Petroleum Refining and Natural Gas Procesing

5
Crude Oil Refining Processes

Semih Eser1 and M.R. Riazi2
5.1 A Brief Historical Perspective of separated to produce approximately 3 bbl of gasoline from
Crude Oil Refining 200 bbl of charge. The remaining crude in the still was
Petroleum in the past century and present time has been the removed as tar and heavy fuel. The process took 24 h, and
major fossil fuel that provides most of the energy consumed after each run the still had to be cleaned. Coal was used
by humans. For this reason, the last 100–150 years are as fuel to heat the oil. Today’s refineries can produce more
referred to as the “Oil Century,” or “Petroleum Era” [1]. It than 50 bbl of gasoline from each 100 bbl of crude through
seems that at least for the present century, petroleum either chemical changes in the crude composition. This develop-
in the form of liquid crude oil or natural gas will remain as ment indicates how the refining industry has advanced
a major source to meet the world energy demand. The use over the last century, particularly with the introduction of
of petroleum and its derivatives has a long history. Sumeri- thermal and catalytic conversion processes.
ans, Assyrians, and Babylonians used crude oil and asphalt Until the early 1940s, most petroleum refineries in the
found in natural seeps more than 5000 years ago. Around United States comprised just atmospheric crude oil distil-
500 BC, Egyptians used asphalt for mummification of their lation units. More advanced refineries also had vacuum
dead rulers. Some 2000 years ago, Arab scientists developed distillation units and simple thermal cracking units such as
methods for the distillation of petroleum, and these meth- visbreakers. World War II and the burgeoning air transpor-
ods were introduced to Europe by way of Spain. Discovery tation industry created demand for a higher quantity and a
of distillation led to fractionation of petroleum into various higher quality of motor and aviation gasoline. Many of the
products such as naphtha (or naft), and it was used as an refining processes that constitute today’s complex refiner-
illuminant [1]. Greeks also used petroleum products known ies were often developed through collaboration between
as Greek fire in warfare. Marco Polo (13th century) reported the oil companies in the 1940s. These processes became
on the petroleum industry in the Baku region of northern commercially available within 5–10 years after the end
Persia (now part of Azerbaijan). Although petroleum has of the war and caused a rapid growth of the worldwide
been known for many centuries, the strong demand for petroleum industry with the increasing demand for distil-
kerosene to substitute for whale oil as an illuminant led to late fuels, gasoline, jet fuel, and diesel. Up until the 1970s, a
the birth of the modern petroleum technology and refining. principal focus in refining was to improve the performance
In an effort to secure a reliable supply of kerosene, a group characteristics of the fuels, such as the octane number for
of investors in Pennsylvania charged E.L. Drake to drill for gasoline. Environmental regulations on petroleum fuels
petroleum, and he completed the first commercial oil well introduced mostly through the environmental legislation in
in 1859 in Titusville, PA, in the United States [1]. the 1970s have focused on reducing the heteroatom content
The first refinery in the United States was built near of fuels, particularly that of sulfur species, placing limits on
Oil Creek, PA, in 1860 by William Barnsdall and William the air emissions of designated pollutants from combustion
H. Abbott. By 1870, a basic operating pattern had been [2]. Recent trends in refinery configurations include adding
developed to produce more kerosene for lamps and more capacity and processes to convert heavier (lower API grav-
lubricant for steam engines from the remainder of the ity) and dirtier (higher heteroatom content) crude oils into
crude. In 1876, Chevron built a simple refinery in California. increasingly cleaner fuels as designated by environmental
Stills were used to heat 25–40 bbl/day of crude to produce regulations. This has increased the significance of catalytic
kerosene, lubricants, waxes, and gasoline, which was consid- processes and catalyst development as well as the demand
ered a useless byproduct at the time. In the early 1900s, the for hydrogen, which is used in hydrotreating and hydro-
demand for kerosene decreased with the advent of electric cracking processes, as described in the following sections.
light, but the introduction of the internal combustion
engine and mass production of automobiles created a large 5.2 Objectives of Crude Oil Refining
demand for gasoline. In the early days of the petroleum An overall objective of a petroleum refinery is to add value
industry in the United States, oil was processed in simple to a crude oil feed through production of marketable fuels
batch distillation units [1]. For each distillation run, 200 and materials at the lowest possible cost in accordance with
bbl of oil were charged into stills, and the oil temperature product specifications and environmental regulations. In
was raised to 750°F. The produced vapors were condensed technical terms, achieving this objective generally depends
in two-stage condensers: one with reflux and the second on the composition and properties of the selected crude as
without reflux cooled by water. Gases in the product were well as the configuration of refinery processes.
1
The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
2
Kuwait University, Kuwait
101
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102 Petroleum Refining and Natural Gas Processing
Considering that the products that are in high demand through different types of processes that eventually lead to
are light and middle distillates such as gasoline, jet fuel, and commercial fuels and materials, including liquefied petro-
diesel, and these fuels have higher H/C ratios than crude oils, leum gas (LPG), motor gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, fuel
the two processing pathways for crude oil refining include oil, solvents, lubrication oils, asphalt, and coke. The key
carbon rejection and hydrogen addition. properties and specifications of these fuels and materials are
A refinery configuration should incorporate an optimal discussed in Chapter 2. The four groups of processes that
combination of the two pathways in separation and conver- are shown in Figure 5.1 are introduced and discussed in the
sion processes to achieve the overall refinery objective. A following sections, starting with the separation processes.
multitude of economic factors that may be unique to a given
refinery (e.g., crude oil market, product markets, capital 5.3.1 Separation Processes
cost, etc.) must be considered in setting up specific refinery Separation processes are physical processes that rely on
objectives. Any discussion of refinery economics is beyond specific physical properties of crude oils or their compo-
the scope of this chapter. However, it may be pointed out nents to fractionate or isolate their constituents. The most
that because of the volatility of crude oil prices and fluctua- prominent physical separation process in a refinery is the
tions in product demands, operational flexibility in terms of crude distillation process, which fractionates a crude oil
a refinery’s capability to process a wide range of crudes and into several cuts with respect to their boiling points that
to adjust the product slate according to the prevailing prod- range from gases at ambient conditions (e.g., propane and
uct markets has become a critical factor to realize the refin- butane that constitute LPG) to heavy vacuum gas oils that
ery objectives. This requires the optimization of each refinery have end points (higher boiling point of a distillation cut)
process within an optimal integration of all of the processes of approximately 1000°F. Distillate fractions of crude oil
to achieve the desirable product slate at the lowest cost. A that are directly sent to a finishing step or require minimal
general description of overall refinery flow and the intro- processing before entering a product pool are designated
duction of major refinery processes follow in Section 5.3. by the phrase “straight-run,” such as straight-run naphtha,
straight-run kerosene, etc. The higher boiling crude oil
5.3 Overall Refinery Flow fractions and the distillation residua obtained from the
In a refinery, crude oil is transformed into commercial atmospheric distillation and vacuum distillation towers are
fuels and materials using an integrated sequence of different sent to subsequent separation and conversion processes as
processes that can be classified into four categories: separa- described in the overall flow diagram to produce the desired
tion, conversion, finishing, and supporting. Figure 5.1 shows fuels and materials. In addition to boiling points, other
an overall refinery flow diagram starting with the crude oil physical properties of crude oil components can be used
entering a refinery at the top left and its generic progression for separation purposes, such as solubility/insolubility in a
Figure 5.1—An overall refinery block flow diagram indicating an integrated network of major separation, conversion, finishing,
and supporting processes.
