Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 70–77

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Journal of Food Engineering

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Effect of extrusion process on properties of cooked, fresh egg pasta

Stefano Zardetto a,*, Marco Dalla Rosa b
a
Quality Assurance, Research and Development Department VOLTAN SPA, Via Dosa 24, 30300 Olmo di Martellago (VE), Italy
b
Dipartimento di Scienze degli Alimenti, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, Piazza Goidanich, 60-47023 Cesena (FC), Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The objective of this study was to evaluate the chemical and physical characteristics of cooked fresh egg
Received 13 May 2008 pasta samples obtained using two different production methodologies: Extrusion and lamination. The
Received in revised form 20 October 2008 samples of fresh egg pasta were produced in an industrial plant and subjected to the different lamination
Accepted 21 October 2008
processes. The obtained pasta samples were then pasteurized and cooked in water. For each type of sam-
Available online 5 November 2008
ple colour, cooking behaviour, texture, furosine content and pasta surface characteristic were evaluated.
Besides, the two kinds of products were analyse using Fourier transform near-infrared (FT-NIR) spectros-
Keywords:
copy.
Pasta
Extrusion
The extrude pasta were tougher than the sheet-rolled pasta, absorbed more water during the cooking
Near infrared and released more total organic matter (TOM) in the rinsing water. The colour difference between the
NIR two type of pasta after the heat treatment of pasteurization was reduced after the cooking, due to water
absorption, and two samples showed to be more similar.
The results obtained show that extrusion process led to a higher furosine content than sheet rolled pro-
cesses.
FT-NIR analysis suggests they have different matrix–water associations, different degrees of starch
gelatinization, and also different surface structure characteristics. More differences between the two
types of pasta were reduced by cooking, rendering them more similar and this result has been confirmed
by sensory analysis. In fact under our experimental conditions extruded pasta was not discriminated
from sheet rolled pasta by most of the sensory panelists (less than 29%).
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In the industrial preparation of fresh pasta, the product can be
subjected to one of two different lamination processes after leaving
the kneading machine: sheet rolling or extrusion. Although both
types of product are produced commercially, few scientific data
on the differences between them are available. Some data for dry
pasta suggest that the extrusion process causes the formation of
a protein matrix with numerous discontinuities (Pagani et al.,
1989), and the qualities that result in the best sheet-rolled pasta
have been identified (Pagani et al., 1989). In this product, the glu-
ten network is more developed (Matsuo et al., 1978; Dexter et al.,
1979), and it is altogether of better quality than that of extruded
pasta.
In our previous work, we demonstrated that the two types of
pasta have different characteristics in terms of colour and the de-
gree of gelatinization, whereas no differences were demonstrated
in their cooking qualities (Zardetto and Dalla Rosa, 2006). Further-
more, the products can be discriminated using Fourier transform
near-infrared (FT-NIR) spectroscopy. A principal components anal-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 041 546421; fax: +39 041 5464294.
E-mail address: stefanozardetto@voltan.biz (S. Zardetto).
ysis (PCA) approach was also used to detect the differences be-
tween extruded and sheet-rolled pasta. The rate for the correct
classification of the mode of pasta preparation was 100%. NMR
analysis has also demonstrated that sheet-rolled pasta is different
from extruded pasta. The NMR and FT-NIR results suggest the pres-
ence of differing matrix–water associations, diverse levels of starch
gelatinization, and distinct starch–gluten interactions in the two
kinds of pasteurized samples (Zardetto et al., 2005).
In order to better investigate if the two lamination techniques
influence consumer sensorial perception, on the basis of previous
results, we studied the effects of lamination technology on pasta
structure by NIR spectroscopy and sensorial perception by senso-
rial analysis. Chemical and physical analysis on uncooked and
cooked pasta were performed. Furthermore, in order to character-
ise the surface functionality of pasta in relation to the sauce keep-
ing ability an objective method was developed.
2. Materials and methods
The samples were produced on the industrial production line
described in our previous work (Zardetto and Dalla Rosa, 2006).
The fresh pasta was obtained by mixing durum wheat semolina

