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Self‐acceptance and Behaviour

Control in Creatively Gifted Young
People
a
Irena Pufal‐Struzik
a
Educational University of Kielce , Institute of Psychology , Ul.
Krakowska 1125029 Kielce, Poland Fax:
Published online: 28 Jul 2006.

To cite this article: Irena Pufal‐Struzik (1998) Self‐acceptance and Behaviour

Control in Creatively Gifted Young People, High Ability Studies, 9:2, 197-205, DOI:
10.1080/1359813980090205

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 High Ability Studies, Vol. 9, No. 2, 1998 197

Self-acceptance and Behaviour Control

in Creatively Gifted Young People
IRENA PUFAL-STRUZIK
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An investigation was made into the relationship between self-acceptance, locus of behaviour
control and the level of adolescents' creative thinking abilities. From a sample of 250 pupils,
aged 13-14 years, 30 creative and 30 control non-creative pupils were selected, their scores
on several measures were compared, and the results then analyzed for locus of control and
self-acceptance. Comparisons were also made between the boys and girls. The young people
with a high level of creative thinking ability (fluency, flexibility and originality of thinking)
were found to have significantly higher levels of internal control and self-acceptance when
compared with the less creative control group. Girls showed a higher level of internal locus
of control than boys.

Introduction
Creative thinking is understood here as a highly developed aspect of creative
abilities, for which personality and motivation are essential factors in its develop-
ment and structure (Shavinina, 1994). It is also recognized that the social environ-
ment influences creative outcomes, as described by Lubart and Sternberg (1998).
From this variety of influences, a mutual dependence arises between the individual's
creative achievements and the perception of his or her own T . It is a two-way
effect. On the one hand, achievements are influenced by self-estimation and the
expectations of others while, on the other hand, actual achievements influence
self-concept. As in other aspects of learning, a clear awareness and acceptance
of one's own abilities is essential to effectiveness in creativity (Borzym, 1983;
Feldhusen, 1986; Span, 1995). Self-estimation like self-knowledge is part of a
child's development and is strongly influenced by cognitive and social factors (Ruble
et al., 1990; Shavelson et al., 1976). Self-cognition, though, is a specific and difficult
process. People who do not have a distinct picture of themselves are less aware of
their strengths and weaknesses, and are more likely to be influenced and dependent
on others' directions, notably from authoritarian personalities. Not only do they
tend to rely over much on others' opinions, but they seek others' assistance and
encouragement for their own decisions and actions (Bandura, 1989; Kozielecki,
1980).
Cognitive information about oneself is of considerable significance in creative

Author's address: Irena Pufal-Struzik, PhD, Educational University of Kielce, Institute of

Psychology, Ul. Krakowska 1125029 Kielce, Poland. Fax: (041) 3621 756 (Poland).
1359-8139/98/020197-09 © 1998 European Council for High Ability
 198 I. Pufal-Struzik

behaviour. A high but realistic level of self-estimation and self-acceptance enables

the individual to leave behind what is old and create something new. He or she can
open his or her mind to different kinds of experience, and put forward new ideas and
hypotheses in problem situations (Barron, 1968; Zuk, 1986). This was found by
Kmiecik (1983), although she only measured partial self-esteem which concerned
only intellectual performance.
In the notion 'I', one can distinguish 'real I' and 'ideal I' (Reykowski, 1977).
Self-acceptance is usually considered as the degree of discrepancy between them. It
is a form of self-affirmation involving positive assessments and a related positive
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emotional attitude to oneself (Karylowski, 1978). Papers by Colangelo and Pfleger

(1978) and Coleman and Fults (1983) report positive relationships between the
element of the picture of T , such as self-esteem, and intellectual abilities. Strzalecki
(1989) suggests that the notion of self-estimation plays an important role in
understanding the mechanisms of creativity. Hence, in any task, a prolonged and
strong interest can result not only from cognitive curiosity, so characteristic of
creative people, but also of the commitment of the whole structure of 'I'. The system
of 'real I' and 'ideal I' in creative people, though, should not be considered as
unchanging.
Locus of control is another significant dimension in creative behaviour. The
concept was developed on the basis of Rotter's theory of social learning (1960), and
concerns the individual's perception of a cause-and-effect relationship between his
or her behaviour and its outcome. For instance, some people believe that their
actions are the effect of coincidence, luck, destiny, or the control and decision of
others (external control); others, however, ascribe the effects of their actions to their
own, individual properties and decisions (internal control). Locus of control thus
has a distinct relationship with a general adjustment of the individual. People who
are well adjusted and react constructively to frustration have high levels of internal
control which shows in self-regulation (see Butterfield, 1964; Croft et al., 1975;
Cromwell et al, 1961; Rotter, 1966; Shybut, 1968). Those with low internal control
use different defensive mechanisms (based on expulsion) than those with external
control (based on sensitization) (Altrocchi et al, 1968; Averill & Rosenn, 1972).
Locus of control is also related to the effort connected with the development of
one's own life and insight into oneself (Lefcourt, 1966; Rotter, 1966). People with
a high level are more active, ambitious, efficient and independent in action; they
strive harder for success and believe that it can be achieved. They are convinced
about their high abilities, which helps them in performance (Battle & Rotter, 1963;
Gilmor & Minton, 1974; Hersch & Scheibe, 1967). The awareness of T is thus an
important element of people's active or passive influence on the course of events.
Control mechanisms shaped in the process of cognitive attribution aimed at both
external and internal reality determine the internal control of creative attitudes
(Scigala, 1991, p. 17). Specifically, Strzalecki (1969, 1989) states that internal
control (internal system of assessments) often co-occurs with creativity (cf. also
Tyszkowa, 1990).
However, we also find data in the literature which testify to the negative relation-
ship between the positive picture of oneself and abilities. For example, Klein and
Short (1991) and also Kerr (1985) stated that gifted girls had a more unfavourable
 Self-acceptance and Behaviour Control 199