AST-MNL58-11-0801-005.indd 102 3/12/13 1:53 PM

Chapter 5 n Crude Oil Refining Processes 103
solvent (e.g., in desalting to remove salt from crude oil and in depending on the severity of thermal cracking used in the
deasphalting to separate asphalt from vacuum distillation process. On the other hand, coking involves a high-severity
residue) and freezing point (e.g., in dewaxing to separate thermal cracking to reject carbon in substantial quantities
wax to decrease the freezing point of the dewaxed oil). to produce a carbon-rich solid byproduct (coke) along with
light and middle distillates that are sent to finishing processes
5.3.2 Conversion Processes to contribute to the respective distillate fuel pools.
Because separation processes do not produce the desired
yields of particularly the distillate fuels (e.g., gasoline, jet 5.3.3 Finishing Processes
fuel, and diesel fuels) as premium products, conversion pro- Finishing processes constitute the final step in the process-
cesses are used to induce chemical changes in the composi- ing history of a commercial product to ensure that it meets
tion of crude oil fractions. In U.S. refineries, fluid catalytic the specifications for marketing. These processes, depicted in
cracking (FCC) processes are particularly important because generic terms in the boxes on the right-hand side of Figure 5.1
of their capability to produce high-octane number motor for each product, include physical mixing of different refinery
gasoline in high yields from the straight-run gas oil and streams in proportions to satisfy the product specifications
light vacuum gas oil. Other catalytic conversion processes (e.g., octane number and Reid vapor pressure for gasoline,
include catalytic reforming, catalytic isomerization, alkyla- cetane number, and pour point for diesel fuel), sweetening to
tion, and polymerization processes to further increase the remove sulfur compounds by absorption in basic solutions,
yields of high-octane number motor gasoline. In contrast to chemical reactions such as hydrotreatment to remove hetero-
catalytic cracking, which is aimed at reducing the molecular atoms (e.g., S, N, and metals), sweetening to convert certain
size of the compounds in the feed, catalytic isomerization sulfur species (i.e., mercaptans) into more benign sulfur com-
and catalytic reforming do not change the size of the feed- pounds (i.e., disulfides), and hydrogenation to saturate olefins
stock molecules to any significant extent. Catalytic reform- to the desired levels for storage stability of gasoline and to sat-
ing and isomerization processes increase the octane number urate aromatics to increase the cetane number of diesel fuel.
of their products through dehydrogenation of cycloalkanes
and isomerization of n-alkanes to produce aromatic hydro- 5.3.4 Supporting Processes
carbons (in reformate) and branched alkanes (in reformate Unlike the three categories of processes described above,
and isomerate). On the other hand, alkylation and polymer- support processes do not directly involve the production of
ization processes are used to induce the coupling (combina- hydrocarbon fuels or materials, but they do play critical roles
tion) of smaller hydrocarbons, such as one i-alkane (e.g., in the operation of a refinery. Support processes include
i-butane) and one olefin (e.g., propene), in alkylation and hydrogen production for supplementing hydrogen output
two olefins (e.g., i-butene and propene) in polymerization from catalytic reforming to meet the hydrogen demand
to produce i-alkanes and branched olefins, respectively, for hydrotreatment, hydrocracking, and hydrogenation
to obtain high-octane number molecules that boil in the processes; acid gas removal to separate hydrogen sulfide
gasoline range. Therefore, the lighter i-alkanes and olefins (H2S) and other gases from hydrocarbon streams; sulfur
generated as byproducts in FCC and other conversion pro- recovery from H2S separated in the acid gas removal unit;
cesses can be recovered to contribute to high-octane number and wastewater treatment. With the increasingly heavy and
streams (as alkylate and polymerate) to the gasoline pool. sour crudes being processed in refineries, the demand for
In contrast to the emphasis on gasoline production hydrogen and the need for removal and conversion of acid
and particularly on FCC in the U.S. refineries, European gases to elemental sulfur have become critically important
refineries as well as those in some other parts of the world for refinery operation. Supporting processes also include
mainly focus on diesel fuel production because of the the production of oxygenated hydrocarbons (e.g., ethyl
increasing proportion of diesel cars and the prominent tertiary butyl ether), particularly in Europe, which are
mass transport systems in these countries that rely on used as gasoline additives to increase the octane number
diesel fuel. Therefore, challenges associated with the diesel and control exhaust emissions. Benzene removal from
market requirements and the conversions of higher-boiling gasoline (to comply with environmental regulations) and
fractions of petroleum create higher interest in conversion the wastewater treatment units in refineries also constitute
processes such as mild hydrocracking, hydrocracking, and important supporting processes.
coking compared with that in U.S. refineries.
Catalytic hydrocracking combines hydrogenation and 5.4 Refinery Processes
cracking to handle feedstocks that are heavier than those 5.4.1 Separation Processes
that can be processed by FCC, such as heavy vacuum gas Separation processes constitute the initial stage of process-
oils and vacuum distillation residua (VDR), because of ing in a refinery and they prove a fractionation of products
excessive coke deposition on the catalyst in the absence of from conversion processes. Separation processes are
hydrogen. Middle distillates (e.g., kerosene and diesel fuel) physical processes in which the chemical structure of the
are the principal products of hydrocracking. feedstocks does not change. Constituent compounds or
Thermal processes that do not use any catalysts, such groups of compounds are separated through processes such
as visbreaking and coking, are used to upgrade the VDR as desalting, distillation, stripping, gas absorption, solvent
to produce distillate fuels from the bottom of the barrel. extraction, and gas adsorption.
Visbreaking is a mild thermal cracking process with the
principal purpose of reducing the viscosity of VDR by slight 5.4.1.1 Desalting
carbon rejection in the visbreaking reactor to produce a Although distillation is usually referred to as the first process
heavy distillate or residual fuel oil. Lower yields of light in petroleum refineries, desalting takes place before distilla-
and middle distillates can also be produced by visbreaking tion. Salt dissolved in water to form brine enters the crude
stream as a contaminant during the production or transpor- tion of acid to recycled water. During the desalting process,
tation of oil to refineries. If salt is not removed from crude some other elements in crude such as V, Mg, and Fe can
oil, serious damage can result, especially in the heater tubes, also be reduced between 30 and 75 % whereas salt, Ca, and
because of corrosion caused by the presence of chloride. Salt Na can be reduced by 90 %. Therefore, the stages of the
in crude oil also causes a reduction in heat transfer rates in desalting process can be summarized as
heat exchangers and furnaces. Salt concentration in crude 1. Adding dilution (or less saline) water to crude,
oil is usually expressed in terms of pounds of equivalent 2. Mixing dilution water with crude by a mixer, and
sodium chloride per thousand barrels of clear (water-free) 3. Dehydration of crude to separate crude and the diluted
crude and is reported as lb/1000 bbl, or simply PTB. In the brine (salt and water) phase.
United States and Europe, desalting is done in the refineries Desalting can be performed in a single- or two-stage
to reduce the PTB of crude to 1. PTB can be calculated as [2] unit. The amount of water wash and the temperature of the
mixing process mainly depend on the crude API gravity, as
%S & W ppmw shown in Table 5.1.
PTB = 1000 (350SGbrine ) (5.1) The main parameters that should be considered before
100 − % S & W 106
the installation of a desalting unit are
• The number of desalting stages,
where: • The dehydration level achieved (vol % of salt and
%S&W = volume percentage of salt and water in oil water) remaining in the crude leaving the desalter,
[0.1→ 1], • The salinity of the brine remaining in the crude,
ppmw = salt content of water in ppmw, and • The efficiency of the mixing of dilution water and crude,
SGbrine = specific gravity of brine (>1), which depends • The salinity of dilution water, and
on the salt concentration of water. • The required PTB specification.
