• Data are raw facts and figures, which may

relate to people, places, things and events.

• Information is data that have been
converted into a meaningful and useful
context for use by specific users.
• Data are raw facts and figures, which may
relate to people, places, things and events.
▪ Unprocessed, unorganized and discrete (in separate,
unrelated chunks).
▪ Qualitative (opinion-based, subjective).
▪ Quantitative (measurement-based, objective).
▪ Detailed (facts about every occurrence of something
e.g. the volume of water in every bottle leaving a
water factory).
▪ Sampled (use of typical measurements to represent
the whole e.g. volume of water in every 100th
bottle).
 Qualitative Data
• Overview: Deals with
descriptions.
• Data can be observed but not
measured.
• Colors, textures, smells, tastes,
appearance, beauty, etc.
• Qualitative → Quality
Quantitative Data
• Overview: Deals with numbers.
• Data which can be measured.
• Length, height, area, volume,
weight, speed, time,
temperature, humidity, sound
levels, cost, members, ages, etc.
• Quantitative → Quantity
 Qualitative Data Quantitative Data
• friendly demeanors • 1,672 students
• civic minded • 1,003 girls, 669 boys
• environmentalists • 68% with 2nd Class and above
• positive school spirit • 150 students accelerated in
mathematics
▪ Form such as
▪ textual (e.g. names, addresses),
▪ numeric (e.g. heights, ages),
▪ graphical (e.g. pictures of faces),
▪ aural
▪ visual (e.g. the individual frames of a movie are data
that are processed by the brain into moving picture
information when the frames are shown at 24 frames
per second; fingerprints).
▪ Analog or digital (continuous or discrete)
 Information is data that have been converted
into a meaningful and useful context for use by
specific users.
▪ Information can be classified according to its
content. For example, one can distinguish
between factual information, simply describing a
single idea which is (perceived to be) true; or
analytical, usually based on an analysis of a
number of facts.
▪ An alternative distinction is between subjective
information (i.e. based on an individual's
opinion), or objective (i.e. rooted in fact).
▪ Is the information immediate? Is it current? Is it
applicable? Can it be accessed quickly?
• Reliability: t

• Questions to consider for reliability: Is the source

or method of transmission reliable? Is the source
credible or truthful? e.g. novice/expert,
textbook/Internet, experienced/inexperienced,
news broadcast/personal knowledge/hearsay.
 Distortion. Did the form or quality change during
communication or transmission? e.g. blurred faxes,
breakups during telephone conversations,
misrepresented or incomplete facts (through the
‘grapevine’ or gossip).

 Disguise. Is it clear or unambiguous? e.g.

misrepresented facts and statements (through the
‘grapevine’ or gossip).
▪ Inconsistency. Is the final form similar to or
means the same as its original form? Is it
complete? e.g. omitted facts, distortion.
▪ Incomprehensibility. Is it clear? Is it easy to
understand?
▪ Subject to interpretation. Is the source/target
objective or subjective? Do you understand it or
know what it means?
▪ Value. Is it important and useful? Is it
truthful?

▪ Relevance. Is it significant? Is it applicable?

Is it current?

▪ Confidentiality. Is it classified? Is it private

or public? e.g. personal health, a country’s
state of affairs.
▪ Completeness. Does it contain all the facts? Is it
up-to-date?

▪ Security. Is it secure? Can it be altered,

eavesdropped on, diverted, or stolen? e.g.
banking records, credit/debit card details,
emails, telephone conversations.
▪ Shareability. Can it be shared? Can it be
retransmitted or reprinted? Is it private or
public?

▪ Availability. Is it easily accessible? Is it

available 24/7?

▪ Lifespan. Can it become outdated? Is it still

relevant tomorrow, next week, next year?
Information can be classified by it structure as
follows:
Structured
Semi-structured
Unstructured
• Structured. It can be specified in advance when a
decision is needed as it pre-specified, scheduled,
detailed, frequent, historical, internal and has a
narrow focus. e.g. inventory control
 Semi-structured. It can be pre-specified, or
otherwise, but not enough to lead to a
definite recommended decision; e.g.
budgets.
• Unstructured. It cannot be specified in advance to
inform decision as it is ad hoc, unscheduled,
summarized, infrequent, forward looking,
external or has a wide scope. e.g. technological,
economical, environmental and human factors
and their impact on new initiatives.
Information can be classified by its nature as
follows:
 Operational
 Tactical
 Strategic
• Operational. A narrow range of structured
information used by operation
managers/supervisors in planning for the
department in the short term; e.g. daily/weekly
production schedules.
• Tactical. A medium range of semi-structured
information used by managers in planning for the
branch/department in the short-to-medium term;
e.g. budgets and production schedules.
• Strategic. A wide range of unstructured
information that is used by executives and
directors in planning the company’s way forward
and its future state in the long term; e.g.
company mission/goals/objectives, strategies and
policies.