DIESEL | ENGINES Kees KuikenAuthor Kees Kuiken ‘Technical advice: Johan Hou, Chief Engineer ret, P&O Nedlloyd, Jan Leckstea, Chief Engincer ret. P&O Nedlloyd, Christiaan Kuiken, Maritime Office, Maersk Ship Management. Kees Verkleij, Chief Engineer ret. machinery design office Royal Schelde, Flushing, The Netherlancs. Translation: AAG Translations, A.A. Geerts MA, Almelo, ‘The Nethedlands, ‘Textual corrections and proof reading: S.E, Brent BSc, Almelo, The Netherlands Mimi Kuijper Heeres, Senior Lecturer ret, ‘Maritime Tnsticure Willem Barents2, Terschelling, ‘The Netherlands. Layout: Little Shop of Graphics, Almelo, “The Netherlands. Technical drawings: Niels Kuiken, ‘Maarten Bosch {LS0G). Printing Wilco, Amersfoort, The Netherlands. Finish Seronkhorst Van der Esch, Groningen, ‘The Netherlands A publication of: ‘Target Global Energy Training: Noorderhooidij 2 9755 PJ ONNEN, The Netherlands “Website: wwwatargettrainingeentresnl E-mail: targettraining@planetal Copyright 2008. Exceptions subject ro in or under the Copyright act of 1912. All rights reserved. ‘No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or ocherwise, without the prior permission in writing of the publisher. [As far as the use of reprographic reproductions of this publication is permisted under article, 16h Copycight act of 1912, provided that a fe is paid to Stichting Reprorecht (Post box 3060, 2130 KB Hoofddorp, www.zepzozeche.a). For the use of fa) part(s} of this publication for anthologies, readings and ocher compilations, (art. 16 Copyright act 1912}, one can contact Stichting Reprorecht, P.O. Box 3060, 2130 KB Hoofddorp, wwwicedaralipro). ISBN 978-90-79104-02-4 Target Global Energy Training, Onnen, The Netherlands. “The author has paid scrupulous attention to the ‘compilation of this book and it may be used by anyone desiring to do so, but Target Global Enorgy Training shall noc be held responsible or liable in aay way for the accuracy of information provided. Information The task of completing this book could not have been accomplished without many substantial conteibations by a consideable aumbee of companies both in The Netherlands and abroad. ‘These companies each in their own manner have contebured to the realisation ofthis edition by allowing imerviews and providing photo-material and technical information Itisimpossibe to single out any specific company. However special refeence is made of MAN Diesel AG and Wartsli, for their generous contributions.> Introduction Diesel engines play an important role in today’s society: we are quite dependent on them. (Over 100 years after Rudolf Diesel developed a working diesel engine, there is still 20 real alternative for ship propulsion and electri generators in tropieal and/or remote areas. The diesel engine is indispensable for road bhaulage, inland shipping, aquatis, electric power emergency systems, agriculture, and passenger transport by road oz ail, oil and gas industry andl various other industries. We have chosen to make tse of many pictures accompanied by 2 written explanation, Much highly in-depth technical cheory has been omiteed as these topics are covered hy specialist books available on the marker; these topics include chermodynamics, vibrations, materials, and eleczronics. We, at Target Global Energy for a more practical approach. This includes ample Training have opted information with regpect ro the construction cof engines, use of materials, various engine categories, maintenance, repairs, and the use of engines. ‘Much atcention has been paid t0 the choice of proper graphic material. This, in our opinion, is belpful for the reader 10 gain insight im che vasious subjects, This publication is indispensable for every person who has dealings with the diese! engine industry, from the smallest engine £0 “The Cathedrals of the Oceans’. Kees Kuiken, Onnen, The Necherlands, July 2008. a tthe special general mecting of the 60th anniversary ofthe Vy, de Vereniging van lmporteurs van Verbrandingsmateran association of importers of Combustion Engines) atthe “Thester aan het Veitho” in Maastricht, author Kees K.iken presents the frst proof print tothe chsirman of the Assoctation FME-CWWM, Me lan Kamminga. FME-Gav lathe employes’ organization and rade association fr the tchnlecl and inet sactor. The actiesin the sector ve engineering, manueeeng, trade inévotial maintenance, and incustal automaton. Some 2,750 ergarizatons (mata, laste, slectrrios end ‘|ec-lcrnelog), playing some 260,000 paolo, ae members of FE> Content Introduction 5 1 The use of industrial diesel engines. 