For example, seawater with salinity of 35,000 ppmw (or As a rule of thumb, if the required PTB is 20–50, then
3.5 wt %) has a specific gravity of 1.02 [1]. The relation seawater may be used as dilution water. The number of
between specific gravity of brine and its salt content can stages depends on the level of dehydration in the remaining
be expressed as SGbrine = 1 + 6.7 ⋅ 10–7(ppmw) or SGbrine = 1 + crude [2]:
0.0067(S%), in which S% is the salt content (total dissolved • Single-stage: 5–7 vol % (salt and water) remaining in crude,
solid) of brine in percentage weight. • Two-stage: 1–2 vol % (salt and water) remaining in crude,
Processes that reduce the PTB of a crude to 1 may include • Three-stage: Used for desalting heavy and viscous
• Adding demulsifier (soaps, sulfonates), crudes (API gravity of 10–20).
• A wetting agent for solid removal, The design calculations related to the level of dehydration
• Heating to 200–300°F, and and desalting in a desalter are based on material balances
• Electrostatic coalescence. for the salt and water.
Desalting in refineries is more economical than in the
field because heat is readily available from the refinery 5.4.1.2 Distillation
flue gases. General methods of desalting are shown in In this section, the principles of distillation and various
Figure 5.2 as modified from Manning [2]. By adding hot methods are introduced, followed by a description of distil-
water to crude, salt associated with brine in the crude is dis- lation towers in refineries, straight-run products, and the
solved in the hot water and then the same amount of water intermediate streams obtained from distillation processes.
is removed as brine. In this way, the salt concentration of
brine associated with the crude is decreased although the 5.4.1.2.1 Operation and Types of Distillation Processes
percentage volume of brine may remain the same as before Distillation is the main physical process in refineries that
the desalting process. The efficiency of a desalting process separates hydrocarbon compounds into distillate fractions
largely depends on the level of mixing of the added hot on the basis of their boiling points or volatility [3–5]. More
water with the crude and the separation of brine. One of the volatile compounds (with low boiling points) tend to vapor-
most effective means of this process is mixing/coalescing ize more quickly than heavy compounds, and this forms
using high voltage. By creating a voltage of approximately the basis of separation through distillation. In a distillation
30,000–40,000 V within 1–2 s, small particles are formed column, light components appear in the top as top product
that make mixing very effective. After just 1 s of application, and the heavier part of the mixture appears in the bottom.
the voltage is reduced to 0 (i.e., within 3–4 s) for reagglom- For a crude that is a mixture of hundreds of hydrocarbons,
eration of the small particles to form larger units (coalescing some very light compounds such as ethane and propane
process) and enhance the separation of brine from oil. This only appear in the top whereas extremely heavy and nonvola-
cycle is repeated until the desired level of separation is tile compounds such as asphalts only appear in the bottom.
obtained. The desalter unit is simply an electrostatic heat The condensed top product is also referred to as “distillate,”
treater to separate crude from the dilution water through or overhead product.
extensive subdivision and better exchange of salt between Figure 5.3 shows a flow diagram for a typical crude
the oil and dilution water. As the electric field is reduced, distillation unit (CDU) [6]. The CDU consumes a significant
large water droplets are formed and settle down accord- fraction of the energy consumed in a refinery, and, as shown
ing to Stokes law. By use of electrostatic coalescence, the in Figure 5.3, it has a complex heat exchanger network
%S&W of crude can be reduced to 0.1–0.15 (in vol %) (HEN) for energy economy. The HEN consists of several heat
whereas without an electric field it can only be reduced to exchangers in series or parallel configurations to extract
0.5–1 % [2]. Dehydration of crude is best obtained at a pH energy from the distillation column pumparounds or side
of 6. However, the pH should never exceed 8 because of streams. The crude is heated at three stages before entering
emulsion
Copyrightformation.
by ASTM Int'lThe pH can
(all rights be controlled
reserved); by the
Fri Oct 12 12:15:43 addi-
EDT 2018 the column at approximately 400ºC. A preflash drum (or a
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 5.2—Three general methods for the desalting of crude oil based on three oil/water separation methods: (a) settling,
(b) use of an electric field, and (c) use of a packed column. Source: Figure modified from [2].
preflash column) may be included in the crude preheater

Table 5.1—Amount of Water Wash and train. This preflash step separates volatile fractions such
Temperature vs. Crude Gravity [2] fuel gas, LPG, and light naphtha to reduce the quantity of
°API Water Wash (vol %) Temperature (°C (°F)) feed into the furnace. The separation of the light fractions
before the furnace allows a better separation of the products
API > 40 3–4 115–125 (240–260)
in the distillation column and conserves energy. The crude
30 < API < 40 4–7 125–140 (260–280) preheat train is one of the most complex units that need to
be controlled effectively for an optimal energy balance for
API < 30 7–10 140–150 (280–300)
the CDU that is important for the refinery’s energy economy.
AST-MNL58-11-0801-005.indd 105 3/12/13 1:53 PM

Figure 5.3—A crude distillation unit (CDU) and its HEN [6]. Source: Figure used with permission.
Siemanond and Kosol [6] have studied the energy

requirements for a light (Arabian) and a heavy (Bacha
Table 5.3—Heat Exchanger Duties for
quero) crude. The yields of distillate products from these
Distillation of Two Crudes [6]
crudes are given in Table 5.2, indicating larger distillate Energy Consumption of CDU (106 W)
yields and lower residue yield from the Arabian light. Table 5.3
Light Crude Heavy Crude
gives the heat exchanger and condenser duties for the distil- Feed at Feed at
lation of two crudes for which the temperature of the crude Utility 5000 bbl/h 5000 bbl/h
and distillation products is set at 30ºC. It should be noted
that most of the energy necessary for distillation is added in Steam and steam duty 7.67 8.07
the external furnace, as can be seen in Table 5.3. The total Condenser duty 62.3 13.9
energy required for distillation includes the energy needed
to evaporate the side stream products and a small amount
needed to provide internal reflux that is called “overflash.” The performance of a CDU can be significantly improved
Keeping the amount of overflash to a minimum is also if part of the top liquid product after the condenser is
important for the energy economy in the CDU. returned into the distillation column as reflux. The contact
between the upward vapor phase and the downward liquid
phase (as a result of reflux) would increase the exchange
of components between the two phases. Light components
Table 5.2—Products from a Light and Heavy
evaporate from the liquid phase, and heavy components
Crude Obtained from a CDU [6]
condense from the vapor phase into the liquid phase to
Product Products from Products from improve the fractionation in the distillation column.
Boiling Light Crude at Heavy Crude at The distillation columns work as a multistage distillation
Products Range (°C) 30°C (vol %) 30°C (vol %) system in which each stage is equivalent to a single distil-
Naphtha 0–171 23 6 lation unit. To have a good separation, vapor and liquid
leaving each stage should reach vapor/liquid equilibrium.
Kerosene 171–271 18 10 Temperature along the column increases from the top to
Gas oil 271–473 28 22 the bottom, and the crude oil enters on the feed tray. The
section above the feed tray is known as the rectification
Residue >473 31 62
and below the feed is referred to as the stripping section.
AST-MNL58-11-0801-005.indd 106 3/12/13 1:53 PM

To have better vaporization and separation of the heavier mainly due to the low relative volatility of components
components, steam is typically injected into the column that requires a larger number of trays for a desired level of
at the bottom. The presence of steam decreases the partial separation. Heavy residues distilled in a vacuum tower have
pressure of hydrocarbons, and they can be vaporized at high molar volumes; therefore, the diameter of vacuum
lower temperatures. Distillation at lower temperatures is towers is much larger than those of atmospheric towers.
desirable because high temperatures could lead to the The vacuum tower’s diameter could be as large as 40 ft
degradation of thermally labile compounds. depending on the feed rate.
