cwÿK
wewKiY ÿgZv e‡j|
‡kvlY ÿgZvt †Kvb wbw`©ó mg‡q ‡Kvb e¯‘ weKxY© Zv‡ci †h cwigvb †kvlY K‡i Ges H mg‡q e¯‘i Dci †h cwigvb weKxY©
Zvc AvcwZZ nq, Zv‡`i AbycvZ‡K †kvlb ÿgZv e‡j|
w÷dv‡bi m~Î (Steafan's Law): weÁvbx w÷dvb K…òKvqv †_‡K weKxY© Zv‡ci †ÿ‡Î GKwU m~Î †`b| Zuvi m~ÎwU njÑ
‡Kvb K…òKvqv e¯‘i GKK †ÿÎdj †_‡K cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û weKxY© Zv‡ci cwigvb Gi cig ZvcgvÎvi PZz_© Nv‡Zi
mgvbycvwZK|
e¨vL¨v: ‡Kvb K…òKvqv e¯‘i cÖwZ GKK †ÿÎdj †_‡K cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û weKxY© Zv‡ci cwigvb E Ges e¯‘i cig ZvcgvÎv ev
†Kjwf‡b cÖKvwkZ ZvcgvÎv T n‡j w÷dv‡bi m~Îvbyhvqx,
E ∞ T4
ev, E = T4, GLv‡b w÷dvb aªæeK| Gi gvb, =5.7×10-8 Wm-2K-4| e¯‘ Av`k© K…òKvqv bv n‡j E Gi gvb n‡e, E =
eT4 | GLv‡b e nj e¯‘wUi Av‡cwÿK wewKiY ÿgZv| e gvb 0 ‡_‡K 1 Gi g‡a¨| Av`k© K…òKvqvi †ÿ‡Î, e=1 |
e¯‘wUi A †ÿÎdj †_‡K cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û weKxY© Zv‡ci cwigvb n‡e, E = A eT4| e¯‘wU †_‡K t mg‡q weKxY© Zv‡ci cwigvb
n‡e, E = A eT4t | T ZvcgvÎvi K…òKvqvwU hw` T0 ZvcgvÎvi e¯‘ Øviv cwi‡ewóZ _v‡K Z‡e cÖwZ GKK †ÿÎdj †_‡K
cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û weKxY© Zvckw³i cwigvb n‡e E = T4T04) | K…òKvqv bv n‡j E Gi gvb n‡e, E = eT4T04)
w÷dv‡bi m~Î †_‡K wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY m~Î (Newton's law of cooling from Steafan's law) cÖwZcv`b:
w÷dv‡bi m~Îvbyhvqx, T ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb e¯‘‡K hw` To ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb e¯‘ Øviv cwi‡ewóZ _v‡K, Zvn‡j K…òKvqvwU †h
nv‡i Zvc nvivq Zv nj, E Ae (T 4 T04 ) GLb ( T 4 T04 ) †K Drcv`‡K we‡kølY Ki‡j cvIqv hvq,
E Ae (T 2 T02 )(T 2 T02 )
E Ae (T To )(T To )(T 2 T02 )
E Ae (T To )(T 3 TT02 T 2T0 T03 ) ... ... ... ... (2)
wKš‘ w÷dv‡bi m~Î mKj ZvcgvÎvq cÖ‡hvR¨ n‡jI wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY m~Î ZLb cÖ‡hvR¨ n‡e n‡e hLb (T-To) Gi gvb
mvgvb¨ nq| A_©vr, (T To ) 0 , A_©vr T I To Gi gvb cÖvq mgvb nq| †m †ÿ‡Î To = T ai‡j, (2) bs mgxKiY `vovq,
E Ae (T To )(T 3 TT 2 T 2T T 3 )
E Ae (T To )(4T 3 )
E Ae 4T 3 (T To )
E K (T To ), †hLv‡b Ae 4T 3 K (GKwU aªæeK)|
E (T To ) A_©vr, ZvcgvÎvi cv_©K¨ Kg n‡j e¯‘i ewR©Z Zv‡ci nvi ev kxZjxKi‡Yi nvi ev
kxZjxKi‡Yi nvi e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv I cvwicvwk©¦‡Ki ZvcgvÎvi cv_©‡K¨i mgvbycvwZK| GwUB wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY m~Î|
AZGe w÷dv‡bi m~Î †_‡K wbDU‡bi kxZjxKiY m~Î cÖwZcvw`Z|
wkZjxKiY c×wZ‡Z Zij c`v‡_©i Av‡cwÿK Zvc wbY©‡qi c×wZ eY©bv (Determination of Specific heat of liquid by
cooling method):
Kvh©cÖYvjxt GKwU ﮋ I cwi®‹vi K¨vjwiwgUvi wb‡q fi wbb©q Kiv nq| K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii
cÖvq A‡a©K Kÿ ZvcgvÎvi †P‡q 25ºC †_‡K 30ºC †ekx ZvcgvÎvi Zij c`v_© Øviv
c~b© Kiv nq| Gici K¨vjwiwgUvi‡K Acwievnx c`v‡_©i Dci ¯’vcb K‡i Zij
c`v_©wU‡K ºC †_‡K ºC ZvcgvÎvq bv bvgv ch©šÍ A‡cÿv Kiv nq| Zij c`v_©wUi
ZvcgvÎv ºC †_‡K ºC ch©šÍ †b‡g Avm‡Z †h mgq jv‡M Zv ÷c Iqv‡Pi mvnv‡h©¨
wbb©q Kiv nq| Gi ci Zijmn K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii fi wbY©q Kiv nq| 2q I 1g f‡ii
cv_©K¨ †_‡K Zij c`v‡_©i fi cvIqv hvq|
Gici mgAvqZb Mig cvwb wb‡q Gi ZvcgvÎv I ºC †_‡K ºC G †b‡g Avm‡Z †h mgq jv‡M Zv cwigvc Kiv nq|
Gi fi wbb©q K‡i Lvwj K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii fi we‡qvM K‡i cvwbi fi †ei Kiv nq|
wnmve I Mbbv:
g‡bKwi, K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii fi = m1 Kg
Zij c`v‡_©i fi = m Kg
cvwbi fi = m2Kg
K¨jwiwgUv‡ii Dcv`v‡bi Av‡cwÿK Zvc = S1 JKg-1K-1
Zij c`v‡_©i wb‡b©q Av‡cwÿK Zvc = S JKg-1K-1
cvwbi Av‡cwÿK Zvc = S2 JKg-1K-1
ºC †_‡K ºC ZvcgvÎvq †b‡g kxZj n‡Z Zij c`v‡_©i mgq jv‡M = t1 Sec
ºC †_‡K ºC ZvcgvÎvq †b‡g kxZj n‡Z cvwbi mgq jv‡M = t2 Sec
ms (1 2 ) m1s1 (1 2 ) 1
Zij c`v_© I K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii Zvc eR©‡bi nvi JS
t1
(ms m1s1 )(1 2 ) 1
JS
t1
m s ( ) m1s1 (1 2 ) 1
Ges cvwb I K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii Zvc eR©‡bi nvi 2 2 1 2 JS
t2
(m s m1s1 )(1 2 ) 1
2 2 JS
t2
5| 0.3m e¨vmv‡a©i GKwU avZe †MvjK 25W ÿgZv wewkó Zvc 9| †Kvb MÖxb nvI‡mi g‡a¨ 3200°C ZvcgvÎvq 8321×10-10 m Zi½
wewKiY K‡i| Gi ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Ki| [×10-8 Wm-2K-4 ] ˆ`‡N©¨i m‡eŸv”P cwigvY kw³ weKxY© n‡j fx‡bi aªæeK KZ n‡e?
Avgiv Rvwb, Avgiv Rvwb,
GLv‡b GLv‡b,
E/t = AT4 m T b
†¶Îdj, A= 4r2 ZvcgvÎv,T3200ºC
25 = 1.1304× 5.67×10-8×T4 b m T
= 4×3.14×0.32m2 =(3200+273)K
25 = 1.1304 m2 =3473K
T4 b 832110 10 3473
6.409 10 8
wewKwiZ kw³i nvi, Zi½ ˆ`N¨© m8321×10-10 m
4 E/t = 25W b 2.9 10 3 mK (Ans.) fx‡bi aªæeK, b=?
T 390054058.4
T 140.53K (Ans.) 5.67×10-8 Wm-2K- 4
ZvcgvÎv T = ?
10| ‡Kvb e¯‘i c„‡ói †ÿÎdj 0.1m2| e¯‘wU‡K 1000K ZvcgvÎvq
6| 2000K ZvcgvÎvi GKwU fv¯^i evwZi wdjv‡g›U kw³ wewKiY DËß Ki‡j GwU N›Uvq KZ kw³ wewKiY Ki‡e? (e = 0.7)
Ki‡Q| j¨v‡¤úi c„‡ôi †ÿÎdj 5×10-5m2 Ges Gi Av‡cwÿK Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b
wewKiY ÿgZv 0.85 n‡j wewKwiZ kw³i nvi wbY©q Ki| †¶Îdj, A= 0.1m2
Avgiv Rvwb, E AeT 4 t
e=0.7
GLv‡b E 0.1 0.7 5.7 108 10004 3600 ZvcgvÎv, T = 1000K
E
AeT 4 †¶Îdj, A= 5×10-5m2 E 14364000 J (Ans.) 5.7×10-8 Wm-2K- 4
t ZvcgvÎv, T = 2000K mgq t = 3600 s
E wewKwiZ kw³ E = ?
5 10 5 0. 85 5. 67 10 8 2000 4 5.67×10-8 Wm-2K- 4
t wewKwiZ kw³i nvi,E/t = ?
E Av‡cw¶K wewKiY 11| `ywU K…ò e¯‘i wbM©Z Zvckw³i AbycvZ 16 t 1| wØZxq e¯‘i
38.556W (Ans.)
t ¶gZv, e = 0.85 ZvcgvÎv 3000K n‡j cÖ_g e¯‘i ZvcgvÎv KZ?
E1 : E 2 16 : 1 , T2 3000K , T1 ?
7| 5×10-5m2 †ÿÎd‡ji GKwU K…òKvqv 2000 K ZvcgvÎvq
cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û KZUv kw³ wewKiY Ki‡e? E1 AT14
Avgiv Rvwb, E1 AT14 I E 2 AT24
GLv‡b E 2 AT24
[ 5.7×10-8 Wm-2K- 4]
†¶Îdj, A= 5×10-5m2
Avgiv Rvwb, 16 T4
4
ZvcgvÎv, T = 2000K 1 4
E AT t 5.7×10-8 Wm-2K- 4 1 3000
E 5 10 5 5 .7 10 8 4
2000 1 mgq t = 1 s 4 4
2 T
E 45.6 J (Ans.) wewKwiZ kw³E = ? 1
1 3000
8| 127°C ZvcgvÎvq GKwU e¯‘ 27°C ZvcgvÎvq GKwU K…ò e¯‘ T1 6000K (Ans.)
Øviv cwi‡ewóZ| e¯‘؇qi ga¨eZ©x ¯’vb evqy k~b¨| cÖ_g e¯‘wUi cÖwZ
GKK †ÿÎdj †_‡K Zvc wewKi‡Yi nvi wbY©q Ki| [ 12| ‡Kvb e¯‘ †_‡K m‡e©v”P wewKi‡bi m‡Ÿ©v”P wewKi‡Yi Zi½ ˆ`N©¨
5.66×10-8 Wm-2K- 4 ] 20×10-6m | e¯‘wUi ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Ki| fx‡bi aªæeK
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b 2.898×10-3mK
†¶Îdj, A= 1 m 2 Avgiv Rvwb,
E GLv‡b
A(T 4 To4 ) ZvcgvÎv, T = 127ºC mT b fx‡bi aªæeK,
t =400K
E ZvcgvÎv, To= 27ºC b b=2.898×10-3mK
15.66108 4004 - 3004 m
=300K T Zi½ ˆ`N©¨,
t
5.66×10-8 Wm-2K- 4 b m = 20×10-6m
E wewKwiZ kw³i nvi, E/t = ? T
990.5W (Ans.) m ZvcgvÎv T=?
t
2.898 × 10 -3
T
20 × 10 -6
T 144.9K (Ans.)