0260-8774/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2008.10.027
 S. Zardetto, M. Dalla Rosa / Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 70–77
(76% w/w; 12 ± 1% w/w protein dry mass [dm]), pasteurized fresh
egg (19% w/w), and water (5% w/w). Its composition was: moisture
31.5 ± 0.5%; protein 13.29 ± 0.14%; ash 1.01 ± 0.007%; and ether ex-
tract 3.76 ± 0.21%. The pasta was formed into a sheet in one or
other of the following processes. (1) Extrusion was by continuous
press (model K500, Monferrato, Asti, Italy), with a bronze die with
circular punctures of 19 cm diameter and 2.5 cm breadth, using a
partial vacuum (300 mmHg). The sheets were passed through the
press until they reached the sheet-rolling stage, at the end of which
the thickness of the product was 0.90 mm. (2) Lamination was per-
formed where the pasta was rolled with four steel cylinders to
form a sheet of thickness 1 cm, then passed to a second cylinder
(with a cylinder diameter of 20 cm and rotation speed of
3.5 rpm), to produce a sheet with a thickness of 0.90 mm.
After the formation process, the pasta sheets were pasteurized
under the same temperature and time conditions (99 ± 1 °C for
3 , corresponding to an F 10
70 value of 700) by conveying the product
through a 9 m long chamber with steam circulation and a working
pressure of 9120 Pa.
2.1. Determination of sample colour
Sample colour was measured using a Chromameter-2 Reflec-
tance (Minolta, Osaka, Japan). The colour differences were recorded
as CIELab L* (lightness), a* (redness–greenness), and b* (yellow-
ness–blueness) values.
The colorimeter was standardized with a white standard plate
(X = 82.62; Y = 84.9; Z = 100.11). Four readings were made for each
sample by serially rotating the dish 90° and taking readings at each
position.
To obtain a better correlation between the visual and colorimet-
ric differences, the colorimetric difference (DE) for each sample
was obtained using the following equation:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
DE  ¼ ðDL Þ2 þ ðDa Þ2 þ ðDb Þ2 :

2.2. Cooking behaviour
Circular pasta sheet samples that had been cooked for 4 min
were used to calculate the water absorption, using a previously de-
scribed method (Zardetto et al., 2002). About 30 g of pasta (initial
moisture 30 ± 0.5%) was placed in 500 ml of tap water (hardness
of 40 °f, pH 7.1, total dissolved solids, TDS, 280 mg/l), in an approx-
imately 1:10 pasta/water ratio. After it had been cooked for 4 min,
the whole pasta sample was removed, drained, and weighed after
5 min. The results are expressed as grams of water absorbed per
gram of pasta (g/g pasta).
2.3. Matter loss and total organic matter (TOM)
The matter loss of the pasta during cooking was evaluated as
previously described (Zardetto et al., 2002). The measured matter
loss was calculated, taking into consideration the different mois-
ture levels observed for the two types of pasta and the dry matter
in the tap water, as follows:
MLW
MLðg=100gdmÞ ¼  100;
DP  TDS
where ML = matter loss (g/100 g dm), MLW = matter lost in water
(g/500 ml), DP = dry pasta weight (g), and TDS = total dissolved sol-
ids (g/l). The results, expressed as grams of matter lost/100 g pasta
dry matter, represent the averages of 10 determinations, measured
in the rinsing water from four different cooking tests.
Total organic matter (TOM) is the amount of organic matter re-
leased from cooked pasta during exhaustive rinsing. The method is
71
based on washing the drained pasta with 500 ml of water at room
temperature to remove the substance coating the surface of pasta
cooked for 4 min. An aliquot of the washing water is evaporated at
80 °C. The organic matter in the residue is determined by titration
with ferrous ammonium sulfate in an excess of potassium dichro-
mate. The chemical method is from D’Egidio et al. (1976).
The results are expressed as grams of starch obtained from
100 g of pasta, as follows:
 