The top condenser of the distillation column can be a
partial condenser to obtain a liquid stream for the reflux, 5.4.1.2.2 Straight-Run Products and Intermediate
and the product is condensed in a second condenser. The Streams from Distillation
bottom liquid is also partially vaporized in a reboiler, and The distillation of crude oil in the atmospheric distillation
a further fractionation can occur in the reboiler because column gives fractions that include straight-run products,
it acts like a separation stage. The heat required in the such as LPG, naphtha, kerosene, and light and heavy gas
reboiler is provided by high-pressure steam. The reboiler oils [7,8]. The vacuum column generates intermediate
drives the operation of a distillation column as it generates streams (i.e., light and heavy vacuum gas oils and vacuum
vapor that flows upward in the column. Having a higher residue) that are subjected to subsequent processing to pro-
reflux rate can increase the purity of the top products; duce light and middle distillate fuels and nonfuel products.
however, it reduces the production and requires the addition The specifications of all fuels and materials obtained from
of more energy in the reboiler. Therefore, an optimal value of crude oil are presented in Chapters 2 and 4.
the reflux can be determined through column optimization As seen in Figure 5.3, the vapors from the top of the
and minimizing the total column cost as will be discussed atmospheric column (overhead products) are condensed and
in Chapter 13. Distillation columns can be tray or packed separated into gas and liquid streams in the accumulator.
columns. Details of different column types and their advan- The gas is further separated into fuel gas (methane and
tages are discussed in Chapter 13. ethane) that is burned for generating heat or steam in the
A form of single-stage separation is called flash distilla- refinery as well as LPG. LPG that consists of propane and
tion or simply flash, in which the temperature and pressure butane is the lightest straight-run product from crude oil
in the unit are controlled in a way that only a part of the distillation. LPG may need to be treated to remove impurities
liquid feed is vaporized. The vapor product from the flash such as H2S, elemental sulfur, and carbonyl sulfide (COS).
can be condensed for recovery. Liquid feed can be partially Part of the liquid overhead product (full-range naphtha)
vaporized either by heating at constant pressure (similar to is returned to the column as reflux. The rest of the overhead
what happens in a reboiler) or by reducing the pressure at liquid is separated into light and heavy naphtha. Light
constant temperature. The vapor and liquid streams leaving a naphtha can be used as specialty solvent, after purification,
flash chamber approach equilibrium if the flash unit oper- if necessary, or sent to an isomerization unit to increase its
ates close to an ideal stage. Such flash units are common in octane number to become a blending component for gaso-
refineries where the light gases are flashed out from a liquid line. Heavy naphtha is hydrotreated and usually directed to
by reducing the pressure. a catalytic reforming unit to produce high-octane gasoline,
In a refinery, desalted crude oil usually enters the as shown in Figure 5.1 and discussed in more detail in
atmospheric distillation column after going through a Section 5.4.2.1.2. Condensed water is sent to a water treat-
preflash drum or column, as described above. Because crude ment plant.
oil is a mixture of thousands of different compounds, the The side streams are separated in the side cut steam
fractional distillation products also contain many different strippers into middle distillates (i.e., kerosene) and light and
compounds, particularly in fractions with higher boiling heavy gas oils. Kerosene is hydrotreated to produce jet fuel,
points. For every side stream product, five to eight trays are or to be used as a blending component for diesel fuel, or as
generally needed. There are also several plates below the a solvent. Light gas oil (LGO) is hydrotreated to produce
feed tray. For example, for a column with 4 side streams diesel fuel, and heavy gas oil (HGO) is hydrotreated to
there may be 25–30 trays. produce a blending component for diesel fuel or light fuel
The residue from an atmospheric distillation column oil. In refineries that are focused on maximizing gasoline
typically has an initial boiling point of approximately 650ºF production, atmospheric gas oils as well as vacuum gas oils
(~350ºC). Higher temperatures are not desirable in crude are used as feedstocks for FCC to produce more gasoline as
distillation because thermal cracking of some constituent the primary product, as discussed later in Section 5.4.2.1.1.
compounds may occur. To avoid thermal cracking in a Atmospheric residue is fed into the vacuum distillation
distillation column, heavy residue from the atmospheric column to be fractionated into light and heavy vacuum gas
tower is further distilled in a vacuum tower. After desalt- oil (LVGO and HVGO, respectively) and vacuum residue
ing, the crude is typically heated up to 550°F by a heat (VR). LVGO can be used for producing lubricating oil
exchanger and then to 750°F in a furnace. The temperature basestock after dewaxing to control the freezing point of the
of the bottom product of the atmospheric tower is raised to basestock. HVGO can be introduced to catalytic cracking
850°F before entering vacuum distillation. The pressure in or hydrocracking to produce light and middle distillates.
vacuum towers ranges from 10 to 50 mmHg. Finally, the bottom of the barrel, VR, can be used as feed-
The diameter of a typical atmospheric crude tower is stock for deasphalting to produce deasphalted oil (DAO)
approximately 13 ft, and the height is approximately 85 ft, and asphalt, for visbreaking to produce fuel oil, or coked
but towers for the fractional distillation of side products to produce light and middle distillates and petroleum coke.
such as LPGs could have diameters of 2–3 ft and be up In turn, DAO may be used as feedstock for dewaxing and
to 200 ft in height with as many as 30–100 trays. This is lubricating oil basestock production or as feedstock for
hydrocracking to produce primarily middle distillates (i.e., jet will then separate into two phases, A and B and A and C.
fuel and diesel fuel). The phase rich in solvent C (in this example ether is the
The role of distillation has remained significant in the rich phase) is called the “extract” whereas the phase rich in
historical evolution of refinery schemes that have been component B (water layer phase in this example) is called
referred to in the literature as follows: the “raffinate.” The extract phase then can be sent to a dis-
• Topping: Simple distillation only, not currently used. tillation column to separate A and C. In this way, one can
• Hydroskimming: Distillation combined with hydrotreat- separate component A from B and recover the solvent C for
ing, still used in some refineries. recycling. In an ideal separation, the two phases of extract
• Conversion: Including vacuum distillation with the and raffinate are in equilibrium and principles of liquid-
chemical conversion of vacuum distillates into light liquid equilibrium will be used for the design and operation
products. of the extractor. A multistage countercurrent extraction
• Deep conversion: Chemical conversion of VDR into unit is commonly used in the form of a column to sepa-
light products. rate two miscible liquids to a certain degree of purity. In
• Lubricant production: Special vacuum distillation incor- the process, the heavy liquid usually enters from top of
porated with deasphalting, lubricating oil extraction, the column whereas light liquid (usually solvent phase)
dewaxing, and finishing. enters countercurrently from the bottom. The number of
stages or trays necessary for the desired separation in such
5.4.1.3 Other Separation Processes: columns can be determined through equilibrium data and
Absorption, Stripping, Extraction, and the operating line. As an example, liquid-liquid extraction
Adsorption separates aromatics from aliphatic hydrocarbon mixtures
There are several other physical separation processes that by using a mixture of diethylene glycol (90–92 %) and
are used in refineries to separate components from each water (8–10 %). Aromatics such as benzene, toluene, and
other in liquid and gas phases. Absorption is a process in xylene(s) can be separated from oil by use of sulfolane in
which a gas component is separated using an amine sol- a liquid-liquid extraction process [1]. The design of such
vent in an absorption column. Stripping is the opposite of units is discussed in Chapter 13.
absorption and occurs when a volatile component is evapo- Another physical separation process used in refineries
rated from a liquid phase into a gas phase. This process is is adsorption, in which usually a gas is separated from a gas
usually used to recover enriched solvent from an absorption mixture by a solid phase called the adsorbent. This process
column as will be discussed in Chapter 13. can also be used for adsorption of a component in liquid
An absorption column is similar to a distillation column mixtures such as removal of hydrocarbons from water.