picture of themselves due to imbalances and/or social barriers in the development of

abilities and the sense of their own potential (cf. also Howard-Hamilton &
Robinson, 1991; Tyszkowa, 1990).

Problem and Method

This investigation was aimed at determining the character of the relationship
between the picture of oneself (expressed by the degree of self-acceptance) and
consequent style of locus of control, compared with the level of creative thinking of
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boys and girls aged 13-14 years. It was hypothesized that the more creative
individuals would have a higher level of self-acceptance and stronger internal locus
of control because such an arrangement of variables appears to have a positive effect
on their creative functioning.

The Sample
From a population of 250 pupils, the most creative were selected in two ways:
• the highest scores on three tests of creative abilities;
• teachers' observations of pupils' creative thinking during lessons (maximum score
sum; see Σ in Tables 2 and 3 later).
They were also mostly good at learning.

The Tests of Creative Abilities

(1) The circle test developed by Drwal (1976) is a graphic test which requires
creative imagination to fill 15 circles (placed within 15 squares) with drawings.
(2) A drawing rest developed by Franck (after Pietrasinski, 1969) measured the
level of originality and creative imagination.
(3) Test problems proposed by Guilford (1978) assessed the level of pupils' fluency,
flexibility and originality of thinking.

Competent Referees
The method of competent referees (pedagogy trainees) was used to evaluate the
results of drawing tests and verbal scales.

The Questionnaire
The youngsters' sense of control was investigated with the Questionnaire for Testing
Control (QTC), developed by Krasowicz and Kurzyp-Wojnarska (1990). It
measures the generalized sense of control in young people, both in school and in
out-of-school situations (peer group, relations with parents and random situations).
Each of these areas is represented in the questionnaire by 10 questions (five—
failures and five—successes). In each question, one of the replies represents the
 200 I. Pufal-Struzik

internal locus of control, and the other the external locus of control. The
subject indicates the answer in relation to his or her behaviour. Questions con-
cerning positive events constitute a scale of success (S) while those which concern
negative events constitute a scale of failures (F). The indices of questionnaire
reliability are satisfactory and close to coefficients for other tests of the sense of
control. The character of locii of control was described in standard 10-point sten
scores.
The Questionnaire of Self-acceptance (SA), developed by Karylowski (1975),
was used for the determination of the level of pupils' self-acceptance. It consists
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of two parts. The first contains a list of 27 features concerning different spheres of
human activity. All are generally regarded as positive features. In the instruction
the subject is asked to make assessments on a three-degree scale to the extent of
wishing to have each of these features (' + + ' very much,' + ' much, '0' don't care).
In the second part, there are seven graphic scales placed between 27 pairs of
opposite statements (analogous to features mentioned in the first part of the
questionnaire). One pole is positive and the other negative (placed randomly
either on the right or left side). The subject assess himself or herself on each
scale by marking a cross in a proper space. The self-acceptance index is the
sum (multiplied by 10) of the mean distance from the negative ends of the
scales, which represent those features about which the subject cares very much
(' + + ') or much ' + ', and the half mean distance from the negative ends of scales,
which represent only those features about which the subject cares very much
('+ +').
The analysis of the empirical material was carried out by the X2 test, one-
factor variance analysis (ANOVA) and multi-factor variance analysis (MANOVA).
In the MANOVA, Tukey's test was used to indicate the homogeneous groups in
respect of the mean values obtained. In both cases, significance was verified by
the F-Snedecor test. Graphic presentation of the data was a supplementary method
of analysis.

The Experimental Groups

• Group 1: creatively gifted pupils (n = 30).
• Group 2: non-creatively gifted pupils (n = 30).

These were then regrouped for further comparisons:

• Group 3: girls (n = 27).

• Group 4: boys (n = 33).

Questionnaire scores:

• Group 5: very high scorers (n= 17).