20
TOMðg=100gpastaÞ ¼ ðB  SÞ   Fd  0:00347; ð3Þ
B
where B = ferrous ammonium sulfate used for the blank (ml),
S = ferrous ammonium sulfate used for the sample (ml), Fd = dilu-
tion factor, and 0.00347 is the factor calculated for the transforma-
tion of glucose into starch, correcting for the incomplete oxidation
of starch (97.25%).
2.4. Pasta surface characteristics
The different surface characteristics of the two types of pasta
were investigated for their ability to hold sauce during consump-
tion. The test was performed using pasta cut into circles with a
45 mm radius and 1 mm thickness, for a total surface area of
127 cm2 (about 8 g of pasta). The samples were cooked for 4 min
in tap water with a hardness of 40 °f, pH 7.1, and 280 mg/l total
dissolved solid. After they had been cooked, the samples were im-
mersed perpendicularly for 30 s in tomato sauce at 50 °C (dry mat-
ter 5.7/100 g and sodium chloride 0.32/100 g, 1:100 pasta/sauce
ratio, viscosity to 2.600 MPa). The viscosity of the tomato sauce
at this temperature was measured with a Brookfield instrument
using an rpm–torque equal to 20 rpm.
The samples were removed and drained for 30 s without mov-
ing them; they were then weighed. Under these conditions, the to-
ð1Þ tal sauce that remained on the surfaces of the two samples
depended on frictional force. The influence of the frictional force
is expressed in the form of a frictional factor (f).
The total force (F) due to friction is a function of the pasta sur-
face area (A), kinetic energy (KE), and the friction factor
F ¼ AqðKEÞf : ð4Þ
The only force to vary under our conditions was the surface
roughness. In fact, the other parameters (viscosity, area, and ki-
netic energy) were the same for the two samples.
We expressed the results obtained for sauce quantity (SQ) that
remained on the product in milligrams per square area of pasta. In
the calculation, we subtracted the increase in the cooked weight
resulting from water absorption from the final weight of the
samples
ðW c  WAÞ  WS
SQðmg=cm2 Þ ¼ ; ð5Þ
127
where Wc = weight of the cooked pasta samples after immersion in
tomato sauce, WA = increase in the cooked weight, and WS = weight
of the pasta samples before cooking.
2.5. FT-NIR spectroscopy
ð2Þ
Circular pasta sheet samples (diameter 90 mm) were placed in
Petri dishes after cooking, and were analysed directly by FT-NIR.
The pasta samples were cooled under ambient conditions
(25 ± 2 °C; relative humidity 85 ± 5%) before they were placed in
the Petri dishes.
The NIR spectra were recorded using an NIRLab N-200 spec-
trometer (FT-NIR, Büchi Labortechnik, Switzerland) in the reflec-
tance mode. Spectra were recorded using an ISI ring cup. Data
72 S. Zardetto, M. Dalla Rosa / Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 70–77
were recorded at 1000–2500 nm at 2 nm intervals, and were saved
with three scans for each sample.
The measurement and chemometric interpretation of the NIR
spectral data were performed using NIRCal 4.21 chemometric soft-
ware (Büchi). The data obtained were elaborated across an analysis
of the principal components (PCA). The spectra were pre-treated
using as functions the second normalization by closure and the
first derivative BCAP (Buhler Chemical Analytic Package).
The number of factors for the PCA calibrations was determined
using the minimum prediction residual error sum of squares
(PRESS) value.
2.6. Furosine
The furosine content (mg/100 g of protein) was determined
with the method reported by Resmini et al. (1990).
2.7. Texture analysis
Texture analysis was performed with a Texture Analyzer TA-
XT2i (Stable Micro Systems Ltd., Godalming, UK) using a 25 kg load
cell.
A noodle tensile ring was used, and based on the results of pre-
liminary trials, the texture parameters were set to a test speed of
3 mm/s and a trigger force of 0.05 N. The pasta was cut with a noo-
dle blade (8 mm  300 mm) and clamped at the ends by rolling
instruments. This design ensures that the sample is not split or
cut during the test and that the break occurs along the extended
part of the sample. At least eight replicates were performed for
each sample.
A probe was used to determine the maximum extensibility be-
fore the sample broke. The results are expressed by three different
parameters: break load, break strain, and modulus. Break load (in
MPa) is the maximum load applied to the sample shortly before
it breaks. The results are expressed in N by area (MPa). Break strain
(%) is the ratio between the maximum extensibility and the initial
sample length. The modulus (in MPa) is calculated from the linear
part of the tensile curve as the ratio between the tensile stress and
the relative deformation.
To obtain a good estimate of the overall type of pasta texture,
measurements were made on four samples for each type of pasta,
before and after cooking.
2.8. Sensory evaluation
To determine whether a perceptible difference exists between
the two pasta samples, the triangle test was used. The test was
conducted in accordance with UNI 11073:2003. The statistical
analysis was based on the tacit assumption that only the a-risk
matters. This risk is the probability of concluding that a perceptible
difference exists when one does not. The b-risk is the probability of