বভােঃ বিয িান যকান তযর দাথনক ক্রভাগত ীতর কযনত থাকনর যম তাভাত্রায় দাথবট কবঠ্ন অফিায় রূান্তবযত
নত থানক এফিং কবঠ্নীবফন যল না য়া মন্ত ঐ তাভাত্রায যকান বযফতন য় না যই তাভাত্রানক বভাে ফনর।
অনকরাবত দানথয বনবদি যকান গরনাে ফা বভাে যনই। যমভন- িবফ, ভাখন, কাঁি, বি, যভাভ।
এই কর দাথ জভফায ফা গরফায ূ নফ আঠ্ানরা অফিা ধাযণ কনয।
0
াবনয বভাে 0 C। বকন্তু ফায়ু ভুি বফশুদ্ধ াবননক াফধানতায ানথ ধীনয ধীনয ীতর কযনত থাকনর (-100C) মন্ত াবন
তযর যথনক মায়।
দ্রফনণয বভািংক বফশুদ্ধ দ্রাফনকয বভািংক অনক্ষা কভ।
গরনােঃ স্বাবাবফক িান কবঠ্ন দাথ যম তাভাত্রায় গরনত শুরু
কনয তানক গরনািংক ফনর। যমভন- ফযপ।
0 0 0
কনয়কবট দানথয গরােঃ াযদঃ 39 C, যভাভঃ 52 C – 56 C
গরনানেয উয িানয প্রবাফঃ
দানথয গরনািংক আয়তন গরনকানর হ্রা ায়, যফ দানথয গরনািংক িা প্রনয়াগ কযনর কনভ মায়। যমভনঃ ফযপ, িারাই
যরাা, এবিভবন, বফভাথ।
যমফ দানথয আয়তন গরননয পনর ফৃ বদ্ধ ায়, উানদয গরনাে িা প্রনয়ানগ ফৃ বদ্ধ ায়। যমভন- যভাভ, যাযাবপন।
ফু টনািংকঃ যম বনবদি তাভাত্রায় যকান তযর ফানষ্প বযণত নত শুরু কনয এফিং উায ম্পৃ ি ফাষ্প িা ফায়ু ভন্ডনরয িানয
ভান য় তানক ফু টনািংক ফনর। * াধাযণতঃ িা ফাড়নর ফু টনািংক ফানড় এফিং িা কভনর ফু টনাে কনভ।
ু প্ততাঃ যম তা ফস্ত্ত্তয তাভাত্রায বযফতন না ঘবটনয় অফিায বযফতন ঘটায় তানক ু প্ত তা ফনর। এনক L িাযা প্রকা
কযা য়। কনমকবট দানথয ু প্ত তাঃ
Mjbv‡¼i Zvrch© (Significance of Melting Point) : ei‡di Mjbv¼ 0ºC ej‡Z GB eywS †h, cÖgvY Pv‡c 0ºC ZvcgvÎvq
eid M‡j cvwb‡Z cwibZ nIqv ïiæ K‡i Ges m¤ú~Y© eid bv Mjv ch©šÍ Gi ZvcgvÎv ev‡o bv|
wngv‡¼i Zvrch© (Significance of Freezing Point) : cvwbi wngv¼ 0ºC ej‡Z GB eywS †h, cÖgvY Pv‡c 0ºC ZvcgvÎvq
cvwb R‡g ei‡d cwibZ nIqv ïiæ K‡i Ges m¤ú~Y© cvwb RgvU †e‡au ei‡d cwibZ bv nIqv ch©šÍ Gi ZvcgvÎv K‡g bv|
ùzbv‡¼i Zvrch© (Significance of Boiling Point) : cvwbi ùzUbv¼ 100ºC ej‡Z GB eywS †h, cÖgvY Pv‡c 100ºC
ZvcgvÎvq cvwb Rjxq ev‡®ú cwibZ nIqv ïiæ K‡i Ges m¤ú~Y© cvwb ch©šÍ ev®úxf~Z bv nIqv ch©šÍ Gi ZvcgvÎv ev‡o bv|
cvwbi ev®úxfe‡bii Av‡cwÿK myßZvc wbY©q (Determination of Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization of Water) t
eb©Yv t GKwU eqjvi B -†Z cvwb Mig Kiv nq| eqjv‡ii gyL KK© w`‡q AvUKvb _v‡K Ges euvKv bj A K‡K©i g‡a¨ cÖ‡ek
Kiv‡bv _v‡K| A Gi Aci cÖvšÍ GKwU ev®ú duv‡`i g‡a¨ cÖ‡ek Kiv‡bv _v‡K| ev®ú duv`wU GKwU Kv‡Pi bj we‡kl| Gi
Dc‡i GKwU Ges bx‡P `yBwU wQ`ª Iqvjv KK© jvMvb _v‡K| Dc‡ii
KK© w`‡q A bjwU ev®ú duv‡` cÖ‡ek Kiv‡bv nq| wb‡Pi KK© w`‡q bj C I D
cÖ‡ek Kiv‡bv nq| C bj w`‡q ev®ú duv‡` Rgv nIqv cvwb †ei Kiv nq| D
bjwUi Aci cÖvšÍ K¨vjwiwgUvi K †Z cÖ‡ek Kiv‡bv _v‡K| K¨vjwiwgUvi I
eqjv‡ii gvSLv‡b GKwU c`©v P ¯’vcb Kiv nq †hb K¨vjwiwgUviwU eqjvi
DËß Kivi mgq Zvc MÖnb Ki‡Z bv cv‡i| bvowb S mn K¨jwiwgUvi K
wb‡q Gi fi †ei Kiv nq| Gi `yB-Z„Zxqvsk cvwbc~Y© K‡i Gi fi †bIqv
nq| GB `yB f‡ii cv_©K¨ †_‡K cvwbi fi †ei Kiv nq| GKwU _v‡g©vwgUvi
T Gi mvnv‡h¨ Gi ZvcgvÎv wbY©q Kiv nq| Gi ci ev®ú A b‡ji ga¨w`‡q
ev®ú dv‡` cÖ‡ek K‡i Ges D b‡ji g‡a¨ w`‡q AvMZ ev®ú K¨jwiwgUv‡ii
cvwbi ms¯ú‡k© G‡m Nbxf~Z nq Ges Zvc eR©b K‡i| GB Zvc MÖnY K‡i K¨jwiwgUvi I cvwbi ZvcgvÎv e„w× cvq| Gi
wKQyÿb ci D bj mwi‡q cvwbi m‡eŸ©v”P ZvcgvÎv †`‡L †bqv nq| Gici cvwb mn K¨vjwiwgUv‡ii fi †bIqv nq| Z…Zxq
fi †_‡K wØZxq fi ev` w`‡j Nbxf~Z ev‡®úi fi cvIqv hvq|
mZK©Zv (Caution) t
1| ev®ú Lye ax‡i ax‡i ˆZix Ki‡Z n‡e Zv bv n‡j ev®ú duv‡`i AvMg bj w`‡q ev‡®úi mv‡_ wKQy cvwb ev®ú duv‡` cÖ‡ek
Ki‡Z cv‡i |
2| ev®ú duv‡`i AvMvg bjwU‡K fvj fv‡e Zzjv ev Ab¨‡Kvb AcwievnK c`v_© Øviv †X‡K w`‡Z n‡e hv‡Z c‡_ †Kvb ev®ú
Nbxf~Z bv n‡Z cv‡i |
3| K¨jwiwgUvi‡K AcwievnK c`v_© Øviv †X‡K ivL‡Z n‡e hv‡Z cwienb RwbZ Kvi‡Y †Kvb Zvc ÿq bv nq|
4| K¨vjwiwgUv‡i my‡e`x _v‡g©vwgUvi e¨venvi Ki‡Z n‡e hv‡Z ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b mv‡_ mv‡_ aiv c‡o|
cvwbi ˆÎawe›`y (Triple tip of Water) t
‡h wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq I Pv‡c cvwb KwVb (eid), Zij (cvwb) I evqexq (Rjxhev®ú) GB wZb Ae¯’vq _vK‡Z cv‡i Zv‡K
cvwbi ˆÎawe›`y e‡j| GB we›`y‡Z wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎv 0ºC ev, 273.16K Ges GB we›`y‡Z wbw`©ó Pvc 4.58 mmHg|
msKU ZvcgvÎv (Critical temperature) t
m‡eŸ©v”P ‡h ZvcgvÎvq _vK‡j †Kvb M¨vm‡K ïaygvÎ Pvc cÖ‡qvM K‡i Zi‡j cwiYZ Kiv hvq †mB ZvcgvÎv‡K msKU
ZvcgvÎv e‡j| cvwbi msKU ZvcgvÎv 647K|
`kv (Phase) :
†Kvb wm‡÷‡gi GKwU wbw`©ó Ask, hvi Dcv`vbMZ MVb meÎ Awfbœ Ges †fŠZ wePv‡i Ab¨vb¨ Ask †_‡K c„_K‡hvM¨ A_©vr
†Kvb hvwš¿K cÖwµqvq Ab¨vb¨ Ask n‡Z mn‡R c„_K Kiv hvq, Zv‡K `kv e‡j|
msKU ZvcgvÎvt
m‡e©v”P †h ZvcgvÎvq _vK‡j GKwU M¨vm‡K ïaygvÎ Pvc cÖ‡qv‡M Zi‡j cwiYZ Kiv hvq Zv‡K H M¨v‡mi msKU ZvcgvÎv
e‡j|
ev®ú I M¨vm t
ev®út
evqexq Ae¯’vq †Kvb c`v‡_©i ZvcgvÎv hw` msKU ZvcgvÎvi †P‡q Kg nq Z‡e Zv‡K ev®ú e‡j| †hgbt Rjxq ev®ú,
†eªvwgb ev®ú, B_vbj ev®ú BZ¨vw`|
M¨vmt
evqexq Ae¯’vq †Kvb c`v‡_©i ZvcgvÎv hw` msKU ZvcgvÎvi †P‡q ‡ekx nq Z‡e Zv‡K M¨vm e‡j| †hgbt Aw·‡Rb M¨vm,
nvB‡Wªv‡Rb M¨vm BZ¨vw`|
ev®úvqb t †h cÖwµqvq †Kvb wbw`©ó Pv‡c †Kvb Zij c`v_© †h †Kvb ZvcgvÎvq Gi Dcwi gy³ Zj n‡Z ax‡i ax‡i ev‡®ú
cwiYZ nq Zv‡K ev®úvqb e‡j|
ùzUb : †h cÖwµqvq †Kvb wbw`©ó Pv‡c †Kvb Zij c`v_© Gi ùzUzbv‡¼ ZvcgvÎv w¯’i ‡i‡L Zi‡ji mgMÖ Ask n‡Z `ªæZ ev‡®ú
cwiYZ nq Zv‡K ùzUb e‡j|
cv_©K¨
ev®úvqb ùzUb
1| †Kej gvÎ gy³ Zj n‡Z ax‡i ax‡i ev‡®ú cwiYZ nq| 1| Zi‡ji mgMÖ Ask n‡Z `ªæZ ev‡®ú cwiYZ nq|
2| †h †Kvb ZvcgvÎvq N‡U| 2| wbw`©ó Pvc I wbw`©ó ZvcgvÎvq N‡U|
3| ev®ú Pvc, evwn¨K Pv‡ci †P‡q Kg| 3| ev®ú Pvc, evwn¨K Pv‡ci mgvb
4| ey`ey` m„wó nq bv| 4| ey`ey` m„wó nq|
5| ev®úvq‡bi nvi Zi‡ji gy³ Z‡ji †ÿÎd‡ji Dci 5| ùzU‡bi nvi, Zvc mieiv‡ni nv‡ii Dci wbf©i K‡i|
wbf©i K‡i|
6| ev®úvq‡bi mgq Zi‡ji ZvcgvÎv n«vm cvq| 6| ùzU‡bi mgq Zi‡ji ZvcgvÎv w¯’i _v‡K|
cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv I AcÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqvi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ (Distinction between reversible and irreversible process):
cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv AcÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv
1| ‡h cÖwµqv wecixZgyLx n‡q cÖZ¨veZ©b K‡i Ges 1| ‡h cÖwµqv wecixZgyLx n‡q cÖZ¨veZ©b Ki‡Z cv‡i bv
m¤§yLeZ©x I wecixZgyLx cÖwµqvi cÖwZ ¯Í‡i Zvc I Kv‡Ri A_©vr m¤§yLeZ©x I wecixZgyLx cÖwZ ¯Í‡i Zvc I Kv‡Ri
djvdj mgvb I wecixZ †mB cÖwµqv‡K cÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv djvdj mgvb I wecixZ nq bv †mB cÖwµqv‡K
e‡j| AcÖZ¨vMvgx cÖwµqv e‡j|