• Group 6: high scorers (n = 26).
• Group 7: low scorers (n= 17).
 Self-acceptance and Behaviour Control 201

Table 1. Self-acceptance

One-way ANOVA

Group Mean F P

Group 1 22.667 0.00

Group 2 51.3000
Group 3 62.4815 7.327 0.01
Group 4 54.1212
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Group1, n = 30; Group 2, n = 30; Group 3, n = 27; Group

4, n = 33.

Results
Creative Abilities and Self-concepts
Comparisons between the groups selected for their creative abilities (x2 = 30.93,
df= 1, p<0.5, coefficient of correlation tp = 0.72) showed that the young people
with the most positive concepts of self-acceptance were also usually those who
thought creatively (see Table 1).
The gender comparisons (X2 = 0.64, df = 1, p<0.5) proved to be less dis-
tinguishing in this respect.

Locus of Control
The results of the QTC test pointed to the tendency of some youngsters in the
whole sample to have little stabilized locus of control (43%) or external locus
of control (28%), both in situations of failure and success. Many of them appeared
to have low expectations as to the effects of their actions. They were quite easily
susceptible to pressures from others, were highly sensitive to criticism and prone
to persuasion, particularly when persuasive information came from a high
prestige source. But, they were more efficient in externally controlled or random
situations.
The gender comparisons showed stronger internal control in girls (x2 = 6.03,
df= 1, p<0.5, φ = 0.48) (see Table 2).
Comparisons between the groups selected on the level of their creative thinking
abilities showed significant differences in the sphere of locus of behaviour control
2=
(X 10.12, df = 1, p<0.0l, φ = 0.62). Those with the highest level of creative
thinking abilities were significantly strongest in internal locus of control (see
Table 3). This means that they were capable of actively seeking information
necessary for non-stereotypical behaviour in problem situations, particularly in new
ones in which the significance of the ability to make use of acquired information is
more important.
 202 I. Pufal-Struzik

Table 2. MANOVA
Main effects df F P
QTC 2 9.371 0.0003
SEX 1 12.002 0.0010

Homogeneous
Level Count LS mean groups
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Group 7 17 71.16414 X
Group 6 26 98.19231 X
Group 5 17 108.84725 X
Group 4 33 80.86897 X
Group 3 27 104.60016 X

Contrast Difference Limits

Group 5—group 6 10.6549 19.0806

Group 5—group 7 37.6831 21.7162*
Group 6—group 5 27.0282 19.5195*
Group 4—group 3 23.7312 13.7244*

* Denotes a statistically significant difference. Method: 95%

Tukey HSD for 2.

108.84
104.6
98.19
92.73

\
80.86
7M<J

GRAND MEAN Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 3 Group 4

Figure 1. Graphic presentation of mean values in the investigated groups.

Discussion
The results of this investigation indicated a significantly higher self-acceptance
among the more creative young people, fulfilling the stated hypothesis. This in also
in line with the results of investigations by such authors as Drat-Ruszczak (1981),
Goldsmith and Matherly (1987) and Trzebinski (1978). The 'ideal I' appears to be
stronger and more widespread among the creatively gifted. In the majority of these
 Self-acceptance and Behaviour Control 203

Table 3. Selected empirical studies

SA QTC 2

Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 Group 1 Group 2

Mean 64.4666 51.3000 27.8333 20.2666 123.6666 61.0666

Median 65.5 49.0 27.5 18.5 121.0 58.5
Mode 66.0 49.0 30.0 25.0 125.0 53.0
Standard deviation 7.73 13.03 4.73 6.86 9.04 8.46
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Standard error 1.41 2.37 0.83 1.25 1.65 1.54

Range 27.0 53.0 24.0 24.0 37.0 37.0
Lower quartile 58.0 70.0 25.0 13.0 116.0 55.0
Upper quartile 43.0 55.0 30.0 26.0 128.0 67.0

One-way ANOVA

Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 Group 2

.F= 22.667 F= 24.683 F= 766.39

p< 0.001 p< 0.001 p< 0.001

Group 1, n = 30; Group 2, n = 30.

creative young people, high and medium-high self-acceptance appears to have

supported their creative behaviour and increased the efficiency of their creative
thinking. This positive sense of one's own value can encourage young people to
undertake new, difficult and divergent problems.
It would be valuable to encourage higher self-acceptance among gifted pupils,
both encouraging their satisfaction with high achievements in school and in the
awareness of their creative abilities in thinking. It is difficult, however, to predict
univocally the stability of the level of self-acceptance in the years of adolescence,
particularly at such times when stress connected with biological changes or new
social experiences is likely. The effects of decreasing a creative person's faith in his
or her own abilities can be significant, and may lead to limitations in the range of
problem exploration, making it difficult to take a many-sided perspective.
For the creative young people in this study, the combination of a higher self-
esteem with a strong internal locus of control yielded the best results in respect of
fluency, flexibility and non-standardized thinking.

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