(tray or packed) in which good contact between gas and Adsorption is a useful process when a component exists in
liquid streams is needed to have good performance in the small quantities. For example after separation of H2S from
column. However, absorption columns do not have a con- natural gas through a gas absorption process, the remaining
denser or a reboiler. Rich gas enters from the bottom and amount of H2S in the gas mixture can be removed through
solvent enters from the top, whereas rich solvent leaves an adsorption process yielding a gas with a very low
the column through the bottom. Absorption columns usu- concentration of H2S. This process is also quite useful to
ally operate at low temperatures but high pressures. Good remove odors and pollutants from air.
absorption solvents should be nontoxic, cheap, nonvolatile, The effectiveness of an adsorption process largely
and possess a high absorption capacity. In general, the depends on the characteristics and types of adsorbents (the
phrase “like dissolves like” works for absorption as well. For solid phase). The adsorbents are typically in the form of
example, to separate C3 and C4 from a gas mixture of C1, C2, small beads or pellets ranging from 0.1 to 12 mm in size,
C3, and C4, a hydrocarbon solvent such as a paraffinic oil with the larger particle being used in packed beds. Columns
would be suitable. A heavier component (e.g., C4) tends to are filled with adsorbent beads and gas feed enters from the
be absorbed more than C3 and the other light components bottom of the column. The porosity of particles is approxi-
because C4 is closer in structure to that of a paraffinic sol- mately 50 %, and the adsorption usually occurs as a
vent such as decane. The absorption capacity of a solvent monolayer on the surface of a solid. When gas is introduced
increases for a given compound that has similar chemical into a solid bed column, it first diffuses into the bulk of the
and physical properties to those of the solvent. gas phase and then through pores of the solid before reach-
Another physical separation process is solvent extraction, ing the solid surface. The overall performance also depends
in which a component is separated from a liquid mixture on the diffusion rates in the gas and solid pores as well as
using a liquid solvent. A separation of two components, A the kinetics of the adsorption process. Good adsorbents
and B, by distillation is possible when the difference between have a high surface area up to 2000 m2/g whereas a value of
vapor pressure (or boiling points) of the components is large 1200 m2/g is considered a good surface area. Various kinds
(high relative volatility). However, if the boiling points of of adsorbents in the order of surface area include activated
the components are close to each other, the separation by carbon, silica gel, activated alumina, molecular sieve zeo-
distillation requires a large column with a high cost. If the lites, and synthetic polymers and resins in which activated
boiling points of two components are the same (i.e., relative carbons usually have surface areas of 300–1200 m2/g and
volatility of unity), then separation by distillation is not alumina has a surface area of 200–500 m2/g [3].
possible, and an alternative technique is needed. Consider
a solution of acetic acid (component A) in water (compo- 5.4.1.4 Dewaxing and Lubricating Oil
nent B). Solvent isopropyl ether (component C) is added Production
in which C is partially soluble with component A but not Dewaxing processes are designed to remove wax from
soluble in B. The three-component mixture of A, B, and C precursor lubricating oils (LVGOs or DAOs) to give the
AST-MNL58-11-0801-005.indd 108 3/12/13 1:53 PM

lubricating oil basestock good fluidity characteristics at low 5.4.1.5 Deasphalting: Asphalt and DAO
temperatures. An oil can generally be dewaxed by separation Production
of wax as a solid that crystallizes from the oils at low Asphaltenes, as discussed in Chapter 2, consist of a
temperatures in a process called “solvent dewaxing.” high-molecular-weight aromatic hydrocarbon containing
Before the 1930s, naphthenic and paraffinic oils were heteroatoms such as sulfur and nitrogen. Asphaltenes
used as lubricants for motors, and both were solvent (i.e., are associated with heavy residues from a vacuum tower
phenol) extracted to improve their quality [1]. However, and can be separated from the residue through a solvent
lubricating oils are mainly composed of normal and separation process. As much as 80 % of the residue from
branched paraffins. Lubricating oils were produced in early vacuum crude oil towers is paraffinic material that can be
refineries as byproducts of paraffin wax. Lubricating oil upgraded to diesel fuel. Low-molecular-weight paraffins such
typically has high boiling points (>400°C) and high viscosity. as propane, butane, or pentane can be added to asphaltenic
The carbon number range for lubricating oil is usually oils, and asphaltenes are separated as solid asphalt. The
between 25 and 35–40 [1]. Lubricating oil can be produced mechanism of separation is through the density difference
in four steps: between asphaltenes and the oil/solvent solution. Undesir-
1. Distillation to remove lighter components, able heteroatoms such as sulfur, nitrogen, and metals are
2. Solvent refining or hydrogen treatment to remove non- also removed through deasphalting of oil. Deasphalting is
hydrocarbon compounds, usually applied to vacuum gas oil, feedstocks for lubricat-
3. Dewaxing to remove wax constituents and to improve ing basestocks, and distillation. Upgrading of heavy oils
low-temperature properties, and through deasphalting can be done at the production site
4. Clay treatment (or hydrogen treatment) to prevent of an oil field, which results in better quality crude for
instability of the product [1]. export and processing, as discussed in Chapter 8. Removal
SAE has classified lubricating oils into different classes of asphaltene through solvent extraction is common in
on the basis of their kinematic viscosity. For example, the refineries to remove asphaltene from heavy residues and
viscosity of grade SAE 20 oil should have a minimum value asphaltenic oils. LPG can be used to precipitate asphaltic
of 5.6 cSt and a maximum value of 9.3 cSt at 100°C (212°F). materials. When propane is added to oil containing asphal-
The solvents used in the solvent dewaxing of oils are tene, propane dissolves in oil, but it rejects asphaltene because
naphtha, propane, sulfur dioxide, acetone-benzene, methyl of a considerable difference in their chemical structure
ethyl ketone-benzene (benzol), and methyl-n-propyl ketone. and molar size. Propane can then be recovered through
Currently, ketone solvents are commonly used in dewaxing an evaporation process as shown in Figure 5.5 [1]. In this
processing. Processes of dewaxing include contacting the process, the heavy feedstock and 3–10 times its volume of
feedstock with the solvent, precipitating the wax from the liquefied propane are pumped together through a mixing
mixture by chilling, and recovering the solvent from the wax device and then into a settling tank. The temperature is
and dewaxed oil for recycling. Recent dewaxing processes maintained between 27 and 71°C, in which the higher the
include catalytic dewaxing, which is a mild hydrocracking temperature, the greater the tendency of asphaltic materials
process and is conducted at temperatures in the range of to separate. However, the temperature should be above the
280–400°C and pressures in the range of 300–1500 psi, asphaltene pumping temperature, and the propane is main-
depending on the type of feedstock used and the product tained in the liquid state by a pressure of approximately
required. The catalyst used for the process is the ZSM-5 200 psi. The final products of the deasphalting process are
catalyst (MFI according to the IUPAC Framework Type asphalt and DAO, as shown in Figure 5.5. Other methods of
Code). This catalyst is selective for n-paraffin cracking deasphalting are discussed by Speight [1]. Another process
through molecular sieving. A catalytic dewaxing process is proposed by Honeywell’s UOP and is shown in Figure 5.6
developed by Mobil is shown in Figure 5.4. [9]. The UOP deasphalting process produces DAO that is
Figure 5.4—Catalytic dewaxing process that is based on the Mobil process as given in [1].
Figure 5.5—Schematic of deasphalting process by propane that is based on the method recommended in [1].