2| Kvh©wbe©vnK e¯‘ cÖv_wgK Ae¯’vq wd‡i Av‡m| 2| Kvh©wbe©vnK e¯‘ cÖv_wgK Ae¯’vq wd‡i Avm‡Z cv‡i
bv|
3| GwU GKwU axi cÖwµqv| 3| GwU GKwU `ªæZ cÖwµqv|
4| GB cÖwµqvq wm‡÷‡gi ZvcMZxq mvg¨ve¯’v eRvq 4| GB cÖwµqvq wm‡÷‡gi ZvcMZxq mvg¨ve¯’v eRvq
_v‡K| _v‡K& bv |
BwÄb (Engine):
‡h h‡š¿ Zvc kw³ hvwš¿K kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ nq Zv‡K Zvc BwÄb e‡j| BwÄb cÖavYZ `yB cÖKvi h_vt- 1| AšÍ©`nb BwÄb I
2| ewn`©nb BwÄb|
K‡b©vi wee„wZ: †Kvb wbw`©ó cwigvb Zvc kw³‡K m¤úyY©iƒ‡c hvwš¿K kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍ‡i mÿg Ggb hš¿ wbg©vb m¤¢e bq|
K¬wmqv‡mi wee„wZ: evB‡ii kw³i mvnvh¨ Qvov †Kvb ¯^qswµq h‡š¿i c‡ÿ wb¤œ DòZvi e¯‘ n‡Z D”PZi DòZvi e¯‘‡Z
Zv‡ci ¯’vbvšÍi m¤¢e bq|
cøv‡¼i wee„wZ: Ggb †Kvb BwÄb ˆZix m¤¢e bq, †hUv †Kvb e¯‘ †_‡K Zvc MÖnY K‡i Aweivgfv‡e Kv‡R cwiYZ Ki‡e A_P
cwi‡e‡ki †Kvb cwieZ©b n‡e bv|
‡Kjwf‡bi wee„wZ: ‡Kvb e¯‘‡K Gi cwicv‡k¦©i kxZjZg Ask n‡Z AwaKZi kxZj K‡i kw³i Aweivg mieivn cvIqv
m¤¢e bq|
e¨vL¨v t †Kvb BwÄb hw` T1 ZvcgvÎvq Zvc Drm ‡_‡K Q1 Zvc ‡kvlY K‡i Ges T2 ZvcgvÎvq Q2 Zvc eR©b K‡i, Zvn‡j
BwÄb Øviv Kv‡R iƒcvšÍwiZ Zvc kw³i cwigvb = (Q1-Q2)|
Q1 Q2
| Bwćbi Zvcxq `ÿZv‡K kZKivq cÖKvk Ki‡j Zvcxq `ÿZvi ivwkgvjv n‡e,
Q1
Q1 Q2 Q Q Q
100 % ev, 1 2 100 % 1 2 100 %
Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1
T
Zvc ZvcgvÎvi mgvbycvwZK, A_©vr, Q1T1 Ges Q2T2 d‡j, 1 2 100 %
T1
K‡Y©vi BwÄb (Carnot's Engine): Zvckw³‡K hvwš¿K kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ Kivi Rb¨ mv`x K‡b©v mKj †`vlΤœwU gy³ †h
Av`k© h‡š¿i Kíbv K‡ib Zv‡K K‡b©v BwÄb e‡j|
K‡b©v BwÄb GKwU Av`k© Bwćbi aviYvgvÎ, ev¯Í‡e Gi iƒcvšÍi m¤¢e nqwb| K‡b©v Bwćbi PviwU Ask| Ask PviwU (1)
wmwjÛvi (2) ZvcDrm (3) Zvc MÖvnK (4) Zvc AšÍiK e¯‘ ; wb‡¤œ wPÎmn wewfbœ Ask eY©bv Kiv nj|
wmwjÛvi (Cylinder): GKwU wmwjÛvi C| wmwjÛviwUi †`Iqvj m¤ú~Y© Zvc AšÍiK c`v_© Ges Zj‡`k m¤ú~yY© Zvc cwievnK
c`v_© Øviv ˆZix| Gi wfZ‡i m¤ú~Y© Zvc AšÍiK c`v‡_© ˆZix GKwU wc÷b P Nl©Ynxbfv‡e PjvPj Ki‡Z cv‡i| wmwjÛv‡ii
wfZi Kvh©wbe©vnK e¯‘ wn‡m‡e Av`k© M¨vm †bqv nq|
ZvcDrm: D”P Zvc aviYÿgZv m¤úbœ GKwU DËß e¯‘ hv T1 ZvcgvÎvq Av‡Q Ges Zv‡ci Drm wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i| Gi
ZvcgvÎv me©`v w¯’i _v‡K, Zv‡ci Av`vb cÖ`v‡b ZvcgvÎv KL‡bv cwieZ©b nq bv|
Zvc MÖvnK: D”P Zvc aviYÿgZv m¤úbœ T2 ZvcgvÎvq GKwU kxZj e¯‘ hv Zvc MÖvnK wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i| Gi ZvcgvÎvI
me©`v w¯’i _v‡K, Zv‡ci Av`vb cÖ`v‡b ZvcgvÎv KL‡bv cwieZ©b nq bv|
Zvc AšÍiK e¯‘: m¤ú~Y© Zvc AšÍiK c`v‡_©i ˆZix GKwU Avmb hvi Dci wmwjÛviwU emvb _v‡K|
cÖ_g ch©vq (First Operation): cÖ_‡g wmwjÛvi C †K Zvc Dr‡mi Dci emv‡bv
nq| Lye Aímg‡qi g‡a¨ wmwjÛv‡i Ave× M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎv Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎvi mgvb
nq|aiv hvK, GB Ae¯’vq M¨v‡mi Pvc I AvqZb h_vµ‡g P1I V1 nq hv wb‡`©kK
wP‡Îi A we›`y Øviv wb‡`©k Kiv n‡q‡Q| GLb Av`k© M¨vm‡K m‡gvò cÖwµqvq
cÖmvwiZ n‡Z w`‡j cÖwµqv †k‡l Gi Pvc I AvqZb h_vµ‡g P2I V2 nq hv
wb‡`©kK wP‡Îi B we›`y Øviv wb‡`©k Kiv n‡q‡Q| AB †iLv Øviv M¨v‡mi m‡gvò
cÖmviY †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q Ges K…Z KvR, W1=ABGE †ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎd‡ji mgvb|
wØZxq ch©vq (Second Operation): Gevi wmwjÛvi C †K Zvc-AšÍiK Avm‡bi Dci emv‡bv nq Ges Ave× M¨vm‡K
iæ×Zvcxq fv‡e cÖmvwiZ n‡Z †`Iqv nq| cÖwµqv †k‡l M¨v‡mi Pvc I AvqZb h_vµ‡g P3I V3 nq hv wb‡`©kK wP‡Îi C
we›`y Øviv wb‡`©k Kiv n‡q‡Q| iæ× Zvcxq cÖmvi‡Yi d‡j M¨v‡mi ZvcmvÎv n«vm †c‡q Zvc MÖvn‡Ki ZvcgvÎv T2 Gi mgvb
nq| wP‡Î BC †iLv Øviv M¨v‡mi iæ× Zvcxq cÖmviY †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q Ges GB cÖmvi‡Y K…Z KvR, W2=BCHG †ÿ‡Îi
†ÿÎd‡ji mgvb|
Z…Zxq ch©vq (Third Operation): Gevi wmwjÛvi C †K ZvcMÖvn‡Ki Dci ewm‡q Avevi M¨v‡mi Pvc e„w× Ki‡j wcób
Øviv M¨v‡mi Dci KvR m¤úvw`Z n‡e| d‡j M¨v‡mi AšÍt¯’ kw³ e„w× cv‡e| wKš‘ Ave× M¨vm e„w× cÖvß AšÍt¯’ kw³
Zvciƒ‡c ZvcMÖvn‡K eR©b K‡i ZvcgvÎv ZvcMÖvn‡Ki mgvb A_©vr T2 eRvq ivL‡e| GB Ae¯’vq Ave× M¨v‡mi Pvc I
AvqZb h_vµ‡g P4 I V4 nq hv wb‡`©kK wP‡Îi D we›`y Øviv wb‡`©k Kiv n‡q‡Q| wP‡Î CD †iLv m‡gvò ms‡KvPb wb‡`©k
K‡i Ges GB m‡¼vP‡bi d‡j K…Z KvR, W3=CDFH †ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎd‡ji mgvb|
PZz_© ch©vq (Fourth Operation): ‡kl ch©v‡q wmwjÛvi C †K cybivq Zvc-AšÍiK Avm‡bi Dci emv‡bv nq Ges
iæ×Zvcxqfv‡e Ave× M¨v‡mi Dci Pvc evov‡bv nq| d‡j Gi AvqZb n«vm cvq| Ave× M¨v‡mi Dci KvR m¤úvw`Z
nIqvq Gi ZvcgvÎv e„wׇc‡q cybivq Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv T1 Gi mgvb nq| GB Ae¯’vh M¨v‡mi Pvc I AvqZb cybivq
h_vµ‡g P1 I V1 nq hv wb‡`©kK wP‡Îi A we›`y wb‡`©k K‡i A_©vr Ave× M¨vm Avw` Ae¯’vq wd‡i Av‡m| wP‡Î DA †iLv
Ave× M¨v‡mi iæ× Zvcxq m‡¼vPb †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q d‡j K…Z KvR, W4=DAEF †ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎd‡ji mgvb|
GLv‡b W1 I W2 Ave× M¨vm Øviv K…Z KvR e‡j abvZ¥K n‡e Ges W3 I W4 Ave× M¨v‡mi Dci K…Z KvR e‡j FbvZ¥K
n‡e| d‡j Ave× e¯‘ Øviv †gvU K…Z KvR,
W= W1+ W2 - W3 - W4
W= ABGE + BCHG - CDFH - DAEF
W= ABCD †ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎd‡ji mgvb| myZivs GKwU K‡b©v P‡µ Kvh©wbe©vnK e¯‘ Øviv m¤úvw`Z KvR wb‡`©kK wP‡Î `ywU
m‡gvò †iLv I `ywU iæ×Zvcxq †iLv Øviv Ave× †ÿ‡Îi †ÿÎd‡ji mgvb|
GbUªwc (Entropy): ‡Kvb wm‡÷‡g kw³ _vK‡jB †h Zv‡K cÖ‡qvRbxq Kv‡R jvMv‡bv hv‡e Ggb †Kvb wbðqZv †bB| GUv
wbf©i K‡i wm‡÷‡gi ZvrÿwYK Ae¯’vi Dc‡i| Avgiv Rvwb †Kvb M¨vm‡K iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqvq m¼zwPZ Ki‡j M¨v‡mi Dci
†h KvR Kiv nq Zvi d‡j M¨v‡mi Aš’t¯’kw³ I ZvcgvÎv †e‡o hvq| Avevi iæ×Zvcxq cÖwµqvq †Kvb M¨vm‡K cÖmvwiZ
cÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqvq GbUªwc w¯’i _v‡K I AcÖZ¨veZ©x cÖwµqvq GbUªwc e„w× cvq t
50% T2 msdT
dS GLv‡b,
T1 T
Avevi, GLv‡b, 2q †¶‡Î fi, m = 1kg
T2 1 4200 dT
T T wb¤§ Zvcvav‡ii ZvcgvÎv, dS ZvcgvÎv, T1 = 0ºC
4 3 100% T1 T =(273+0)ºK=273ºK
T4 T3 = 900K T2 ZvcgvÎv, T2 = 100ºC
T 900 Kg©`¶Zv, dS 4200lnT =(273+100)ºK=373ºK
50% 100% D”P Zvcvav‡ii ZvcgvÎv, T1
G›Uªwci cwieZ©b dS=?
T T4 = T=? dS 4200 (ln T2 ln T1 )
T 900
1 2 T
T dS 4200 ln 2
T1
2T 1800 T
T 1800 K ( Ans.) 373
dS 4200 ln
273
7| 10°C ZvcgvÎvi 5kg cvwb‡K 100°C ZvcgvÎvq DËxY© Ki‡Z dS 4200 0.312106624
G›Uªwci cwieZ©b wbY©q Ki| GLv‡b, dS 1310.84JK 1 (Ans.)