2 1.1. Introduction 4 1.2 Otto-process 15 1.3 Diesol-process 18 1.4 The use of Otto-engines 16 1.5 The use of Dissel-engines 16 1.8 Properties of both principlos 7 2 Classification of diesel engines 18 2.4 Introduction 20 22 Working principle 20 23° Design 21 2.4 Speed of rotation 23 25 — Power output or shaft power 26 26 Fuslused 28 27 Use ai engines 28 28 — Other characteristics of clesel engines 29 29 Theuse of in-line and V-engines 30 2.10 Direction of rotation of the diesel engine 31 2.11 Cylinder number 32 2:12 Natural aspiration and turbo-charging 32 3 Working principles of diese! engines 36 2:1 Working principles 38 3.2 Two-stroke engine bulld 38 83 Four-stroke engine set-up a4 3.4 A tow remarkable cifferences between the two-stroke and fourstroke cycles 42 35 Examples of supply programmes of engine manufacturers 44 3.6 Important terms and definitions 46 3.7 Some engine nares a7 At 42 43 44 4s 46 az 48 49 4.10 at 42 413 4a4. 6A 52 53 5a 55 56 87 Efficiency and losses of diesel engines Efficiency and losses Indicator diegram Parameters of both working principles Determining cylinder output using fan indicator diagram and the mean induced pressure Determining the mean induced pressure Engine formula Induced thermal efficiency Mecharical and total efficiency ‘Specific fuel consumption Mean effective pressure ‘Thermal energy balances or ‘Sankey-diagrams Efficiencies of diesel-engine driven power plants More complex ship propulsion ‘Walter pumps, dredging pumps, crude-cil pumps, compressor drives Standard figures of various ‘types of diesel engines Mean effective pressure Mean piston speed Load parameters ‘Compression ratio Power density Number of revolutions of diese! ‘engines in relation to the size of the stroke of an engine RPM of generators 50. 51 58 55 56 87 58 58 59 58 60. @ 64 68 70 n 72 3 74 78 78DIESEL ENGINES > PART | 6 Construction of various types of diesel engines 6.1 Cetegory |: Industrial diesel engines from 0 to 100 KW shaft power, fue! M.0.0, four stroke, high-speed engines 6.2 Catagory I: Industrial diesel engines from 100 to 5000 kW shatt power, {uel M.D.0, four-stroke, high-speed engines 63 Category I Industrial diesel engines {tom 600 to $0,000 kW shaft power, fel H.RO., four-stroke, medium- speed engines 64 Category IV: Industrial diesel engines ‘of 1500 to 100,000 kW shart power, {uel H.RO., two-stroke with crosshead, low-speed 7 Use of materials for diese! engines 71 General use of materials 72 Castiron 7.3 Stee! 74 Caststeol 75 Forged steel 76 Stool alloys 7.7 Aluminium 7.8 Ceramic materiais 7.9 Specific materials for engine parts; ‘engine cizssitication according to the four catagories 7.10. Special finishes and heat treatments 7.11 Examples of modern material usage 8 Fuels, fuel fuel cleaning 8:1 Introduction 8.2 Composition of liquid fuels, 83 Definition of heavy ol! 8.4 Refining crude oil 8.5 Chemical composition of hydro- carbon compounds 8.6 Standardisation of liquid fuels 87 — Fusl properties 88 — Additional fuel specifications 8.9 Decreasing the sulphur content in fusls 8.10. Bunkering 8.11 Fusl-line systems according to the engine classification 84 a7 a1 99 108 110 110 a 112 112 12 113 114 114 421 124 132 194 134 135 195 198 196 199 1a 145 148 151 812 813 9A 02 98 a4 as 26 o7 98 a9 9.10 on 92 9.13 aaa 915 9.18 nz 318, 219 920 921 022 9.23 10 10.1 10.2 103 104 108 106 10.7 108 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 Modular fuel-treatment systems Bunkering fuels Fuel-injection systems Introduction Examples of injection times lonition delay Partia-load conditions Processes in the cylinder; injection, ignition and combustion The four phases by Ricardo Ignition delay; causes Nature of atomisation Ignition quality ofthe fet Examples of combustion processes Injection pressure and droplet size Injection principles ‘Shape of the combustion chamber Fuel-injoction mechanism: fuel pump Fuel-capacity adjustments ‘Working of a plunger pump Valve-controlled fuel pumas Common-ral system Injector system Fuel injectors Residual-pressure valves Cavitation Fuel-injection characteristics Cooling diesel engines Introduction Cooling agents for diesel engines Cooling-water treatment Corrosion Products for cooling-wator treatment Cooling-water treatment products, brands Cleaning cooling-water systems contaminated with oil Bacteriological contamination Testing cooling water Macro-biological prevention in seawater-cooling systems Design of cooling-water systems Cooling-water system defects, Damaged engine parts Standard cooling-water system Examples of cooling methods for engine parts Examples according to the engine classification 187 161 164 168 168 167 167 168 168 170 171 1 172 174 175 17 180 187 187 194 196 air 223 229 230 230 232 234 296 240 242. 