concluding that no perceptible difference exists when one does ex-
ist. The number of panellists was determined by examining when
the a-risk equalled 0.05, the b-risk equalled 0.05, and the propor-
tion of distinguishers (pd) equalled 40% (Meilgaard et al., 1999).
The criteria for the recruitment of the participants were that they
regularly ate fresh pasta, had no food allergies (especially to eggs),
and were available and willing to participate on the test day. The
samples were identified with three-digit code numbers and were
served in a polyethylene plastic dish in random order. All six pos-
sible combinations (ABB, BAA, AAB, BBA, ABA, and BAB) were pre-
pared and presented to the subject in each session.
The test was conducted in an environmentally controlled sen-
sory laboratory with partitioned booths, illuminated with two blue
incandescent bulbs. The chambers were free from environmental
elements that could distort normal perception (UNI ISO 8589).
The samples were prepared before testing and kept at room
temperature until they were served. They were cooked for 4 min
in tap water (hardness of 40 °f and pH 7.1).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Colour data
Fig. 1 shows the difference in colour, DE, between the extruded
and sheet-rolled pastas following the heat treatment and cooking
processes. The data show that the differences were greater after
the heat treatment but less pronounced after the product had been
cooked.
The same figure shows the changes in colour following the heat
treatments and cooking compared with those of a non-pasteurized
sample. As reported in our previous work (Zardetto and Dalla Rosa,
2006), the difference in the heat-treated sample is significantly
greater for the extruded pasta than for the sheet-rolled pasta,
whereas the cooking process caused a greater difference in the
non-pasteurized pasta sample than in the sheet-rolled pasta. The
difference between these two types of pasta was not significant
in the cooked samples because cooking caused greater variability
in the extruded pasta.
Fresh pasta colour depends not only by the colour characteris-
tics of the raw material (durum wheat and eggs), but also on the
method of processing. In fact, the effects of the extrusion process
on L*, a*, and b* resulted in a different colour of the final product.
The changes in this colour parameter were not the same for the
two types of pasta studied. The change of colour of the extruded
pasta owing to the heat treatment was more evident than in
sheet-rolled pasta probably due to the higher presence of compo-
nents coming from depolymerisation of macro components able
to develop to Maillard reaction. This causes a colour difference be-
tween the products that is easily perceptible by the consumer at
the time of purchase. This factor is very important for fresh egg
pasta, where product colour is strongly associated with egg
content.
After cooking, due to water absorption the difference between
the two samples were more similar.
3.2. Texture analysis
Table 1 shows the results of tensile tests carried out both before
and after cooking the extruded pasta and the sheet-rolled pasta.
16
Extruded pasta
14 Sheet-rolled
pasta
12
Delta ECIE LAB
10
8
6
4
2
0
NP P C
Fig. 1. Colour differences (DE; average ± SD) between extruded and sheet-rolled
pastas before and after heat treatment and cooking. NP, non-pasteurized pasta; P,
pasteurized pasta; C, cooked pasta.
 S. Zardetto, M. Dalla Rosa / Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 70–77
Table 1
Mechanical property (average ± SD) for extruded and sheet-rolled samples before and after cooking.
Sample Raw pasta
Break load (MPa) Break strain (%)
Extruded pasta 0.283 ± 0.04a 31.3 ± 8.0a
Sheet-rolled pasta 0.184 ± 0.02b 65.2 ± 9.2b
a,b
Averages with different letters indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) between the samples.
The break load (expressed in MPa), as an index of pasta tough-
ness, was significantly different in the two kinds of pastas before
and after cooking.
The extruded pasta samples were tougher than the sheet-rolled
pasta. Alamprese et al. (2005) reported that, for fresh lasagne, this
toughness was attributable to the formation of a more compact
protein network, which offered greater resistance to the applica-
tion of tensile force. These results do not agree with those of Pagani
et al. (1989) for dried pasta. The extrusion process causes breakage
of the protein matrix, and, as a result, the product does not have a
compact and continuous protein network. Rebello and Schaich
(1999) studied the effects of extrusion on wheat flour proteins
and reported the fragmentation and cross-linking of these proteins,
with the production of new materials of low and high molecular
weights. The processing conditions used by these authors were
not the same as those used in the pasta process, but it is reasonable
to assume that the extrusion process weakens the protein matrix,
thereby influencing the microstructural properties of the pasta.
Our NMR observations are consistent with this conclusion. In fact,
in our previous work (Zardetto et al., 2005), we observed a stronger
relationship between the water and the matrix in the extruded