Avgiv Rvwb, fi, m = 5kg
T2 dQ ZvcgvÎv,T1 = 10ºC 10| GKwU Kv‡b©v Bwćbi Zvc MÖvn‡Ki ZvcgvÎv 7°C Ges `ÿZv 50%|
dS =(273+10)K=283K
T1 T Bwćbi `ÿZv 60% Ki‡Z n‡j Zvc Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv KZ e„w× Ki‡Z
ZvcgvÎv,T2 = 100ºC n‡e?
msdT
T2
dS =(273+100KC=373K Avgiv Rvwb,
T1 T G›Uªwci cwieZ©b dS=?
T2 5 4200 dT
T1 T2
1 100%
dS T1
T1 T
T2 T 280 GLv‡b,
dS 21000lnT 50% 1 100%
T1 MÖvn‡Ki ZvcgvÎv,
T1
T2 = 7ºC
dS 21000 (ln T2 ln T1 ) 50 T1 280
= (7+273)K
T 100 T1 = 280 K
dS 21000 ln 2
T1 100T1 28000 50T1 Kg©`¶Zv,
50T1 28000 Dr‡mi ZvcgvÎv, T1 = ?
373
dS 21000 ln Kg©`¶Zv,
283 28000
T1 T1/ T1 ?
dS 21000 0.276131522 50
dS 5798.76 JK 1 (Ans.) T1 560K
T1/ T2
2 100%
8| 0°C ZvcgvÎvi 3kg eid‡K 0°C ZvcgvÎvi cvwb‡Z cwiYZ T1/
Ki‡Z GbUªwci cwieZ©b KZ n‡e? [eid Mj‡bi Av‡cwÿK myßZvc T / 280
=336000 Jkg-1] 60% 1 / 100%
GLv‡b, T1
dQ
Avgiv Rvwb, dS ei‡di fi, m = 3kg
T 60 T1/ 280
Mj‡bi Av‡cw¶K myßZvc
mlf lf=336000 Jkg-1| 100 T1/
ev, dS ZvcgvÎv T= (0+273)K=273 K
T 100T1/ 28000 60T1/
GbUªwci cwieZ©b dS=?
ev, dS 3 336000 40T1/ 28000
273 28000
dS 3692.3JK 1 (Ans) T1/
40
9| 0°C ZvcgvÎvi 1kg cvwb‡K 100°C ZvcgvÎvq DËxY© Ki‡Z /
T1 700K
G›Uªwci cwieZ©b wbY©q Ki|
ZvcgvÎv e„w×
= T1/ T1 (700 560) K 140K ev, 140°C (Ans.)
Avgiv Rvwb,
kã (Sound):
†h evwn¨K KviY Avgv‡`i Kv‡bi kªeb Bw›`ª‡q kÖæwZi Abyf~wZ RvMvq ev RvMv‡Z †Póv K‡i Zv‡K kã e‡j| kã GK cÖKvi
kw³ hv †Kvb K¤úbkxj e¯‘ †_‡K Drcbœ n‡q Ro gva¨‡gi mvnv‡h¨ Avgv‡`i Kv‡b †cŠwQ‡q kÖæwZi Abyf~wZ RvMvq ev
RvMv‡Z †Póv K‡i|
kªve¨Zvi mxgv, K¤úv¼ ev wdª‡Kv‡qwÝ, Zi½, Avo Zi½, jw¤^K Zi½, Zi½ ‰`N©¨, Zi½ †eM, we¯Ívi, †`vjb Kvj,`kv, Zi½
†eM, k‡ãi †eM Ges ‡KŠwbK K¤úv¼ Gi msÁv I e¨vL¨v:
K¤úv¼ (Frequency):
‡Kvb K¤úgvb e¯‘ cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û hZwU c~b© K¤úb m¤úbœ K‡i Zv‡K Zv‡K H K¤úgvb e¯‘i K¤úv¼ e‡j| G‡K n ev f Øviv
cÖKvk Kiv nq| K¤úv¼ ev wd«‡Kv‡qÝxi GKK Hz ev, cy/s|
Zi½ (Wave):
w¯’wZ¯’vcK gva¨‡gi KYv ¸wji mgwóMZ K¤ú‡bi d‡j m„ó Av‡›`vjb‡K Zi½ e‡j| Zi½ cÖavbZ `yB cÖKvi (1) Avo Zi½
ev AbycÖ¯’ Zi½ (2) jw¤^K Zi½ ev Aby‰`N©¨ Zi½
ˆ`N©¨‡K Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| Zi½ ˆ`‡N©¨i GKK wgUvi ev wdU| Zi½ cÖevnKv‡j Zi½w¯’Z GKwU KYvi N wU c~Y©
S
K¤ú‡bi mgq AeKv‡k Zi½ S `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡j λ n‡e|
N
Zi½ †eM (Wave Velocity):
wbw`©ó w`‡K Zi½ GKK mg‡q †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K Zi½ †eM e‡j| G‡K V Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| t mg‡q wbw`©ó
d
w`‡K †Kvb Zi½ d `~iZ¡ AwZµg Ki‡j Zi½ †eM V n‡e| Gi GKK ms-1|
t
we¯Ívi (Amplitude):
‡Kvb GKwU K¤úgvb KYvi mvg¨ve¯’vb †_‡K †h †Kvb GKw`‡K me©vwaK †h `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i Zv‡K Gi we¯Ívi e‡j|
w¯’i Zi½: ‡Kvb gva¨‡gi GKwU mxwgZ As‡k mgvb we¯Ívi I Zi½ ‰`‡N©¨i `ywU
Pjgvb Zi½ GKB gv‡bi †e‡M wecixZ w`K †_‡K AMÖmi n‡q G‡K Ac‡ii Dci
AvcwZZ n‡q †h Zi‡½i D™¢e nq Zv‡K w¯’i Zi½ e‡j|
GKwU Zv‡ii GK cÖvšÍ GKwU `„p Aej¤^‡b †e‡a Ab¨ cÖvšÍ a‡i Dci wb‡P AvovAvwofv‡e †`vjv‡j GKwU Zi½ Zvi
†e‡q AMÖmi n‡e Ges e×cÖv‡šÍ cÖwZdwjZ n‡q wd‡i Avm‡e| GB cÖwZdwjZ Zi½ hLb bZzb Pjgvb Zi‡½i Dci AvcwZZ
n‡e ZLb w¯’i Zi‡½i D™¢e n‡e| GB Zi½ Zvi †e‡q AMÖmi bv n‡q eis Zv‡ii H As‡ki g‡a¨ Drcbœ I wejyß nq|
Zi‡½i D™¢‡ei mgq †`Lv hvq †h, Zv‡ii †Kvb †Kvb RvqMvq, †hgb N1, N2, N3 BZ¨vw` we›`y‡Z †Kvb ¯ú›`b †bB, Avevi
†Kvb †Kvb hvqMvq, †hgb A1, A2, A3 BZ¨vw` ¯ú›`b me mgq me©vwaK| †h mg¯Í we›`y‡Z †Kvb ¯ú›`b †bB Zv‡`i‡K wb¯ú›`
we›`y (Nodes ) e‡j Ges †h mg¯Í we›`y‡Z ¯ú›`b me©vwaK †m mKj we›`y‡K my¯ú›` we›`y (Antinodes ) e‡j|
2 2
y 2a sin vt cos x
2 2π
y A sin vt ... ... ... ... (1) GLv‡b we¯Ívi, A 2a Cos x
λ
Dc‡iv³ mgxKiYwU w¯’i Zi½ cÖKvk K‡i| wewfbœ we›`y‡Z x Gi gv‡bi Dci wbf©i K‡i we¯Ív‡ii gvb I wewfbœ n‡e|
my¯ú›` we›`y (Anti Node): †h mKj we›`y‡Z jwä we¯Ívi m‡Ÿ©v”P A_©vr A 2a n‡e †mB mKj my¯ú›` we›`y ˆZix n‡e|
2
A_©vr †h mKj we›`y‡Z cos x 1 n‡e †mB mKj we›`y‡Z my¯ú›` we›`y ˆZix n‡e| myZivs †h mKj we›`y‡Z
2x
0, , 2 ............., n, n‡e| †hLv‡b, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . ....... . . .) |
2 n
ev, x 0, , , . . .. . . . . . . , †hLv‡b, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . .. . .. . .)
2 2 2
2 4 2n
ev, x 0, , , . . .. . . . . . . , †hLv‡b, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . .. . .. . .) †mB mKj we›`y‡Z my¯ú›` we›`y ˆZix
4 4 4
n‡e| myZivs w¯’i Zi‡½i †h mKj we›`y Gi ‡Rvo ¸wbZK `~‡i Aew¯’Z †mB mKj we›`y‡Z my¯ú›` we›`y m„wó n‡e|
4
wb¯ú›` we›`y (Node): †h mKj we›`y‡Z jwä we¯Ívi k~Y¨ A_©vr A 0 n‡e †mB mKj we›`y‡Z wb¯ú›` we›`y ˆZix n‡e| A_©vr
2
†h mKj we›`y‡Z cos x 0 n‡e †m mKj we›`y‡Z wb¯ú›` we›`y ˆZix n‡e| myZivs †h mKj we›`y‡Z
2x 3 5
, , ............., (2n 1) , n‡e| †hLv‡b, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . . . .) |
2 2 2 2
3 5
ev, x , , . . .. . . . . . . (2n 1) , †hLv‡b, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . . . .) †mB mKj we›`y‡Z wb¯ú›` we›`y
4 4 4 4
ˆZix n‡e| myZivs †h mKj we›`y Gi †e‡Rvo ¸wbZK `~‡i Aew¯’Z †mB mKj we›`y‡Z wb¯ú›` we›`y m„wó n‡e|
4
(1) MVbg~jK e¨wZPvi (Constructive Interference): k‡ãi e¨wZPv‡i cÖejZ¡i kã n‡j Zv‡K MVbg~jK e¨wZPvi e‡j|
(2) aŸsmvZ¥K e¨wZPvi (Destructive Interference): k‡ãi e¨wZPv‡i Av‡`Š‡Kvb kã bv n‡j Zv‡K aŸsmvZ¥K
e¨wZPvi e‡j| kã Zi‡½i e¨wZPv‡ii Rb¨ kã kw³i webvk nqbv eis kw³i cybe©›Ub nq|
MVbg~jK e¨wZPvi (Constructive Interference) : †h mKj we›`y‡Z Zi½ `ywU GKB `kvqA_©vr mg `kvq wgwjZ n‡e, †m
me we›`y‡Z jwä we¯Ívi m‡e©v”P n‡e A_©vr A 2a n‡e| d‡j k‡ãi ZxeªZv m‡e©v”P n‡e ev MVbg~jK e¨wZPvi Drcbœ n‡e|
myZivs †h mKj we›`y‡Z, cos ( x 2 x 1 ) 1 n‡e|
ev, (x 2 x 1 ) 0, , 2, 3. ... ....... n n‡e [ n = 0, 1, 2.3, ........]
ev, (x 2 x1 ) 0, , 2, 3, ... ....... n n‡e [ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ........]
2 4 6
( x 2 x1 ) 0, , , , ... ....... 2n n‡e [ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ........]