Figure 5.6—UOP/FWUSA solvent deasphalting process [9]. Source: Figure used with permission from UOP LLC, a Honeywell
company.
rich in paraffinic-type molecules that can later be converted but its quality declines. As the DAO yield increases, the
in an FCC unit or hydrocracking unit. The pitch product concentration of contaminants in the DAO also increases.
contains most of the residue’s contaminants (metals, Changing solvents is not usually considered as a day-to-day
asphaltenes, Conradson carbon) and is rich in aromatic operating practice [9].
compounds and asphaltenes. The feed (normally VR) is
mixed with a light paraffinic solvent, typically butane, 5.4.2 Conversion Processes
where the DAO is solubilized in the solvent. The insoluble Conversion processes change the molecular structure of
part will precipitate out of the mixed solution (Figure 5.6). the crude oil fractions from distillation processes and
The solvent can be recovered and recycled back to the other intermediate products from different refinery units
beginning of the process. Considering the solvent selec- to increase the quantity and quality of premium distillate
tion, as the solvent gets heavier, the yield of DAO increases, fuels such as gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, and fuel oils. This
AST-MNL58-11-0801-005.indd 110 3/12/13 1:53 PM

subsection covers the principal conversion processes used the crackate (cracked gasoline with high octane number),
in a refinery that are grouped on the basis of the targeted light olefins, cycle oils, and slurry oil that are sent to the
distillate fuel product starting with gasoline production. fractionator. A carbon-rich byproduct of catalytic cracking,
termed “coke,” deposits on catalyst surfaces and blocks the
5.4.2.1 Gasoline Production active sites. The coked catalysts are sent to the regenerator
Gasoline is the principal product in U.S. refineries, account- unit to burn off the coke deposit, and the regenerated cata-
ing for 40 % by volume of all refinery products [10] because lysts are returned to the reactor to complete the catalyst
of the high demand for motor gasoline as the primary fuel cycle. The heat necessary for the endothermic cracking
for automobiles. Properties and specifications of gasoline reactions can thus be supplied by the hot catalyst particles
products are discussed in Chapters 2 and 4. Among all of that are heated by burning the coke deposit off their
the processes used for producing gasoline, the process of surface. For most FCC units, there exists a good heat bal-
FCC accounts for the largest volume of gasoline production ance between the reactor and the regenerator for effective
through the cracking of gas oils. Catalytic reforming and thermal integration. FCC is considered a carbon rejection
isomerization processes are performed to increase the process because the coke deposited on the catalyst surface
octane number of heavy naphtha and light naphtha fractions, and eventually burned off for heat is rich in carbon and
respectively, without a major change in molecular weight or thus enables the production of large quantities of a light
boiling point range of the feedstocks to provide high-octane distillate (crackate) in the process.
number gasoline streams to the blending pool. On the other Two different configurations of the FCC process exist
hand, alkylation and polymerization are used to combine depending on the positions of the reactor and the regenera-
lighter hydrocarbons (C3 and C4 alkanes and olefins) gen- tor: they can be side by side or stacked, where the reactor
erated in conversion processes (e.g., FCC and coking) to is mounted on top of the regenerator. Major licensor compa-
produce branched alkanes and olefins (i-C7-i-C8) with high nies that offer FCC processes with different configurations
octane numbers for the gasoline pool. These processes include Kellogg Brown & Root, CB&I Lummus, ExxonMobil
are introduced in more detail in the following sections. It Research and Engineering, Shell Global Solutions Interna-
should be noted that there are other refining processes that tional, Stone & Webster Engineering Corporation, Institut
produce gasoline blending streams as byproducts, as will be Francais du Petrole (IFP), and UOP.
pointed out when discussing these processes. The flow diagram of a UOP FCC process is shown
in Figure 5.7 [11]. The gas oil feed mixed with steam is
5.4.2.1.1 FCC introduced to the bottom of the riser (reactor) with the hot
The FCC process is the most widely used refinery process catalyst particles from the regenerator. Most of the cracking
to produce high-octane gasoline mainly from straight-run reactions take place in the riser. After steam stripping in
atmospheric gas oil and LVGO. This process involves the upper part of the reactor, the coked catalysts are sent
breaking up long chains of n-alkanes into shorter chains of to the regenerator and the products are directed to the
branched alkanes (isoalkanes), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), fractionator section that consists of a main column and a
and aromatics by using acidic catalysts. In addition to gas concentration (separation) unit. UOP engineers are also
high-octane gasoline, FCC produces LPG, cycle oils, and proposing two-stage regenerator units for FCC plants. The
olefin-rich light hydrocarbons (C3, C4) that can be used in advantages of a two-stage regenerator over a single-stage
alkylation and polymerization reactions to produce higher regenerator are
molecular weight branched alkanes and olefins to contribute • Easier to operate,
to the blending pool of high-octane gasoline in refineries. • Uniform coke burn,
Because of the central importance of FCC in petroleum • Low carbon residue (<0.05 wt %),
refining, a separate chapter (Chapter 6) is devoted to discuss- • Higher conversion of carbon monoxide (CO) to carbon
ing this process in detail. Only a brief description of the dioxide (CO2),
process is presented here. • Lower nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions, and
Increasing demand for gasoline along with the need • Minimizing catalyst deactivation.
to produce high-octane gasoline for increasingly more Addition of a third-stage catalyst regenerator may con-
powerful spark ignition engines led to the development trol the emission of particulate matter (PM) in flue gases.
and maturation of catalytic cracking processes just before It could reduce the PM to meet the 50-mg/Nm3 clean gas
and during World War II. After the development of a fixed- requirement, help axial flow separation, and reduce PM to
bed (Houdry process, 1936) and a moving-bed (Thermofor less than 0.8 lbPM/1000 lb (coke).
Catalytic Cracking, 1941) catalytic cracking process, fluid-bed Another modification to FCC plants could be installa-
catalytic cracking (FCC, 1942) became the most widely tion of a catalyst cooler, which may provide better control
used process worldwide because of the improved thermal of the catalyst/oil ratio; the ability to optimize the FCC
efficiency of the process and the high product selectivity operating conditions, increase conversions, and process
achieved, particularly after the introduction of crystalline heavier residual feedstocks; and better catalyst activity and
zeolites as catalysts in the 1960s. catalyst maintenance. Recent advancements in FCC pro-
In general terms, the FCC process can be divided into cesses are discussed in Chapters 6 and 7.
three components: the reactor, the catalyst regenerator,
and the product fractionator. In the reactor, the cracking 5.4.2.1.2 Catalytic Reforming
reactions initiate on the active sites of the catalysts with the Catalytic reforming converts low-octane straight-run naphtha
formation of carbocations (positively charged hydrocarbon fractions (particularly heavy naphtha that is rich in naph-
ions), and the subsequent ionic chain reactions produce thenes) into a high-octane, low-sulfur reformate, which is
branched alkanes and aromatic compounds to constitute a major blending product for gasoline. The most valuable
Figure 5.7—A UOP FCC process flow diagram [11]. Source: Figure used with permission from UOP LLC, a Honeywell company.
byproduct from catalytic reforming is the hydrogen needed “semiregenerative catalytic reformers,” need to be shut
in a refinery with the increasing demand for hydrotreating down once every 6–24 months for the in situ regeneration
and hydrocracking processes. Most reforming catalysts of catalysts that are deactivated by coke deposition. Later
contain platinum supported on alumina, and some may designs included an extra reactor (a swing reactor) to
contain additional metals such as rhenium and tin in bi- or enable isolation of one reactor at a time to undergo catalyst
trimetallic catalyst formulations. In most cases, the naphtha regeneration whereas the other three reactors are running.
feedstock needs to be hydrotreated before reforming to This configuration enables longer on-stream times (up to
protect the platinum catalyst from poisoning by sulfur or 5 years) before scheduled shutdowns for catalyst regen-
nitrogen species. With the more stringent requirements on eration, but it has not become popular.