pasta than that in the sheet-rolled pasta, even when there was
no difference in water activity. We hypothesize that a partially bro-
ken protein matrix and the production of new material in the
extrusion process cause a greater affinity between the water and
the matrix.
The load value was always higher for the extruded pasta than
for the sheet-rolled pasta. Alamprese et al. (2005) reported that
this value depends on the intensity of the heat treatment and in-
creases when the heat treatment is more severe. In our experi-
ment, the pasta samples were submitted to the same heat
treatment and any differences observed are therefore not attribut-
able to the pasteurization process.
The break strain (expressed in %) was significantly higher for
the extruded pasta (65.2 ± 9.25%) than for the sheet-rolled pasta
(31.3 ± 8.00%) before cooking. This index showed a significant
(P < 0.05) increase with cooking, but in this case, the difference be-
tween the samples of each group (cooked extruded pasta and
cooked sheet-rolled pasta) was not significant. Cooking increased
the modulus value for both samples.
Cooking the pasta resulted in less toughness and more hard-
ness, and a significant increase in the extensibility of both samples.
Moreover, the differences between the two types of pasta were re-
duced by cooking, rendering them more similar.
3.3. Cooking behaviour
The data related to cooking behaviour, matter loss, and TOM for
all the samples of fresh egg pasta analysed are shown in Table 2.
The cooking behaviour, evaluated in terms of the increase in
pasta weight, differed between the two types of samples.
While in our previous work we used distiller water during pasta
cooking and we did not found any differences between the pasta
sample obtained by two lamination processes in this work we used
tap water (water data previous reported in material and methods)
and using this tape of cooking medium we were able to discrimi-
73
Cooked pasta
Modulus (MPa) Break load (MPa) Break strain (%) Modulus (MPa)
1.25 ± 0.22a 0.131 ± 0.01a 299 ± 48a 0.158 ± 0.03a
1.08 ± 0.48a 0.104 ± 0.008b 258 ± 11a 0.130 ± 0.01a
Table 2
Cooking behaviour and sauce-binding test (average ± SD) for extruded and sheet-
rolled samples.
Sample Cooking behaviour SQ
Weight Matter loss TOM Total sauce bound
increase (g/g) (g/100 g (g/100 g dm) (mg/cm2)
dm)
Extruded 0.704 ± 0.051a 1.42 ± 0.20a 0.570 ± 0.037a 6.90 ± 0.217a
pasta
Sheet-rolled 0.619 ± 0.015b 1.28 ± 0.22a 0.487 ± 0.048b 6.71 ± 0.97b
pasta
a,b
Averages with different letters indicate significant differences (P < 0.05)
between the samples.
nated the two type of pasta. In particular extrusion samples in-
crease the water absorption during the cooking more than sheet
rolled pasta. In relation to the effect of the tap of water D’Egidio
et al. (1981) reported that the distilled water is unable to distin-
guish pasta products in terms of their quality, whereas tap water
is very efficient in doing so. Several workers have show that, with
increase water hardness cooked pasta has higher stickiness values
(Dexter et al., 1983), higher total organic matters in the rinse and
cooking water (D’Egidio et al. 1981) and higher cooking losses
(Malcolmson and Matsuo, 1993). According we those author this
behaviour it was mainly due to the higher pH and higher cal-
cium–magnesium ions content of tap water compared to distiller
water. As reported by Chung et al. (1978) and Feillet (1984) the
water pH seem to influencing the electrostatic interactions be-
tween the proteins and gelatinized starch and a weakly acid water
(approximately pH 6.0) favors this interactions, preventing the
leaching of starch into the cooking medium and determine an arti-
ficial starch–protein matrix quality. In fact, the weight increase
during cooking is an index of the starch–protein matrix quality,
which is used in studies of pasta. During pasta cooking, the protein
network limits the diffusion of water and limits the swelling of the
starch granules in the central zone of the pasta (Fardet et al., 1998).
The lack of a continuous protein network causes high hydration of
the starch material, together with an increase in the weight of the
pasta.
Table 2 reports the matter lost in the rinsing water. The average
value for sheet-rolled pasta, 1.28/100 g dm, is lower than that mea-
sured for extruded pasta, 1.42/100 g dm, although these data are
not significantly different. The average value differs from that pre-
viously reported for fresh sheet-rolled pasta samples of 1.1/
100 g dm (Zardetto et al., 2002) because in previous work we use
distiller water.
The matter loss data were analysed for different productive
days to calculate the difference between the average values. Ex-
truded pasta released in the rinsing water 0.243/100 g dm (stan-
dard deviation 0.036, n = 5) of matter more than sheet-rolled pasta.
The TOM test was developed to estimate the stickiness of dried
pasta after cooking. This method closely predicts the stickiness of
cooked pasta because it has been observed that higher firmness
is generally associated with less stickiness, because of the better
molecular structure of the starch–protein network on the pasta
74 S. Zardetto, M. Dalla Rosa / Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 70–77