2 2 2 2
A_©vr †h mKj we›`y‡Z Zi½ `ywUi c_ cv_©K¨ Gi †Rvo ¸wbZK n‡e †mB mKj we›`y‡Z MVbg~jK e¨wZPvi Drcbœ n‡e|
2
†h †h Kvi‡Y kã (Pjgvb) AMÖMvgx jw¤^K Zi½ ev, kã GKwU AMÖMvgx jw¤^K Zi‡½i cÖgvY (Prof of Sound is a Kind of
longitudinal wave):
kã GKwU AMÖMvgx jw¤^K Zi½ Gi ¯^c‡ÿ wb¤§wjwLZ NUbv mg~n cwijwÿZ nq|
(1) Zi½ m„wói Rb¨ e¯‘i K¤úb cÖ‡qvRb kã m„wói Rb¨ I e¯‘i K¤úb cÖ‡qvRb|
(2) Zi½ mÂvj‡bi Rb¨ gva¨g ¯’vbvšÍwiZ nq bv kã mÂvj‡bi Rb¨ I gva¨g ¯’vbvšÍwiZ nq bv|
(3) Zi½ mÂvj‡bi Rb¨ mg‡qi cÖ‡qvRb kã mÂvj‡bi Rb¨ I mg‡qi cÖ‡qvRb|
(4) cÖ‡Z¨K Zi‡½i †ÿ‡Î cÖwZdjb, cÖwZmiY, e¨wZPvi Ges AceZ©b nq| k‡ãi †ÿ‡Î I G me nq|
(5) M¨vwmq gva¨‡g kã Zi½vKv‡i mÂvwjZ nq| Gi mgeZ©b nq bv| mgeZ©b †Kej gvÎ Avo Zi‡½ nq| Dc‡iv³ NUbv
Øviv cÖgvwYZ nq †h, kã GKwU AMÖMvgx jw¤^K Zi½|
8| †Kvb myi kjvKvi K¤úv¼ 700Hz, evqyi ZvcgvÎv 30°C n‡j 11| `yÕwU myi kjvKvi K¤úv‡¼i cv_©K¨ 118 Hz| evqy‡Z kjvKv `yÕwU ‡h
100 K¤ú‡b kã KZ`yi hv‡e| 0°C ZvcgvÎvq k‡ãi †eM Zi½ m„wó K‡i, Zv‡`i GKwUi `yÕwU c~Y© Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ AciwUi wZbwU c~Y©
332ms-1 Zi½ ˆ`‡N©¨i mgvb| kjvKv ؇qi K¤úv¼ wbY©q Ki|
GLv‡b,
v v 0 (1 ) k‡ãi †eM, vo = 332ms-1 f1 f 2 118Hz f 2 (f1 118)Hz
1 ZvcgvÎv, = 30ºC
2
v 332 1 30 3 1 2 2 1
100 = ? 2 3
273
Avgiv Rvwb,
v 332 (1 0.109890109 ) V f1 1 f 2 2
v 332 1.10989011 1 f 2 2 f 118
1
v 349.76ms 1 2 f1 3 f1
Avevi, 3f1 354 2f1
v f f1 354Hz I f 2 (354 118)Hz 236Hz
349.76 700
349.76 12| GKwU Zv‡ii Dc‡ Drcbœ AbycÖ¯’ Zi‡½i
700 t x
mgxKiY y 0.5 sin 2 , GLv‡b xGes y †mw›UwgUv‡i
349.76 100 0.5 50
100
700 Ges t †m‡K‡Û cÖKvk Kiv n‡q‡Q| Zi½wUi we¯Ívi, Zi½ ˆ`N©¨, K¤úvsK I
100 49.96m (Ans.) ch©vqKvj wbY©q Ki|
t x
9| A gva¨‡g k‡ãi †eM B gva¨‡g k‡ãi †e‡Mi †P‡q 5 ¸Y †ewk| GLv‡b cÖ`Ë mgxKiY: y 0.5 sin 2
0.5 50
B gva¨‡g GKwU k‡ãi Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ 10cm n‡j A gva¨‡g Dr†mi
100 evi K¤ú‡b kã KZ`yi hv‡e?
2t 2x
y 0.5 sin ‡K
VA VB GLv‡b, 0.5 50
Avgiv Rvwb, f 2x
A B awi, k‡ãi †eM, VB=V
Av`k© mgxKiY, y a sin 2ft Gi mv‡_ Zzjbv
k‡ãi †eM,VA=5V
V B Zi½ ‰`N©¨,B=10cm=0.m
A A 1
VB 100A= ? K‡i cvB, we¯Ívi a=0.5cm,I f Hz 2 Hz
5V 0. 1 0. 5
A 1 1 1 1
V I 50cm T 0.5Sec( Ans.)
50 f 2
A 0.5m
100 100 0.5m
18| kã (Sound) 2
myi hy³ I myi ewR©Z kã (Musical Sound and Noise):
‡h mg¯Í kã Avgv‡`i ïb‡Z fvj jv‡M Zv‡`i‡K Avgiv mykªve¨ ev myimg„× kã e‡j| Avevi †h ¸‡jv Avgv‡`i Kv‡Q
weiw³Ki Ae¯’vi m„wó K‡i Zv‡`i‡K Kjie ev myi ewR©Z kã e‡j|
myi weivg (Musical Intervel): `ywU my‡ii K¤úv‡¼i AbycvZ‡K myi weivg e‡j| aiv hvK, A,B,I C wZbwU my‡ii K¤úv¼
f2 f
h_vµ‡g f1,f2I f3 BZ¨vw`| Zv n‡j, BI AGi g‡a¨ myi weivg CI BGi g‡a¨ myi weivg 3 GB Ae¯’vq C I AGi
f1 f2
f3 f f
g‡a¨ myi weivg n‡e, 3 2 myZivs †`Lv hv‡”Q †h, `ywU k‡ãi myi weivg G‡`i ga¨eZ©x myi weivg ¸‡jvi ¸b
f1 f 2 f1
d‡ji mgvb|
mgZvb (Harmony): KZ¸‡jv kã hw` GK m‡½ Drcv`b n‡q HK¨Zv‡bi m„wó K‡i, Z‡e Zv‡K mgZvb e‡j|
¯^iMÖvg (Musical Scale): ¯^iMÖvg ej‡Z Avgiv wbw`©ó K¤úv¼ ev ZxÿèZvi K‡qKwU mvRv‡bv myi‡K eywS| †h †Kvb myi I
Zvi AóK ev wظY K¤úv¼wewkó my‡ii g‡a¨ K‡qKwU wbw`©ó myi Avgv‡`i Kv‡b mn‡R mvov †`q| GB myi ¸‡jvi g‡a¨
mgmsMwZ eRvq _v‡K e‡j Giv m½xZ ¸Ym¤úbœ nq| Giƒc mgmsMwZc~Y© myimgwó‡K ¯^iMÖvg e‡j| ¯^iMÖv‡gi me‡P‡q †QvU
K¤úv‡¼i m~Pbv myi‡K †UvwbK ev cÖavb myi e‡j| GB ¯^iMÖv‡g AvUwU µgea©gvb K¤úv‡¼i mgmsMwZc~Y© myi _v‡K e‡j G‡K
Wvqv‡UvwbK ¯^iMÖvg e‡j| evsjvq ¸‡jv h_vµ‡g mv †i Mv gv cv av wb mv |
exU (Beat):
cÖvq mgvb ZxeªZv Ges K¤úvsK wewkó `yÕwU Drm †_‡K GKB mgq kã Drcbœ Ki‡j Giv ci¯ú‡ii mv‡_ wg‡j GKwU jwä
kã m„wó K‡i| GB jwã k‡ãi ZxeªZv †Kvb g~û‡Z© n«vm cvq Ges †Kvb g~û‡Z© e„w× cvq| k‡ãi ZxeªZvi GB ch©vqµwgK n«vm
e„wׇK exU ev ¯^iK¤ú ev AwaK¤ú e‡j| exU†K N Øviv cÖKvk Kiv nq| `yÕwU K¤úbkxj e¯‘i K¤úv¼ h_vµ‡g n1 I n2
n‡j Ges n1 > n2 n‡j exU N = n1 - n2 n‡e| Avi hw` n2> n1nq Z‡e exU N = n2 - n1 n‡e| A_©vr exU N = n1 ~ n2|
`yÕwU K¤úbkxj e¯‘i K¤úv‡¼i cv_©K¨B exU|
[wPÎ bs - 1]
Drcbœ n‡q gva¨‡gi wfZi w`‡q mÂvwjZ n‡Z _vK‡e| Gi d‡j gva¨‡gi †Kvb GK we›`y‡Z Zi½ `ywU †Kvb GK mgq
mg`kvq wgwjZ n‡e [ wPÎ bs - 1]| gva¨‡gi †h we›`y‡Z Zi½ `ywU GKB `kvq wgwjZ nq †mLv‡b Dcwi cvZ‡bi d‡j jwä
Zi‡½i we¯Ívi Zi½ ؇qi we¯Ív‡ii †hvM d‡ji mgvb n‡e d‡j k‡ãi cÖvej¨ ‡e‡o hv‡e| wP‡Î Zi½ `ywU‡K miæ †iLv Øviv
I jwä Zi½‡K †gvUv †iLv Øviv †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q| †h‡nZz mg‡qi mv‡_ mv‡_ Zi½Øq GwM‡q hvq ZvB cªwZwbqZ Zi½Ø‡qi
`kvi cwieZ©b nq| ZvB hLb wecixZ `kvq wgwjZ n‡e ZLb jwä Zi‡½i we¯Ívi Zi½ ؇qi we¯Ív‡ii we‡qvM d‡ji mgvb
n‡e d‡j k‡ãi cÖvej¨ K‡g hv‡e| Gfv‡e jwä Zi‡½i ch©vq µwgK n«vm e„w× N‡U exU Drcbœ nq|
18| kã (Sound) 3
MvwbwZK we‡køl‡bi Øviv exU m„wói e¨L¨v (Mathematical Analysis of Beat):
g‡bKwi mgvb we¯Ívi I K¤úv‡¼i mvgvb¨ cv_©K¨ wewkó `ywU Zi½ GKB w`‡K AMÖmi n‡”Q| t mgq c‡i †Kvb wbw`ó we›`y‡Z
Zi½Ø‡qi miY h_vµ‡g Y1 I Y2 n‡j,
Y1 a sin 2 n1 t
Y2 a sin 2 n 2 t
GLv‡b, a = Zi‡½i we¯Ívi, n1 I n2 n‡jv Zi½ `ywUi K¤úv¼ (n1 > n2)
DcwicvZ‡bi bxwZ Abymv‡i, mgq t †Z jwä miY
Y = Y1+Y2
Y a sin 2 n 1 t a sin 2 n 2 t
Y a( sin 2 n 1 t sin 2 n 2 t)
n n2 n n2
Y 2a sin 2 1 t cos 2 1 t
2 2
n n2
Y A sin 2 1 t ......................(1)
2
n1 n 2
(1) bs mgxKiY mij Qw›`Z ¯ú›`b Zi‡½i mgxKiY hvi we¯Ívi A 2a cos 2π t
2
n1 n 2
GLb jwä we¯Ívi A Gi gvb me©vwaK n‡e A_©vr A= 2a n‡e hLb cos 2π t 1 n‡e|
2
n n2
2π 1 t 0, π,2π .............mπ BZ¨vw`
2
1 2 m
t 0, , ............. BZ¨vw`
n 1 n 2 n1 n 2 n1 n 2
G mgq kã Zi‡½i we¯Ívi me‡P‡q †ekx n‡e A_©vr 2a n‡e|
n n
Avevi jwä Zi‡½i we¯Ívi me‡P‡q Kg n‡e A_©vr A= 0 n‡e, hLb cos 2π 1 2 t 0 n‡e|
2
n n2 π 3π 5π π
2π 1 t , , ..................(2m 1) ( m = 0,1,2,3 BZ¨vw` )
2 2 2 2 2
1 3 5
t , , ...... BZ¨vw` |
2(n 1 n 2 ) 2(n 1 n 2 ) 2(n 1 n 2 )
G mgq kã Zi‡½i we¯Ívi me †P‡q Kg n‡e A_©vr k~b¨ n‡e Ges kã Kv‡b †kvbv hv‡e bv|
3 1 1
AZGe cici `ywU wbtkã AeKvk = †m‡KÛ|
2(n1 n 2 ) 2(n 1 n 2 ) n 1 n 2
1 1
Avevi cici `ywU cÖej k‡ãi AeKvk = 0 †m‡KÛ|
n1 n 2 n1 n 2
1
A_©vr †m‡K‡Û nq 1 wU exU
n1 n 2
1'' '' (n1 n2) wU exU| A_©vr exU msL¨v K¤úv‡¼i cv_©‡K¨i mgvb|
18| kã (Sound) 4
exU Mbbv K‡i myikjvKvi ARvbv K¤úv¼ wbb©q (Determination of unknown frequency by counting Beat):
ARvbv K¤úv¼ wbb©‡qi Rb¨ `ywU myikjvKv †bIqv nq| G‡`i K¤úv¼ h_vµ‡g n1 I n2| n2 Rvbv Av‡Q| n1 AvRvbv K¤úv¼
| n1 wbb©q Ki‡Z n‡e|
fvi evwo‡q ev †gvg jvwM‡q: cixÿvaxb myikjvKvi Mv‡q wKQy †gvg jvwM‡q kjvKv `ywU‡K GK‡Î kãvwqZ K‡i cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û
Drcbœ ex‡Ui msL¨v Mbbv Kiv nq| †gvg jvMv‡bvi d‡j myi kjvKvi fvi evo‡e d‡j Gi ¯^vfvweK K¤úv¼ Kg‡e| G‡Z
exU N Gi †P‡q Kg‡ZI cv‡i evo‡ZI cv‡i| GB cixÿvq ex‡Ui msLv N Gi †P‡q evo‡j eyS‡Z n‡e ARvbv K¤úv¼ n1
Av‡MB Kg wQj GLb †gvg jvMv‡bvi d‡j K¤úv¼ AviI K‡g hvIqvq `yB myikjvKvi K¤úv‡¼i cv_©K¨ e„w× cvq| d‡j