243 243 aa 244 244 245 245 255 255 269 27210.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 10.21 30.22 " 14 ne na 144 115 118 17 118 119 2 124 122 123 12.4 125 126 127 128 129 12.10 12.44 42.42 12.13 ye.44 12.15 Combustion-air cooling Special cooling systems Pipe coolers and plate coolers Cooling systoms in a diesel-power plant ‘Cogeneration systems ‘Summary cooling-water systems Lubrication of engines Introduction “The purpose of lubrication Three types of lubrication Engine parts that require lubrication and cooling ‘Common lubriceting-ol system Examples of lubricating-oil systems in accordance with the classification Lubricating-cil properties Cleaning lubricating oil Lubricating-cil analysis Air supply Introduction ‘The amount of air Air supply to the engine Principle of turbo-charging ‘Turbo-blower manufacturers Capaetty curves Representation of three turbo- blower manufacturers ~ development of modem turbo- blowers ‘Small turbo-blowors ~ Engine categories land |! ‘Supercharger with a separate power turbine Ar supply in four-stroke engines Air supply in two-stroke erosshoad engines Supercharging in two-stroke crosshead engines ‘Some important points of interest with regard to the alr supply in ciesal engines Maintenance of turbo-blowers Problems with supercharging 275 278 279 281 282 283 286 288 286 288 289 293 301 304 310 312 34 314 315 ai7 aig 323 325 307 sao 33 338 340 343. 348 349 13 13.4 13.2 133 19.4 14 4a 142 43 15 164 16.2 153 18.4 185 16 16.1 162 163 16.4 185 166 167 168 7 WA 2 78 74 75 176 WT Driving gears Introduction Driving gear of four-stroke diose! ‘engines Engine-criving gears in two-stroke ‘crosshead engines Trust blocks and thrust bearings Starting systems of diesel engines Introduction Starting methods Reversing the engine Speed control Introduction ‘Summary Types of governors Examples of engine configurations. ‘with diferent types of governors ‘Theoretical background of speed governors Noise, origin and damping Introduction ‘Origin of noise in diesel engines ‘Sound transmission paths Silencers for diesel engines ~ ‘Choosing a silencer Noise reduction of diesel engines in categories land Il Turbo-blower noise ‘Sound levels in diesel engines Examples of the engine arrangement with silencers Vibrations and Balancing Intreduetion ‘Main causes of vibration Resonance Forces exerted on the driving gear and engine block Principle of an internal combustion engine Forces in a two-stroke crossheact engine ‘Tangential force diagram 352 384 854 ara 387 304 304 404 410 aD ana a2 a5 419 428 430 430 432 433 434 436 438 438 44a 44a 445. 445 446 446 447DIGSEL ENGINES > PART | 10 178 179 17.10 17.41 17.12 1743 17.44 17.18 17.18 17.47 17.18 17.19 Vibrations in engine frame and proper shat Degree of cyclic inequiarity Balancing diesel engines Rosultant forces and moments in the engine block External forces and moments Example of the balancing used in a \Wartsilé 9 L.46 four-stroke engine — ccategary Il Balancing of V-engines Balancing examples for two-stroke ‘crosshead engines - catagory IV ‘Shaft generators in two-stroke ‘crosshead engines ‘Axial vibrations Vibration numbers and orders ‘Vibration level, acceptable values 44g 464 465 465 486 an 478 479 436 487 488 17.20 17.21 17.22 17.23 1724 17.28 17.26 17.27 17.28 17.29 17.30 1731 17.92 17.88 Vibration frequencies Methods to reduce torsional vibration by means of dampers Examples of engine-framo tearing ‘Measurements for vibration dampers Vibration energy Example 1: Adjusting the engine speed in case of damaged cylinder liners Example 2 Example 2, on five cylinders Design of a propulsion installation Effacts of vibration frequencies Measuring equioment Mass-ineria moment of a lywheet Examples af crankshaft, either with oF without