surface. Therefore, the less material lost during cooking, the better
the pasta quality (Cubadda et al., 2007). No published data are
available for fresh pasta evaluated with the TOM test.
The average TOM value for the extruded pasta (0.57/100 g dm)
was higher than the average value for the sheet-rolled pasta
(0.487/100 g dm). However, the values obtained were both lower
than those observed for dry pasta of good quality (less than 1.4/
100 g, as reported by Massini et al., 1998). Because no published
data are available, it is difficult to use such values as a reference
for fresh pasta quality. There was a good correlation (r2 = 0.85)
for both samples between matter loss and TOM (data not shown),
and these data agree with those reported earlier by D’Egidio et al.
(1976) for dry pasta.
In this research the extruded pasta sample absorbed more
water during the cooking, release more substance and more total
organic matter in the rising water then sheet rolled pasta. Fardet
et al. (1998) showed that during pasta cooking, the protein net-
work limits the diffusion of water and limits the swelling of the
starch granules in the central zone of the pasta. The presence in
the extruded pasta of lack in the continuous protein network
causes during pasta cooking high hydration of the starch material
with an increase in the weight of the pasta, matter loss and total
organic matter in the rinsing water. Moreover, the shear effect of
extrusion processes could be determine a depolymerisation of
the pasta starch with production of water soluble molecule with
higher leaching of organic matter into the cooking medium.
The literature contains no information about the relationship
between weight increase and other cooking parameters in fresh
pasta. Therefore, we pooled all the cooking data according to
the production date, for the extruded and sheet-rolled pasta sam-
ples examined in the current study, and calculated simple correla-
tion coefficients between weight increase and the other qualities
of cooking. Weight increase had a strong positive correlation only
with matter loss. Interestingly, the relationship between the two
parameters did not seem to follow the same trend in the two
types of pasta (Fig. 5). In the extruded pasta, an increase in the
cooked weight correlated with an increase in matter loss, whereas
in the sheet-rolled pasta, the two parameters were inversely cor-
related. From the premise that the two pasta samples have differ-
ent structural matrices, we can infer the relationship between the
increase in weight and matter loss. The decreased matter loss in
from different structural behaviour. This difference can be identi-
fied by measuring the total sauce binding to the pasta surface.
3.5. FT-NIR spectroscopy
The same approach used in our previous work was used here to
detect the differences between the extruded and the sheet-rolled
pasta. The accuracy of the classification models was assessed based
on the number of false positive and false negative results produced
by each. A false positive result occurs when a sample is wrongly
identified as belonging to a specific class; conversely, a false nega-
tive result occurs when a sample that does belong to a class is not
classified as such.
A total of 42 samples were considered during the randomized
calibration procedure. Thirty samples were assigned to the calibra-
tion set and the remaining 12 samples constituted the validation
set. The percentage of samples in which the cooking pasta model
was correctly classified was 100% with this method.
The scatter plots of principal component 1 (PC1) vs. PC2 of the
90 NIR spectra for uncooked pasta used in our previous work
(Zardetto and Dalla Rosa, 2006) and of the 42 NIR spectra for
cooked pasta are shown in Fig. 2. Our objective was to investigate
the difference between not only the two types of laminated pasta,
but also the differences between these pastas before and after
cooking. NIR clearly separates the population samples into four
groups based on their different structural characteristics.
PC1 is the component that better separates the uncooked pasta
from the cooked pasta for both pasta types. Fig. 3 shows the two
loading factors for the extruded and sheet-rolled samples.
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
PC2
-0.05
-0.1 Sheet-rolled
-0.15
Extruded
-0.2