benzene and the total aromatics limit in the United States A continuous catalyst regeneration (CCR) scheme for
and Europe, the amount of reformate that can be used in reforming came on stream in 1971. Figure 5.8 shows a flow
gasoline blending has been limited, but the function of diagram for the UOP CCR Platforming process [12]. The
catalytic reforming as the only internal source of hydrogen reactors are stacked with a moving bed of catalyst trickling
continues to be important for refineries. from the top reactor to the bottom reactor by gravity. Partially
The first commercial catalytic reforming process was deactivated catalyst from the bottom of the reactor stack is
introduced by UOP in 1949 as the PlatformingTM process continuously withdrawn and transferred to the CCR regen-
that used three fixed-bed reactors. The reactors operate in erator. The regenerated catalyst is reinjected to the top of
series with furnaces placed before each reactor to heat the the first reactor to complete the catalyst circulation cycle.
feedstock and the reactor effluents to 500–530°C before Hydrotreated naphtha feed is combined with recycle
entering each reactor because the predominant reform- hydrogen gas and heat exchanged with the reactor effluent.
ing reactions are highly endothermic. These units, called The combined feed is then raised to reaction temperature
Figure 5.8—UOP CCR Platforming process [12]. Source: Figure used with permission from UOP LLC, a Honeywell company.
AST-MNL58-11-0801-005.indd 112 3/12/13 1:53 PM

in the charge heater and sent to the first reactor section. Reactions 1–3. However, it is necessary to maintain a
Because the predominant reforming reactions are endo- sufficiently high hydrogen pressure in the reactors to inhibit
thermic, an inter-reactor heater is used to reheat the charge coke deposition. Hydrocracking is an undesired side reac-
to reaction temperature before it is introduced to the next tion in catalytic reforming because it consumes hydrogen
reactor. The effluent from the last reactor is heat exchanged and decreases the reformate yield by producing gaseous
with the combined feed, cooled, and separated into vapor hydrocarbons. Hydrocracking reactions are exothermic,
and liquid products in a separator. The vapor phase is rich but they can still be favored at high temperatures because of
in hydrogen gas, and a portion of the gas is compressed and kinetics and favored obviously by high hydrogen pressures.
recycled back to the reactors. Recycling hydrogen is necessary Typically, reformers operate at pressures from 50 to 350 psig
to suppress coking on the catalysts. The hydrogen-rich gas is (345–2415 kPa), a hydrogen/feed ratio of 3–8 mol H2/mol
compressed and charged together with the separator liquid feed, and liquid hourly space velocities of 1–3 [13].
phase to the product recovery section. The performance of A reaction network for catalytic reforming is shown
the unit (i.e., steady reformate yield and quality) depends in Figure 5.10 [14], indicating the role of metallic (M) and
strongly on the ability of the CCR regenerator to completely acidic (A) sites on the support. The surfaces of metals (e.g., Pt)
regenerate the catalyst. catalyze dehydrogenation reactions, whereas the acid sites
In addition to UOP’s Platforming process, the major on the support (e.g., alumina) catalyze isomerization and
commercial catalytic reforming processes include Powerform- cracking reactions. Metal and acid sites are involved in the
ing™ (ExxonMobil), Ultraforming™ and Magnaforming™ catalysis of hydrocracking reactions. Achieving the princi-
(BP), Catalytic Reforming (Engelhard), Reforming (IFP), and pal objective of catalytic reforming—high yields and high
Rheniforming™ (Chevron). quality of reformate—can be achieved, to a large extent,
The principal reactions of interest in catalytic reforming, by controlling the activity of the catalysts and the balance
shown in Figure 5.9, are between acidic and metallic sites to increase the selectivity
• Dehydrogenation of naphthenes to aromatics, to desirable reactions.
• Dehydroisomerization of alkyl-C5-naphthenes,
• Dehydrocyclization of n-paraffins to aromatics, and 5.4.2.1.3 Alkylation and Polymerization
• Isomerization of n-alkanes to i-alkanes. The alkylation process combines light isoparaffins, most
All of these reactions significantly increase the octane commonly isobutene, with C3–C4 olefins to produce a mix-
number (research octane number [RON] from 75 to 110 ture of higher molecular weight isoparaffins (i.e., alkylate) as
in Reaction 1, from 91 through 83 [cyclohexane] to 100 in a high-octane number blending component for the gasoline
Reaction 2, from 0 to 110 in Reaction 3, and from –10 to 90 pool. Isobutane and C3–C4 olefins are produced as byproducts
in Reaction 4). Large quantities of H2 are produced in the from FCC and other catalytic and thermal conversion pro-
highly endothermic Reactions 1–3. High temperatures and cesses in a refinery. The alkylation process was developed
low hydrogen pressures strongly promote the conversion in the 1930s and 1940s to initially produce high-octane
aviation gasoline, but later it became important for produc-
ing motor gasoline because the spark ignition engines have
become more powerful with higher compression ratios that
require fuel with higher octane numbers. With the recent
restrictions on benzene and the total aromatic hydrocarbon
contents of gasoline by environmental regulations, alkylation
has gained favor as an octane number booster over catalytic
reforming. Alkylate does not contain any olefinic or aromatic
hydrocarbons.
Alkylation reactions are catalyzed by strong acids (i.e.,
sulfuric acid [H2SO4] and hydrofluoric acid [HF]) to take
place more selectively at low temperatures—40–70°F for
H2SO4 and 100°F for HF. By careful selection of the operat-
ing conditions, a high proportion of products can fall in the
gasoline boiling range with motor octane numbers (MONs)
of 88–94 and RONs of 94–99 [15]. Early commercial units
used H2SO4, but more recently HF alkylation has found
more common use in petroleum refineries. HF can be more
easily regenerated than H2SO4 in the alkylation process, and
HF alkylation is less sensitive to temperature than H2SO4
alkylation [15]. In both processes, the volume of acid used
is approximately equal to the volume of liquid hydrocarbon
feed. Important operating variables include acid strength,
reaction temperature, isobutane/olefin ratio, and olefin
space velocity. The reactions are run at sufficiently high
pressures to keep the hydrocarbons and the acid in the
liquid phase. Good mixing of acid with hydrocarbons is
essential for high conversions.
Some examples of desired alkylation reactions (combi-
Figure 5.9—Principal reactions in catalytic reforming. nation of isoparaffins with olefins) are given in Figure 5.11.
Figure 5.10—A reaction network for catalytic reforming [14]. Source: Figure used with permission from UOP LLC, a Honeywell
company.
HF- propane stripper, defluorinator, and potassium hydroxide

(KOH) treater before it is recovered. Recycled isobutane is
drawn from the side of the fractionator and returned to the
entrance of the reactor after it is mixed with the dried olefin
and isobutane feed. The n-butane product is taken from the
side of the fractionators as vapor, condensed and KOH-
treated before recovery. The alkylate product is obtained
from the bottom of the fractionator. The HF catalyst is
regenerated onsite in the regeneration section where heavy
oils (tars) are removed from the catalyst.