n1<n2 , AZGe n1 = n2 N n‡e| Avevi †gvg jvMv‡bvi d‡j ex‡Ui msLv N Gi †P‡q Kg‡j eyS‡Z n‡e ARvbv K¤úv¼ n1
Av‡M †ekx wQj GLb †gvg jvMv‡bvi d‡j K¤úv¼ K‡g hvIqvq `yB myikjvKvi K¤úv‡¼i cv_©K¨ K‡g hvq| d‡j n1>n2
AZGe n1 = n2 N n‡e|
wm×všÍ : AÁvZ K¤úv‡¼i myi kjvKvi Mv‡q fi hy³ Ki‡j hw` ex‡Ui msL¨v e„w× cvq Z‡e ARvbv K¤úv¼ Rvbv K¤úv¼
A‡cÿv Kg n‡e Ges ex‡Ui msL¨v Kg n‡j ARvbv K¤úv¼ Rvbv K¤úv‡¼i †P‡q †ekx n‡e|
evqyi ga¨w`‡q kã mÂvj‡bi †KŠkj (Mechanism for the propagation of sound in air):
GKwU wUDwbs dK© ev myi kjvKv jB| wUDwbs dK© Øviv ivevi c¨v‡W AvNvr Ki‡j Gi evû `yÕwU mvg‡b I wcQ‡b AMÖmi nq|
hLb †Kvb GKwU evû OB (wPÎ bs -1 ) mvg‡bi w`‡K AMÖmi nq A_©vr A Ae¯’vb †_‡K C Ae¯’v‡b hvq ZLb Bnv mvg‡bi
evqy¯Íi¸wj‡K µ‡g µ‡g AvNvZ K‡i| d‡j evqy¯Íi ¸wjI H fv‡e msKzwPZ nq Ges kw³ †kl bv nIqv ch©šÍ GB ms‡KvPb
GK ¯Íi †_‡K Ab¨ ¯Í‡i mÂvwjZ n‡Z _v‡K| ÔKÕ wP‡Î OB evûi mvg‡b KZK¸wj mg`~ieZ©x mgvšÍivj †iLv AsKb K‡i
KZK¸wj GKB ai‡bi evqy¯Íi wb‡`©k Kiv n‡q‡Q| ÔLÕ wP‡Î Nb ‡iLv ¸wj Øviv PQ As‡k kã
18| kã (Sound) 5
cÖev‡n ms‡KvPb N‡U‡Q wb‡`©k Kiv n‡q‡Q| evûwU hLb wcQ‡bi w`‡K AMÖmi nq A_©vr C Ae¯’vb †_‡K A Ae¯’v‡b hvq
ZLb AvNvZ ev av°v AcmvwiZ nq| evqy¯Íi ¸wj w¯’wZ¯’vcKZv a‡g©i Rb¨ c~‡e©i Ae¯’v‡b wd‡i Av‡m| ÔMÕ wP‡Î PQ As‡k
cÖmviY N‡U‡Q †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q Ges c~‡e©i PQ As‡ki we¯Z…Z msKzwPZ ¯Íi AMÖmi n‡q QR As‡k wM‡q‡Q †`Lv‡bv n‡q‡Q|
GB ms‡KvPb I cÖmviY evq~i NbZ¡ I w¯’wZ ¯’vcKZvi wbf©i K‡i| wUDwbs d‡K©i Ab¨evûi †ÿ‡ÎI GKB Ae¯’v N‡U| A_©vr
kã mÂvj‡bi mgq evqy ¯Íi ¸wj GKevi msKywPZ Avi GKevi cÖmvwiZ nq|
AZGe wm×všÍ GB †h, Ò evqy¯Í‡ii ms‡KvPb I cÖmvi‡b kã evqy¯Íi †K Aej¤^b K‡i jw¤^K Zi½vKv‡i AMÖmi nq Ges
†kªvZvi Kv‡b †cŠwQ‡q kÖæwZi Abyf~wZ RvMvq ev RvMv‡Z †Póv K‡i| BnvB evqyi ga¨ w`‡q kã mÂvj‡bi †KŠkj|
T 1 T
UvbvZv‡i Avo K¤ú‡bi †ÿ‡Î, V ev, f cÖgvY:
μ 2l μ
T Uv‡b ivLv CC ZviwU‡K ˆ`‡N©¨i mv‡_ mg‡Kv‡Y †U‡b †Q‡o w`‡j Zv‡i Avo K¤ú‡bi D™¢e n‡e| d‡j Zv‡ii weP¨yZ
As‡ki kxl© AEB GKwU e„ËPv‡ci Ask aviY Ki‡e [wPÎ cv‡k¦©] awi Avo Zi½ evg †_‡K Wv‡b V ‡e‡M cÖevwnZ n‡”Q|
GLb kxl© E Gi wbKU¯’ we›`yi e„ËvKvi MwZi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq †K›`ªgyLx ej A I B we›`yi Uvb T †_‡K cvIqv hvq| A I B
we›`y‡Z cÖhy³ Uvb؇qi PO eivei wµqvkxj cÖ‡Z¨K Dcvs‡ki gvb TSin | A_©vr PO eivei ‡gvU wµqvkxj ej 2TSin|
PO-Gi j¤^ eivei wµqvkxj T Gi Dcvsk `ywU ci¯úi mgvb I wecixZgyLx nIqvq ci¯úi‡K bvKP K‡i †`‡e| GLb AE
= BE Ges AEB Pv‡ci eµZvi †K›`ª O, OA Ges OB †hvMK‡i A I B we›`y‡Z `ywU ¯úk©K Uvbv nj| ¯úk©KØq‡K wcQ‡b
ewa©Z Kivq Zviv OE-Gi ewa©Zvs‡ki Dci P we›`y‡Z wgwjZ nq|
awi ∠AOE = AEB Pv‡ci ˆ`N©¨ = S, Zv‡ii GKK ˆ`‡N©¨i fi = , AEB Pv‡ci eµZvi e¨vmva© = R myZivs Zv‡ii
Dci m„ó Zi½ MwZi mv‡c‡ÿ Zv‡ii e„ËvKvi MwZi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq †K›`ªgyLx e‡ji gvb n‡e
μSV 2
2Tsinθ
R
μSV 2
2Tθ [ θ Lye † QvU ]
R
μSV 2 S2 Pvc AE S 2
2T θ
R R e¨vmva ' R R
T
V2
μ
T Mg
V ................................(1) ‡ h‡ nZz T Mg
μ μ
hLb ZviwU g~j myi Drcbœ K‡i ZLb l ev, = 2 l | wKš‘ Avgiv Rvwb V = f V = 2fl
2
bs mgxKi‡Y V Gi gvb ewm‡q cvB,
T
2fl
μ
1 T
K¤úv¼ f ... ... ... ... ... ... (3) (cÖgvwYZ|)
2l μ
18| kã (Sound) 6
UvbvZv‡ii Avo K¤ú‡bi m~Î ¸wj (Laws of transverse vibration of stretched string) eY©bv I e¨vL¨v:
1 T
T Uv‡b Uvbv l ˆ`‡N©¨i †Kvb Zv‡i Avo K¤úb m„wó Ki‡j Zv‡ii K¤úv¼, f hLb m Zv‡ii GKK ˆ`‡N¨©i fi|
2l m
1g m~Ît ˆ`‡N©¨i m~‡Îi cÖgvY (Varification of 1st law i.e. law of length) :
cÖ_‡g ARvbv K¤úv‡¼i K‡qKwU myi kjvKv jIqv nq| hv‡`i K¤úv¼ h_vµ‡g f1, f2 I f3 BZ¨vw`| Gici m‡bvwgUv‡ii
cixÿvg~jK Zv‡i wKQy IRb Pvcvb nq| Gici GKwU nvjKv KvM‡Ri UzKiv C I C1 †mZzi gv‡S ewm‡q wUDwbs d‡K©
AvNvr K‡i m‡bvwgUv‡ii Dci †P‡c a‡i C I C1 Gi ga¨eZ©x `~iZ¡ Kg‡ekx K‡i Abybv` m©wó Kiv nq| G mgq KvM‡Ri
UzKiv wQUwK‡q gvwU‡Z c‡o †M‡j Zv‡ii K¤úv¼ wUDwbs d‡K©i K¤úv‡¼i mgvb nq| Gici C I C1 Gi ga¨eZ©x `~iZ¡
†g‡c †bIqv nq| Abyiƒcfv‡e Ab¨vb¨ myi kjvKvi †ejvq I GKB fv‡e ˆ`N©¨ wbb©q Kiv nq|
18| kã (Sound) 7
2q m~Ît Uv‡bi m~‡Îi cÖgvY (Varification of 2nd law i.e. law of tension):
G cixÿvq cÖ_‡g mvnvh¨Kvix Zv‡ii GK cÖvšÍ Dc‡hvMx Uv‡b †U‡b ivLv nq| c‡i cixÿbxq ZviwUi Szjvb cÖv‡šÍ GKwU
IRb Pvcvb nq| awi, ZLb cixÿbxq Zv‡i Uvb T1| GLb cixÿbxq ZviwU‡K †U‡b †Q‡o w`‡j GwU Kw¤úZ n‡e Ges
mvnvh¨Kvix Zvi‡K e¨va¨K K¤ú‡b Kw¤úZ Ki‡e| GB Ae¯’vq mvnvh¨Kvix Zv‡ii Pjgvb †mZz Gw`K Iw`K mwi‡q Ggb
GK ¯’v‡b Avbv nq †hb Zv‡ii ¯úw›`Z As‡ki K¤úv¼ cixÿbxq Zv‡‡ii K¤úv‡¼i mgvb nq| awi G Ae¯’vq mvnvh¨Kvwi
Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ l1| cybivq cixÿbxq Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ wVK ‡i‡L Gi Uvb cwieZ©b K‡i T2 Kiv nq Ges c~‡e©i b¨vq mvnvh¨ Kvix
Zv‡ii l2 ˆ`‡N©¨i mv‡_ mgmy‡i Avbv nq|
gy³ K¤úb: †h †Kvb AvKvi, MVb ev AvK…wZi e¯‘‡K Av‡›`vwjZ Ki‡j Zv GKwU wbR¯^ K¤úv¼ iÿv K‡i ¯úw›`Z nq| GB
¯ú›`b‡K wbe©va ev gy³ K¤úb e‡j|
Av‡ivwcZ ev ciek K¤úb: †Kvb e¯‘i Dci Av‡ivwcZ ch©ve„Ë ¯ú›`‡bi K¤úv¼ e¯‘i ¯^vfvweK K¤ú‡bi K¤úv‡¼i †P‡q
wfbœZi n‡j e¯‘wU cÖ_‡g AwbqwgZfv‡e Kw¤úZ nq c‡i Av‡ivwcZ K¤ú‡bi K¤úv‡¼ Kw¤úZ n‡Z _v‡K| GB ai‡bi
K¤úb‡K Av‡ivwcZ ev ciek K¤úb e‡j|
18| kã (Sound) 8
ZË¡ t ‡Kvb myikjvKvi K¤úv¼ hw` GKwU Uvbv Zv‡ii wbR¯^ K¤úv‡¼i mv‡_ wg‡j hvq Zvn‡j Abybv` m„wó nq, d‡j ZviwU
m‡e©v”P we¯Ív‡i Kuvc‡Z _v‡K| GLb Zv‡ii Uvb T, GKK ˆ`‡N©¨i Zv‡ii fi n‡j hw` Zv‡ii l ˆ`‡N¨©i mv‡_ myi kjvKvi
1 T
K¤úv‡¼i Abybv` m„wó nq Zvn‡j Zv‡ii K¤úv¼ Z_v myikjvKvi K¤úv¼, f
2l
cixÿv: cÖ_‡g m‡bvwgUv‡ii Zv‡i M fi Szwj‡q Uvb Kiv nq| Gevi GKwU
myikjvKv‡K Kuvwc‡q m‡bvwgUv‡ii ev‡·i Dci aiv nq| GZ K‡i myikjvKvi K¤úb
Zv‡i mÂvwjZ nq Ges Zv‡i Avo K¤ú‡bi m„wó nq| GLb mÂviYkxj †mZzwU‡K mwi‡q Ggb Ae¯’v‡b ivLv nq hv‡Z K‡i
myikjvKv I Zv‡ii K¤ú‡bi g‡a¨ mgmyi m„wó nq A_©vr Abybv` m„wó nq| mgmyi m„wó n‡q‡P wKbv Zv wbY©‡qi Rb¨ †QvU GK
UzKiv KvMR Zv‡ii Dci fvuRK‡i ewm‡q w`‡j hw` myikjvKvi K¤ú‡bi Rb¨ KvM‡Ri UzKiv c‡o hvq Zvn‡j mgmyi m„wó
n‡q‡Q aiv nq| GB AŸ¯’vq Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ †g‡c †bIqv nq| aiv hvK GB ˆ`N©¨ l|
GLb cixÿYxq ZviwU m‡bvwgUvi †_‡K Ly‡j wb‡q wgUvi ‡¯‹‡ji mvnv‡h¨ Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ L Ges wbw³i mvnv‡h¨ fi m
wbY©q Kiv nq|
wnmve I MYbv:
Zv‡ii Uvb, T mg
m
GKK ˆ`‡N©¨i Zv‡ii fi,
L
1 T 1 MgL
GLb K¤úv¼, f GB mgxKi‡Y l,M,g,L I m Gi gvb ewm‡q f wbY©q Kiv nq|
2l 2l m
mZK©Zv:
(1) myikjvKv‡K Lye Avj‡Zvfv‡e m‡bvwgUv‡ii ev‡·i Dci aiv nq|
(2) myikjvKv hv‡Z K¤úgvb Zvi‡K ¯úk© bv K‡i ‡m w`‡K jÿ¨ ivLv nq|
(3) myikjvKvi mv‡_ Abybv`x Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ mwVK fv‡e wbY©q Kiv nq|
(4) Zv‡ii ˆ`N©¨ I fi mwVK fv‡e wbY©q Kiv nq|
(5) Lye †QvU AvKv‡ii KvM‡Ri UyKiv †bIqv nq|
k‡ãi `ªæwZ m¤úwK©Z wbDU‡bi m~Î (Newton's Formula for Speed of Sound):