the sheet-rolled pasta accompanied by a weight increase after -0.25 Sheet-rolled

cooking may be attributable to the presence of a protein network -0.13 -0.03 0.07 cooked
that traps starch granules. Therefore, rolled pasta achieves better Extruded
product hydration without increased matter loss in boiling water. PC1 cooked
However, extruded pasta exhibits the opposite behaviour because
it lacks a continuous protein phase. More research is required to Fig. 2. Score plot of extruded and sheet-rolled pasta samples on PCA loadings 1 and
2.
understand this difference in the behaviour of the two types of
pasta.
1.5 70

3.4. Surface pasta characteristics

50
1
To obtain a good estimate of SQ, measurements were made on 30
five samples of each type of pasta produced on different days, 0.5
Loading PC1

and five replicates were performed for each sample. 10

Under our conditions, the extruded pasta bound more sauce 0
than did the sheet-rolled pasta (Table 2). The increase in weight 1000 1500 2000 2500 -10
was probably exclusively attributable to the superficial dough -0.5
characteristics because of the short sauce-immersion time used -30

(30 s) and our experimental conditions. The surface pasta charac-

-1 -50
teristics are mainly the result of the starch that remains after cook-
ing (stickiness) or the physical characteristics of the surface (the
-1.5 -70
degree of smoothness). No correlations were observed under our
Wavelength (nm)
conditions between matter loss and SQ or between TOM and SQ
(data not shown). Thus, the different processes of lamination seem Fig. 3. PCA loading 2 for cooked samples (blue line sheet-rolled pasta; pink line
to produce different surface characteristics, probably resulting extruded pasta).
 S. Zardetto, M. Dalla Rosa / Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 70–77 75

Table 3 0.3
Summary of spectral features and correlations.
1382
0.2
Sample Wavelength, nm (correlation sign)
1139
Increase Decrease 0.1 1326

Loading PC1
Extruded pasta 1139 1326 1382 1410 1687 1880
0
Sheet-rolled pasta 1326 1410 1880 1934
1000 1500 2000 2500
-0.1
1410
The NIR spectra of the cooked pasta are highly dominated by -0.2
the water signal. Compared with the pasta that had not been
cooked, the fully hydrated samples have much higher baselines. -0.3
1880
The major water peaks, found at 1410 and 1934 nm, increase with
-0.4
cooking. The peak at 1139 may also be ascribed to water, although Wavelength (nm)
Sirieix and Downey (1993) reported that the absorbance at 1160 in
a wheat flour product corresponded to a C@O stretch in gluten. Ta- Fig. 4. PCA loading 1 for cooked samples.
ble 3 compares the key spectral features of the factor loadings dif-
ference plot for each of the pastas studied. As can be seen from the
table, the cooking processes for the two samples did not cause the 1.7 1.6
same variations in the NIR spectra, indicating the possibility that
1.6
two different matrices are involved. The wavelengths around 1.5
1326, 1410, and 1880 are common to both samples studied. In 1.5