counterweights Combustion forces exerted on the driving gear 489 489 489 491 491 492 496 501 503 503 503 507 509CH The use of industrial diesel engines Peewee eee Vere Pe eee enc en eee ee eee ee cece ee ee eres eee © Construction of various types of diesel engines 2 7. Use of materials for diesel engines 108 8 Fucls, fugline systems and fuel cleaning 10 oo 12 i 18 18 ta Get cemericucncs Referee cay Lubrication of engines 284 ste Defer Sere acu tomer teria eeceteonro nea) Noise, origin and damping 426 Nise ens nee emt fersTre largest diese engines srs usec in tha navigation industy; here isa picture of part ofa twelve- cylinder two-stroke crosshead engine on a ‘container ship ‘Sha power 68,000 Ki ‘The cso are re ana ‘ho angie is equipped with a auporonagex A twolve-cylinder four: stroke plston engine with supercharger and cellars in V-postion >> Ashceylindorin-ine engine forthe generation of electrical anergy on board a ship. 4 1.4 Introduction ‘Throughous the lase century the incernal ‘combustion engine has become increasingly Jmporcane ina society thar now relies heavily on machinery. The engine is the elementary chain in, for instance, the transportation of goods and persons by road and water, propelling various machines and generating electrical energy. The use ‘of combustion engine equipment such as chain ‘saws, water pumps, concrete mixers and lawn mowers has seen an explosive increase. ‘Modern agriculture is completely dependent on internal combustion engines for propulsion of actors, combines, and other farming equipment. ‘The industrial diese engines mentioned in this book are almost all used for propelling an ‘enormous diversity of ships, Also in generating electricity the diesel power plant plays an imporcant zole, In the internal combustion engine one Aisringuishes two principles: namely: the Oto ‘process and the Diesel process ‘harbour tow bost needs power of several ‘housanals Kiowalts 10 tow large sea vessel.4.2 Otto-process In 1876, after years of experimentation Nicolaas August Otto develops the first four-stroke engine (four strokes of the piston - two rotations of the crank shaft) which compresses « mixture of air and fuel. A spark plug provides an ignition spark atthe right moment, which ianites and then ‘combusts the mixture. “This process will not be further discussed in this book. < Container feeders with a carver capacity of ‘9000 tons havo an engine capacity of approximately {6000 Kilowatt at s@nautica miles por hour. « ‘Accommon diesel power plant in the tropics with cesel engine ctiven lactic generators. 1.3 Diesel-process In 1897 Rudolf Diesel markets the first diesel engine. In these diesel engines the air is ccampressed to such a degree that the high end temperature of the air effects a very swift ignition and combustion of the injected fuel. The efficiency of this diesel process is higher than thas of the Otto-process, thus resulting ina huge expansion of the diesel engine indus “Total efficiency ofthe internal combustion engine = the ratio ofthe produced shaft power and the supplied fuel power. This ranges from between 25% and $0%, depending on the engine size 18DIESEL eNaiNeEs = pear) > Fudott Dae’ frst diese! engine bul in Augsburg, Gorman. This engine never ran Indeperdenty and locked reve ia caren bel then an rtemal combuston fegine, The design pressure as 160 ter! Pudol Diol realy got led ven one ot Fis teatmacblssxpoded. Dies engine Fue 10086 16 Exhaust gases 95% Cooling wator 11% a Diosal engine losses. Let tque: Te tus supply of Ine engho This is alzays set 100%, Fight ue: Shot power of 50%, So hefof he upped nergy converted nto mecharical pomer er the crankstt. ‘Tho remainder othe supplied ener s waste, such as coon weter-and exhaust pasos loses. 1.4 The use of Otto-engines ‘They are often used in = (Hand) tools; = garden equipment; = automotive industry ~ outboard engine = gasengines; = small aviation. Fudolt Diesels rst clesl engino at the test bed ofthe ‘Augsburg Machine factory; MAN, Fat fiat owen erdorto use at east pr of he 05% cohauet gos loses, steam fe goneratec in an exaust gos bole, Tie star aves a scar urbe which sucseauerty generates alec 1.5 The use of Diesel-engines They often used in: = ship propulsion: = diesel power planes; = agriculcures = back up generator sees = lorries; = earth moving machines; = military vehicles such as tanks.