m~Ît †Kvb gva¨‡g k‡ãi `ªæwZ gva¨‡gi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸bv‡¼i eM©g~‡ji mgvbycvwZK Ges gva¨‡gi Nb‡Z¡i eM©g~‡ji
e¨¯ÍvbycvwZK| wbDUb MvwYwZK fv‡e GB m~·K wb‡b¥v³ mgxKi‡Yi mvnv‡h¨ cÖKvk K‡ib t
E
v ... ... ... ... (1) GLv‡b, E = gva¨‡gi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼, = gva¨‡gi NbZ¡, v = k‡ãi †eM
M¨vmxq ev evqy gva¨‡g m~‡Îi iƒct M¨vmxq c`v‡_©i †ÿ‡Î w¯’wZ ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ E, AvqZ‡bi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ B wb‡`©k K‡i|
B
myZivs M¨vmxq gva¨‡g k‡ãi `ªæwZ m¤úwK©Z wbDU‡bi m~‡Îi iƒc n‡e, v GLv‡b, B = gva¨‡gi AvqZ‡bi w¯’wZ¯’vcK
¸Yv¼, = M¨v‡mi NbZ¡, v = k‡ãi †eM
B = p cÖwZcv`b t awi, †Kvb wbw`©ó f‡ii M¨v‡mi Pvc p Ges AvqZb V | Zi½ wµqvq GB Pvc I AvqZ‡bi cwieZ©b
N‡U| wbDU‡bi avibv wQj GB Pvc I AvqZ‡bi cwieZ©b m‡gvò cÖwµqv| myZivs e‡q‡ji m~Îvbyhvqx,
pV =aªæeK
GB mgxKiY‡K V Gi mv‡c‡ÿ e¨eKjb Ki‡j, A_©vr
d
(pV) 0
dV
dV dp
p V 0
dV dV
dp
pV 0
dV
dp AvqZb cxob AvqZ‡bi w¯’wZ¯’vcK ¸Yv¼ = B
p
dV AvqZb weK … wZ
V
p = B
GLv‡b FbvZ¥K wPý Pvc e„wׇc‡j AvqZb n«vm ev Pvc n«vm †c‡j AvqZb e„w× †evSvq| m~Î g‡Z evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM
B p
v
p 1.013 105
v 280 ms1 GLv‡b, p = evqyi Pvc=1.013×105 Nm-2, = evqyi NbZ¡ =1.293 kgm-3 wKš‘
1.293
cÖgvY ZvcgvÎv I Pv‡c evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM 332ms-1| GLvb †_‡K avibv Kiv nq †h, wbDU‡bi m~‡Îi †Kv_vI fyj Av‡Q|
j¨vcjvm KZ…K wbDU‡bi m~‡Îi ms‡kvabx (Correction of Newton's law by Laplace):
wbDU‡bi m~Î g‡Z evqy‡Z k‡ãi `ªæwZ 280 ms-1| GB gvb cixÿv jä gv‡bi †P‡q A‡bK Kg nIqvq ¯úó eySv hvq †h,
Zvi m~Î cÖ‡qv‡Mi mgq wbDUb †h avibv K‡i wQ‡jb Zv‡Z wKQy fyj wQj| 1817 mv‡j weÁvbx j¨vcjvm wbDU‡bi Abygv‡bi
fyj †ei Ki‡Z mg_© nb Ges M¨vmxq gva¨‡g k‡ãi `ªæwZ m¤úwK©Z m~‡Îi ms‡kvab K‡ib| j¨vcjv‡mi g‡Z M¨vmxq gva¨‡g
kã mÂvj‡bi mgq wbDUb gva¨‡gi ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb ZvcgvÎvi †Kvb cwieZ©b nqbv e‡j †h Abygvb K‡i wQ‡jb Zv wVK
wQjbv| Avi ZvB M¨v‡mi †h AvqZb ¸Yv¼ B, Pvc p-Gi mgvb †ei K‡i wQ‡jb Zv wVK nqwb| j¨vcjvm e‡jb Pvc e„w×i
d‡j evqy¯Í‡ii m‡¼vPb nIqvi d‡j †h Zv‡ci D™¢e nq, †mB Zvc wewKwiZ nIqvi Av‡MB cieZ©x cÖmviY ïiæ nq| d‡j
ZvcgvÎv †Kvb g‡ZB w¯’i _vK‡Z cv‡i bv| myZivs GB cwieZ©b m‡gvò cwieZ©b bq e‡j GLv‡b e‡q‡ji m~Î pV = aªæeK
cÖ‡hvR¨ n‡Z cv‡i bv| GB cwieZ©b iæ× Zvcxq cixeZ©b | GB cÖwµqvq Pvc I AvqZ‡bi m¤úK© pV=aªæeK| GLv‡b
= w¯’i Pv‡c I w¯’i AvqZ‡b M¨v‡mi Av‡cwÿK Zv‡ci AbycvZ| wØ cigvbyK M¨v‡mi Rb¨ Gi gvb 1.41|
pV=aªæeK, GB mgxKiY‡K V Gi mv‡c‡ÿ e¨eKjb K‡i cvB,
gv‡bi mv‡_ wg‡j hvq| GB fv‡e j¨vcjvm wbDU‡bi m~‡Îi ms‡kvab K‡ib|
k‡ãi `ªæwZi Dci Pv‡ci cÖfve (Effect of Pressure on speed of Sound):
m f‡ii †Kvb M¨v‡mi Dci Pvc hw` p1 †_‡K p2 †Z AvqZb h_vµ‡g V1 †_‡K V2 -‡Z cwiewZ©Z nq| GB cwieZ©‡bi
mgq hw` ZvcgvÎv w¯’i _v‡K, Zvn‡j e‡q‡ji m~Îvbyhvqx,
p1V1= p2V2
m m m m
p1 p2 V1 I V2
1 2 1 2
p p
1 2 aªæeK
1 2
1.41p p
GLb k‡ãi `ªæwZ, v m~‡Î †h‡nZz AbycvZwU me©`v w¯’i _v‡K, myZivs w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb M¨v‡mi Pvc
cwiewZ©Z n‡j Zv‡Z k‡ãi `ªæwZi †Kvb cwieZ©b nq bv| A_©vr w¯’i ZvcgvÎvq k‡ãi `ªæwZi Dci Pv‡ci Kvb cÖfve †bB|
k‡ãi `ªæwZi Dci ZvcgvÎvi cÖfve (Effect of Temperature on speed of Sound):
M¨v‡mi ZvcgvÎvi cwieZ©b n‡j Gi Nb‡Z¡i I cwieZ©b nq| myZivs k‡ãi `ªæwZi I cwieZ©b nq| awi, p1 Pv‡c, T1
†Kjwfb ZvcgvÎvq †Kvb M¨v‡mi NbZ¡ Ges D³ M¨v‡m k‡ãi `ªywZ v1| GLb p2 Pv‡c, T2 †Kjwfb ZvcgvÎvq hw` H
M¨v‡mi NbZ¡ nq Ges ZLb M¨v‡m k‡ãi `ªywZ v2 n‡j,
p1 Ges v p 2
v1 2
1 2
v1 p1 2 p1 2
... ... ... (1)
v2 1 p 2 p2 1
GLb M¨v‡mi cÖmviY †_‡K Avgiv Rvwb,
p1 p
2
1T1 2T2
w¯’i †kªvZvi w`‡K MwZkxj Drm (Source Moving Towards Stationary Observer):
g‡bKwi, GKRb †kªvZv O Ae¯’v‡b w¯’i Av‡Q Ges S kã Dr‡mi Avw` Ae¯’vb| DrmwU f K¤úv‡¼i kã Drcbœ Ki‡Z
Ki‡Z us †e‡M w¯’i †kªvZv O Gi w`‡K G¸‡”Q Ges v kã Zi‡½i †eM| GLb Dr‡mi K¤úv¼ f e‡j cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û f msL¨K
Zi½ wbM©Z nq Ges Zi½ †eM v e‡j cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û Zi½ v `~iZ¡ AwZµg K‡i| myZivs
GB f msL¨K Zi½ vˆ`‡N©¨i g‡a¨ Ae¯’vb K‡i| (wPÎ cv‡k¦©) Kv‡RB Drm hLb w¯’i
v
_v‡K ZLb k‡ãi g~j Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ | wKš‘ DrmwU hw` †m‡K‡Û f msL¨K Zi½
f
wbM©Z Ki‡Z Ki‡Z us †e‡M w¯’i †kªvZv O Gi w`‡K AMÖmi n‡q GK †m‡K‡Û S
Ae¯’v‡b Av‡m Zvn‡j †mB msL¨K Zi½ GLb (v us)) ˆ`‡N©¨i g‡a¨ Vvmv Vvwm
K‡i Ae¯’vb Ki‡e| d‡j Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ n«vm cv‡e| GLb Gi Zi½ ‰`N¨© n‡e
v us v v us
| w¯’i †kªvZvi Kv‡Q k‡ãi Zi½ ˆ`N©¨ K‡g
f f f
gv‡bi e‡j g‡b n‡e| myZivs †kªvZvi w`‡K Dr‡mi MwZkxjZvi Rb¨ w¯’i †kªvZvi Kv‡Q kÖæZ k‡ãi AvcvZ K¤úv¼ f n‡j|
kã Zi‡½i † eM v
AvcvZ K¤úv¼ f
Zi½ ˆ`N ¨
cwiew ZZ
v
f
(v u s ) / f
v
f f GB mgxKiY †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h, †h‡nZz ( v u s ) v f f
(v u s )
myZivs Drm hLb †Kvb w¯’i †kªvZvi w`‡K MwZkxj _v‡K ZLb †kªvZvi Kv‡Q kã Zi‡½i K¤úv¼ e„w× †c‡q‡Q e‡j g‡b
n‡e| Ges kÖæZ k‡ãi ZxÿèZviI AvcvZ e„w× n‡e|
DrmwU hw` w¯’i †kªvZv n‡Z `~‡i m‡i hvq Zvn‡j us-†K FbvZ¥K ai‡Z nq| A_©vr †m‡ÿ‡Î,
v v
f f f f G‡ÿ‡Î f f myZivs Drm †kªvZv †_‡K `~‡i m‡i †M‡j kÖæZ
v (u s ) v us
k‡ãi K¤úv¼ Z_v ZxÿèZv AvcvZ n«vm cv‡e|
Drm w¯’i wKš‘ †kªvZv Dr‡mi w`‡K MwZkxj ( Source Stationary But Observer Moving Towards It ):
aiv hvK, kã Drm s Ae¯’v‡b w¯’i Av‡Q Ges †kªvZv O
Ae¯’vb n‡Z Dr‡mi w`‡K uo `ªæwZ‡Z AMÖmi n‡”Q| Drm KZ…K wbm„Z
k‡ãi K¤úv¼ f, Zi½ ‰`N©¨ Ges `ªæwZ v| GK †m‡K‡Û f msL¨K
Zi½ Drcbœ Ki‡Q †kªvZv w¯’i _vK‡j cÖwZ †m‡K‡Û Zvi Kv‡b f
msL¨K Zi½B †cŠQvZ| A_©vr 1 †m‡K‡Û f Zi½ v `~iZ¡ Ry‡o _vKZ| myZivs †kªvZv O Gi Kv‡Q †h Zi½gvjv †cŠQv‡e
v
Zvi ˆ`N© AcwiewZ©Z _vK‡e Ges Zv n‡e | GLb †h‡nZz †kªvZv Dr‡mi w`‡K uo `ªæwZ‡Z MwZkxj Kv‡RB †kªvZvi
f
† kª vZvi mv‡ c‡ ¶ k‡ ãi `ª æwZ v uo
mv‡c‡ÿ k‡ãi `ªæwZ (v+uo) n‡e| myZivs AvcvZ K¤úv¼, f
O we›`y‡ Z † cuŠQvb Zi‡½i Zi½ ˆ`N ¨ v f
v uo
f f ... ... ... ... (1)
v
Dc‡iv³ mgxKiY †_‡K †`Lv hvq †h †h‡nZz (v+uo) >v f f
myZivs AvcvZ K¤úv¼ cÖK…Z K¤úv‡¼i †P‡q †ekx n‡e| A_©vr hLb †Kvb †kªvZv w¯’i Dr‡mi w`‡K MwZkxj _v‡K
ZLb kÖæZ k‡ãi K¤úv¼ Z_v ZxÿèZvi AvcvZ e„w× nq|
hw` †kªvZv w¯’i Drm †_‡K `~‡i m‡i hvq Zvn‡j uo †K FbvZ¥K ai‡Z n‡e| A_©vr †m‡ÿ‡Î
v uo
f f ... ... ... ... (2)
v u s
G †ÿ‡Î †h‡nZz f f myZivs †kªvZv w¯’i Drm †_‡K `~‡i m‡i †M‡j kÖæZ k‡ãi K¤úv‡¼i Z_v ZxÿèZvi AvcvZ n«vm
n‡e|
1| 261Hz K¤úvs‡Ki GKwU myikjv‡K AvNvZ K‡i Abybv`x b‡ji 4| GKwU †Uªb euvwk evRv‡Z evRv‡Z GKwU cøvUd‡g©i w`‡K 90kmh-1
Db¥y³ cÖv‡šÍi wbKU ai‡j evZv‡mi 0.30m Ges 0.94m ˆ`‡N©¨ `ªæwZ‡Z AMÖmi n‡”Q| euvwki K¤úbv¼ 600Hz Ges k‡ãi `ªæwZ 325ms-1
Abybv` cvIqv †Mj| k‡ãi `ªæwZ I cÖvšÍ ms‡kvab wbY©q Ki| n‡j cøvUd‡g© `Ûvqgvb †Kvb †kªvZvi Kv‡b H k‡ãi AvcvZ K¤úv¼ KZ
Avgiv Rvwb, g‡b n‡e?