Matter loss (g/100g dm)

the extruded pasta, cooking caused an increase in the spectral 1.4 1.4
y = -1.36904+3.90102x r 2 =0.83
absorbance at 1139, 1326, 1410, and 1382 nm, and a decrease at
1.3
1687 and 1880 nm. In the sheet-rolled pasta, the absorbance val- 1.3
ues increase at wavelengths of 1326, 1410, and 1880 nm, and only 1.2

decreased at 1934 nm. 1.1 1.2

The peaks located at 1139, 1382, and 1687 nm may be associ-
1
ated with protein vibration. These peaks mainly characterize mod- 1.1
ifications related to gluten bonds, whereas absorption at 1410, 0.9 y =10.3602-14.6124x r 2 =0.94
1880, and 1934 nm can be assigned to water or water–starch 0.8 1
bonding. 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8

We previously found a strong correlation between the degree of
gelatinization in fresh pasta and absorption peaks at 1410 and
1880 nm (Zardetto, 2004). The absorption peak at 1410 nm can
be attributed to the vibration of the OAH bond. In this case, the
chemical effect of gelatinization is related to an increase in the
depolymerization of starch molecules, with a consequent increase
in the number of free OAH bonds.
In the cooked extruded pasta, the modifications are principally
attributed to the protein network, whereas in the cooked sheet-
rolled pasta, the changes involve the different states of water and
water bound to starch.
This result confirmed that extruded pasta does not show a con-
tinuous protein network, and that during cooking there is a cross-
linking of the fragmented proteins obtained during the extrusion
process. The degree of starch gelatinization was higher in the ex-
truded pasta than in the sheet-rolled pasta, and the swelling and
gelatinization of starch during cooking might be less important
in the extruded pasta (starch gelatinisation data have been re-
ported in previous work, Zardetto and Dalla Rosa 2006). In the
sheet-rolled pasta, the protein network was not broken and could
entrap starch granules. However, the physical constraints of the
matrix may have limited the swelling of the starch granules and
the leaching of material into the cooking water. Because the fresh
pasta does not experience a drying-temperature effect (which
causes starch transformation and protein coagulation) and the
cooking time is not as long as it is for dried pasta, the processes
of starch swelling and gelatinization in this product, might be more
important than the process of protein coagulation. The loading plot
(Fig. 4), within certain limits of the PC1 (which, however, repre-
sents the more significant component in the classification points),
shows that the difference between the two types of cooked pasta is
predominantly influenced by the spectral zone relative to the first
band combination of water (1880 nm), OH stretching in water
(1934 nm), CAH stretching overtone in gluten (1687 nm), and
the ANH bond of protein (1382 nm).
Weight increase (g/g)
Fig. 5. Linear correlation plot of matter loss for the extruded pasta (s) and the
sheet-rolled pasta (D) samples vs. weight increase.
By comparing the results for uncooked pasta obtained in our
previous work, we see that the spectral region around 2000 nm
is not important for separating the two types of pasta (extruded
and sheet-rolled pasta) in the cooked samples, but is so in the un-
cooked samples (Zardetto and Dalla Rosa, 2006). In fact, uncooked
pasta samples also show a high correlation at 1400, 1894, and
1870 nm. However, in these samples, other spectral regions made
positive contributions (1997 and 2258 nm).
Structural molecular dates obtained by NIR generally confirmed
the results published by other authors the investigated pasta struc-
ture using other analytical approaches (scanning electronic
microscopy, rheological test) (Pagani et al.,1989; Alamprese et al.,
2005; Matsuo et al., 1978).
3.6. Sensory evaluation
We conducted a 40-respondent triangle test according to an
established test protocol (UNI 11073:2003). The sensory booths
were prepared with blue light to mask colour differences. Twelve
panelists were scheduled for each of three sessions, and four pan-
elists were scheduled for the fourth and final session. Of the 40
respondents, 14 correctly picked the extruded pasta. The critical
number of correct responses required in a triangle test with 40
respondents and a = 0.05 is 20. Therefore, a total of only 14 correct
responses indicate, with 99% confidence, that the proportion of the
population who can perceive a difference is less than 29%. How-
ever, the conditions used did not allow the panelists to evaluate
two parameters: the appearance (above all, the colour) and SQ
(produced without the panellist’s desired seasoning). As previously
shown, both of these parameters result in significant differences
76 S. Zardetto, M. Dalla Rosa / Journal of Food Engineering 92 (2009) 70–77
Table 4
Furosine values (average ± SD) for extruded and sheet-rolled samples before cooking.
Sample Furosine (mg/100 g protein)
NP pasta 9.86 ± 1.3a
Extruded pasta 12.71 ± 1.4b
Sheet-rolled pasta 10.96 ± 1.2a
NP, non-pasteurized pasta.
a,b
Averages with different letters indicate significant differences (P < 0.05)
between the samples.
between the two pasta types (extruded and sheet-rolled pasta),
and they could significantly influence the acceptability of the
two products, thereby modifying the results obtained in the sen-
sory analysis.
3.7. Furosine
Furosine levels were determined as an index of heat damage in
the different products. The furosine values measured for the two
types of pasta are reported in Table 4.
The content of furosine in the dough before heat treatment was
9.86 mg/100 g of protein. This value is less than the previously re-
ported range of 11–19 mg/100 g of protein in fresh egg pasta (Zard-
etto et al., 2003). After heat treatment, the dough samples had
levels of furosine of 10–13 mg/ g of protein.
The extruded pasta samples had 12.71 mg furosine per 100 g of
protein. In these samples, the value was significantly higher than
that for the sheet-rolled pasta. Because these samples were pro-
duced in the same manner and with the same components, the de-
tected values might be attributable to the different lamination
processes. The two most important factors relating to the differ-
ence in furosine values between the two types of pasta (extruded
and sheet-rolled pasta) are probably water content and matrix
modification by the extrusion process. As in extrusion cooking,
pasta extrusion leads to the fragmentation of starch (Lintas and
D’Appollonia, 1973) and the fragmentation of wheat flour proteins
(Rebello and Schaich, 1999).
As reported in our previous work (Zardetto and Dalla Rosa,
2006), the specific mechanical energy (SME) transferred to the
product under extrusion operating conditions was between 50
and 65 kJ/kg under the operating conditions used. This value is ex-
tremely low compared with that applied by a twin screw extrusion
cooker (300–900 kJ/kg), but it is similar to the SME necessary for
kneading processes, of about 40 kJ/kg (Axford et al., 1963).
The intensity of the Maillard reaction (and thus the furosine
content) for equal reagent concentrations is also controlled by
the water content of the product. Pagani et al. (1995) have pointed
out that at temperatures above 75 °C, the key parameter is the
moisture of the pasta. The Maillard reaction has more effect at
low moisture levels. Heat treatment causes a significant increase
in moisture, more so for sheet-rolled pasta than for extruded pasta
(Zardetto et al., 2005). Moreover, it is also possible that discontin-
uous matrix proteins and the presence of broken protein fibrils
facilitate heat penetration into the matrix, changing the apparent
thermal coefficient.
4. Conclusion
In our previous work (Zardetto and Dalla Rosa, 2006), we dem-
onstrated that the two analysed processes (extrusion and sheet
rolling) influence some pasta characteristics. In addition the inves-
tigation reported in this paper has shown that extruded pasta ab-
sorbed more water during the cooking, released more substance
and more total organic matter in the rinsing water then sheet
rolled pasta. The difference behaviour were probably due to two
different extrusion processes effects: the formation of lack in the
continuous protein network and the shear effect with a degrada-
tion of the pasta starch. For both type of pasta cooking behaviour
were different that we obtained in our previous works were we
used distiller water. These findings confirm that tap water to be
permit a better discrimination between pasta samples.
The degradation of the macro components during extrusion
processes was probably the reason of different furosine content
after the heat treatment in the two type of pasta. In fact, the
extruded pasta presents a furosine value higher than sheet roller
pasta. The difference was probably due to the formation of compo-
nents coming able to contribute to Maillard reaction.
In our condition extruded pasta seem to have a different degree
of surface smoothness that increase the total sauce fastened on the
product.
The two lamination type determines some difference on pasta
texture: the break load it was only rheological index significant dif-
ferent in the two type of pasta before and after the cooking. It is an
index of pasta toughness and in the extruded pasta was higher
than sheet rolled pasta. The cooking processes reduced the differ-
ences between the two type of pasta rendering them more similar.
NIR analysis confirmed a difference in the matrix structures of
the two pasta types. In fact, the changes in their spectra involved
different wavelengths. The extruded pasta differs from the sheet-
rolled pasta in its water–matrix interactions and the coagulation
of the protein network. PCA loading revealed that the difference in-
volves NAH bonds, H bonds between the wheat components and
water molecules, CH bonds, and the C@O stretch in wheat gluten.
In extruded pasta, cooking causes an increase in the number of
bonds among proteins, whereas in the sheet-rolled pasta, cooking
increases the amount of water bounds within the matrix.
However, the differences in the structural properties of the two
pasta, do not cause a strong sensory difference and are probably
not perceived by most consumers.
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