V=2 f (l2 - l1) GLv‡b, Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b,
ev, V=2 ×261(0.94-0.30) K¤úv¼, f = 261 Hz †Uª‡bi `ªæwZ
v uo
ev, V=334.08ms m/s(Ans.) cÖ_g Abybv`x ˆ`N©¨, l1 = 0.30 m
-1 f f u s 90km/h
v us
Avevi, 2q Abybv`x ˆ`N©¨, l2 = 0.94 m
90 1000 1
ms 25ms 1
ev, V= 4 f(l1 + x) k‡ãi †eM, V= ? 325 0 3600
f 600 †Uª‡bi euvwki K¤úv¼
ev, 334.08=4×261×(0.3+ x) cÖvšÍ ms‡kvab, x = ? 325 25
f = 600 Hz
334 . 08 325 k‡ãi `ªæwZ v = 325ms-1
ev, 0.3 x f 600
4 261 300 ‡mªvZvi `ªæwZ, uo = 0
x = 0.32-0.30 =0.02 m (Ans.) f 650Hz (Ans.) AvcvZ K¤úv¼ f' =?
f
2| 512Hz K¤úv‡¼i GKwU myi myikjvKv‡K AvNvZ K‡i GKwU
Abybv`x b‡ji Db¥y³ cÖv‡šÍ aivq evZv‡mi 0.15m ˆ`‡N©¨ cÖ_g 5| †`LvI †h, Drm hw` w¯’i †kªvZv †_‡K k‡ãi `ªæwZ‡Z m‡i hvq, Z‡e
Abybv` cvIqv †Mj| evZv‡m k‡ãi `ªæwZ 350ms-1 n‡j b‡ji e¨vm kÖæZ k‡ãi AvcvZ K¤úvsK A‡a©K n‡e|
KZ? Avgiv Rvwb,
Avgiv Rvwb, GLv‡b, v uo
V = 4f(l1+0.3d) f f awi,
K¤úv¼, f = 512 Hz v us
V k‡ãi `ªæwZ v = v1
cÖ_g Abybv`x ˆ`N©¨,
l1 0.3d v1 0 Dr‡mi `ªæwZ us = v1
4f l1 = 0.15 m f f
v1 ( v1 ) ‡mªvZvi `ªæwZ, uo = 0
V k‡ãi `ªæwZ, V=350ms-1
0.3d l1 v 0 K¤úv¼ f n‡j,
4f b‡ji e¨vm, d = ?
f 1 f cÖgvY Ki‡Z n‡e †h,
350 2v1
0.3d 0.15 AvcvZ K¤úv¼, f f
4 512 f 2
f (cÖgvwYZ|)
0.3d 0.170898437 0.15 2
0.3d 0.020898437
0.020898437 6| GKwU BwÄb Pj‡Z Pj‡Z 300 Hz K¤úv‡¼i eskxaŸwb Kij wKš‘
d m GKRb ch©‡eÿ‡Ki wbKU H k‡ãi K¤úv¼ 305Hz g‡b nj| †Kvb w`‡K
0.3
Ges KZ `ªæwZ‡Z BwÄbwU MwZkxj wQj| [k‡ãi `ªæwZ 332 ms-1]
d 0.069 m (Ans.) GLv‡b,
Avgiv Rvwb,
†Uª‡bi euvwki K¤úv¼,
3| KZ ZvcgvÎvq evqy‡Z k‡ãi †eM 0°C (cÖgvY) ZvcgvÎvi ‡e‡Mi
v uo
f f f = 300 Hz
wظb n‡e? GLv‡b, v us k‡ãi `ªæwZ, v = 332ms-1
k‡ãi †eM, V1= V 332 0 ‡mªvZvi `ªæwZ, uo = 0
V1 T1 305 300
k‡ãi †eM, V2= 2V AvcvZ K¤úv¼, f' = 305 Hz
V2 T2 ZvcgvÎv, T1 =0ºC = 273K 332 u s †Uª‡bi `ªæwZ, us=?
ZvcgvÎv, T2 =? 332
V 273 332 u s 300 326.55
305
2V T2
u s 326.55 332 5.45 us= 5.45ms-1
1 273 DËit 5.45ms-1 †e‡M ‡kªvZvi w`‡K AMÖmi n‡e|
4 T2
T2 = 4×273 K = 1092K= (1092-273) °C
= 819°C (Ans.)
12| `yÕwU nb© enb K‡i GKwU †gvUi Mvox 36kmh-1 †e‡M `Ûvqgvb 13| GKwU K¤úgvb my‡ijx KuvUv cÖ_‡g GKgyL eÜ Kuv‡Pi b‡j 33cm.
GKRb ch©‡eÿ‡Ki w`‡K avweZ n‡”Q| nb© `yÕwUi k‡ãi K¤úv‡¼i `xN© evqy¯‡Í ¤¢i mv‡_ Abybv` m„wó K‡i; H GKB b‡j evqy¯‡Í ¤¢i ˆ`N©¨
cv_©K¨ 320Hz n‡j, ch©‡eÿK KZ…K kÖæZ k‡ãi K¤úv‡¼i cv_©K¨ 100.5cm. n‡j my‡ijx KuvUvwU cybivq Abybv` m„wó K‡i| hw` evqy‡Z
KZ n‡e? evZv‡m k‡ãi †eM 350ms-1| k‡ãi †eM 350ms-1 nq, Z‡e cÖvšÍ ms‡kvab KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb, Avgiv Rvwb,
1g n‡b©i †ÿ‡Î, GLv‡b, V=2 f (l2 - l1) = 4f(l1+x) GLv‡b,
v u0 k‡ãi †eM, v = 350ms-1 2f(l
l1 ) cÖ_g Abybv`x ˆ`N©¨, l1 = 0.33 cm
f1/ f1 ‡kªvZvi †eM, u0=0 ev, l1 x 2
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তাই আপিাহের কাহে একান্ত অনুহরাধ “ আপিারা ামান্য একটু ময় বযয় কহর ,শুধু এক বার নিহচর নিংহক নিক কহর এই DVD গুহার মহধয
অবনিত বই ও ফটওয়যার এর িাম মূহর উপর যচাখ বুনহয় নিি।”তাহই বুহে যহবি যকি এই DVD গুহা আপিার কাহকলহি রাখা
েরকার!আপিার আেহকর এই বযয়কৃত ামান্য ময় ভনবষ্যহত আপিার অহিক কষ্ট াঘব করহব ও আপিার অহিহক ময় বাাঁনচহয় নেহব। নবশ্বা
করুি আর িাই করুিঃ- “নবনভন্ন কযাটাগনরর এই DVD গুহার মহধয যেওয়া বািংা ও ইিংনল বই , ফটওয়যার ও নটউহটানরয়া এর কাহকলি
যেহখ আপনি তবাক হয় যাহবি !”
আপনি যনে বতেমাহি কনিউটার বযবার কহরি ও ভনবষ্যহতও কনিউটার াহে যুক্ত োকহবি তাহ এই নিনভনি গুহা আপিার অবশ্যই আপিার
কাহকলহি রাখা েরকার........ কারিঃ
এই নিনভনি গুহা যকাি যোকাহি পাহবি িা আর ইন্টারহিহটও এহতা ইিরটযান্ট কাহকলি একাহে পাহবি বহ মহি য় িা।তাোড়া এত বড়
াইহের ফাই যিট যেহক িামাহিা খুবই কষ্টাধয ও ময়াহপক্ষ বযাপার।এোড়া আপনি যযই ফাইটা িামাহবি তা ফু ভােি িাও হত পাহর ..
এই নিনভনি গুহা আপিার কাহকলহি োকহ আপিাহক আর যকাি কনিউটার নবহলজ্ঞহের কাহে নগহয় টাকার নবনিমহয় বা বন্ধুহের খানতহর
“ভাই একটু যল্প করুি” বহ অন্যহক নবরক্ত করা াগহব িা ... ও নিহেহকও য়রানি হত হব িা ।
এই নিনভনি গুহার মহধয অবনিত আমার করা ৩০০ টা বািংা ই-বুক (pdf ) ও যোট াইহের প্রহয়ােিীয় ফটওয়যার আপিাহের েন্য
নবিামূহয আমার াইহট যলয়ার কহর নেহয়নে । নকন্তু প্রহয়ােিীয় বড় াইহের বই, নটহটানরয়া ও ফু ভােি ফটওয়যার গুহা যলয়ার াইট
গুহার ীমাবদ্ধতা ও ইন্টারহিহটর যলা আপহাি গনতর েন্য যলয়ার করহত পারাম িা । তাোড়া এই বড় ফাই গুহা িাউিহাি করহত যগহ
আপিার ইন্টারহিট পযাহকহের ক নেনব খরচ করহত হব ... যযখাহি ১ নেনব পযাহকে েন্য বেনিম্ন ৩৫০ টাকা যতা খরচ হব , এর াহে
ময় ও ইন্টারহিট গনতরও একটা বযাপার আহে। এই ব নবয় নচন্তা কহর আপিাহের েন্য এই নিনভনি পযাহকে চাু কহরনে ...
যমাট কো আপিাহের কনিউটাহরর নবনভন্ন মস্যার নচরিায়ী মাধাি ও কনিউটাহরর েন্য প্রহয়ােিীয় ব বই, ফটওয়যার ও নটউহটানরয়া এর
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