Transporting and working with concentrated acids
pose safety risks. In particular, HF tends to form a vapor
cloud that is difficult to disperse. As examples for recent
developments to mitigate the risks associated with using
HF, one could cite the Reduced Volatility Alkylation Process
Figure 5.11—Desirable alkylation reactions [15]. (ReVAP™) and the Inventory Management Process (IMP®)
[16]. The ReVAP process drastically reduces the volatility of
These reactions are believed to occur through ionic chain HF acid, and IMP allows safer transfer of the catalyst inven-
reactions initiated by donation of a proton from the acid tory to a dedicated receiver vessel. The major licensor of the
catalyst to an olefin to produce a carbocation that reacts HF alkylation processes is UOP, whereas ExxonMobil and
with isobutane to form a tert-butyl cation. Subsequent Stratford Engineering Corporation license H2SO4 alkylation
propagation reactions involve the reactions of a tert-butyl processes. A newly designed alkylation process by UOP uses
cation with olefins to form larger isoparaffin cations that a solid catalyst called Alkylene®. Advantages of this new
lead to final products through reactions with isobutane to process over traditional HF alkylation processes (liquid
form a new tert-butyl cation to sustain the chain reaction acid technology) include no acid transportation, no acid
[15]. The alkylation reaction is highly exothermic, and cooling spills, no corrosion, and reduced maintenance cost. Efforts
the reactor contents during alkylation is important. to develop alternative processes that use solid acid catalysts
Figure 5.12 shows a flow diagram for a UOP HF instead of concentrated HF and H2SO4 for alkylation are
alkylation process [16]. Olefin and isobutane feed streams discussed in Chapters 9 and 10.
are dried to remove water before they are mixed with the The polymerization process combines propenes and
isobutane recycle stream. The mixture is fed to the reactor, butenes to produce higher olefins with high-octane numbers
where it is highly dispersed into an incoming stream of acid (97 RON and 83 MON) for the gasoline pool. The polym-
catalyst. Conversion of reactants to high-quality alkylate erization process was used extensively in the 1930s and
takes place quickly, and the mixture flows up to the settling 1940s, but it was replaced to a large extent by the alkylation
zone. In the settler, the catalyst is separated out as a bottom process after World War II. It has gained favor after phasing
phase and flows, by gravity, through the catalyst cooler and out the addition of tetraethyl lead (TEL) to gasoline, and
returns to the reactor. The hydrocarbon phase from the the demand for unleaded gasoline has increased. Typical
settler, which contains propane, recycled isobutane, normal polymerization reactions are shown in Figure 5.13 [15].
butane, and alkylate, is charged to the main fractionator. The most commonly licensed polymerization process
High-purity propane is sent overhead to pass through the is the UOP polymerization process, which uses phosphoric
Settler
Feed Driers
Iso-butane
Olefin Feed
Isothermal
Reactor
Main
Fractionator
Motor Fuel
Butane
KOH
Treater
HF
Stripper Propane
De-flourinator
and KOH Treater
Accumulator
Alkylate
Figure 5.12—UOP HF alkylation (Alkylplus® ) process [16]. Source: Figure used with permission from UOP LLC, a Honeywell
company.
Figure 5.13—Typical polymerization reactions [15].
acid as catalyst. IFP licenses a Dimersol® process that future challenges and opportunities. A brief description of
produces dimers from propene or butene using a homoge- the process is given here using the UOP Par-IsomTM process
neous aluminum alkyl catalyst. as an example.
Figure 5.14 shows a simple flow diagram of a UOP
5.4.2.1.4 Isomerization Par-Isom process [17]. Typical feed sources for this process
Isomerization processes have been used to isomerize include hydrotreated light straight-run naphtha, light natu-
n-butane to isobutane used in alkylation and C5 /C6 n-paraffins ral gasoline, or condensate. The fresh C5/C6 feed combined
in light naphtha to the corresponding isoparaffins to produce with make-up and recycled hydrogen is directed to a heat
high-octane number gasoline stocks after the adoption exchange for heating the reactants to reaction temperature.
of lead-free gasoline. Catalytic isomerization processes Hot oil or high-pressure steam can be used as the heat source
that use hydrogen have been developed to operate under in this exchanger. The heated feed is sent to the reactor. The
moderate conditions. Chapter 7 reviews the chemistry of reactor effluent is sent to a product separator and stabilizer
hydroisomerization and the development and evolution to separate H2 to be recycled, the isomerate product, and
of hydroisomerization catalysts as well as the associated off gas. Typical isomerate product (C5+) yields are 97 wt %
Figure 5.14—UOP Par-Isomer Process [17]. Source: Figure used with permission from UOP LLC, a Honeywell company.
of the fresh feed, and the product octane number ranges Hydrocracking processes most commonly include
from 81 to 87, depending on the flow configuration and two reaction stages: hydrotreating to remove heteroatom
feedstock properties. (S, N, O) species and hydrocracking to increase the H/C
ratio of the hydrocarbons in the feeds by hydrogenation and
5.4.2.2 Jet Fuel, Diesel, Fuel Oil, and Coke to decrease their molecular weight by cracking. As shown
Production in Figure 5.15 [19], the hydrotreating reactor packed with
Although gasoline production can be a primary focus of cobalt-molybdenum catalysts precedes the hydrocracking
crude oil refining, as in the United States, 40–50 % of the reactor typically packed with nickel-tungsten catalysts (for
crude oil refined goes into the production of other fuels hydrogenation) supported on alumina/silica (for cracking).
and nonfuel materials. Many countries rely on diesel fuel The products from the hydrocracker are sent to a fraction-
as the primary fuel for ground transportation, and, in ator to be separated into gas and light distillates (LPG and
general, marine transportation relies heavily on diesel naphtha), middle distillates (kerosene and diesel [or LGO]),
or heavier fuel oils. The demand for jet fuel as the gas and HGO. HGO may be recycled to the hydrocracker for
turbine fuel for jet aircraft has been steadily increasing. a deeper conversion into light and middle distillates or
Considering that the crude oil available for refining is to extinction, as desired. The reactions are performed at
getting heavier and more contaminated, processes to con- 300–400°C and 8–15 MPa of hydrogen pressure.
vert heavy fractions of crude oils or heavy oils into clean In a refinery, hydrocracking complements catalytic
distillate products have become important, as discussed cracking by taking on the more aromatic feedstocks that
in Chapter 8. A brief description of hydrocracking, vis- resist cracking, including the byproducts of FCC, such as
breaking, thermal cracking, and coking is given here light cycle oil (LCO). In the United States, hydrocracking of
because these processes are discussed in some detail in LCO (from FCC) provides a large proportion of the diesel
Chapters 8 and 9. fuel production because straight-run LGO is a preferred
stock for FCC to produce gasoline as the principal product.
5.4.2.2.1 Catalytic Hydrocracking The major licensors of hydrocracking processes include
Catalytic hydrocracking is one of the latest additions to Chevron, UOP, ExxonMobil Research and Engineering, BP,
petroleum refining processes, with the first modern com- Shell, and BASF-IFP.
mercial unit started up by Chevron in 1958. The interest Recent advances in hydrotreating/hydrocracking pro-
in hydrocracking has been attributed to the increasing cesses and the hydrotreating/hydrocracking catalysts for
demand for light and middle distillates, the availability processing the residual fractions of crude oils and heavy
of byproduct hydrogen in large quantities from catalytic oils, including bitumen conversion to synthetic crude oil,
reforming, and the environmental regulations limiting are discussed in Chapters 8–10.
sulfur and aromatic hydrocarbons in motor fuels [18]. The
advantages of hydrocracking include its ability to handle a 5.4.2.2.2 Visbreaking and Thermal Cracking
wide range of feedstocks that may be difficult to process by Thermal cracking is the first commercial conversion pro-
catalytic cracking and its flexibility in selectivity between cess developed in the early 1900s principally to produce
light and middle distillates. As a hydrogen-addition process, more motor gasoline from crude oils and produce high-
hydrocracking provides high yields of valuable distillates octane gasoline for aircraft use, initiating the evolution of
without producing low-grade byproducts (e.g., heavy oils, the petroleum refinery. With the advent of catalytic cracking
gas, or coke) as experienced in carbon rejection processes in the 1930s and 1940s and its capability to produce higher
such as coking. yields of gasoline with higher octane number, thermal
Figure 5.15—A two-stage UOP hydrocracking process [19]. Source: Figure used with permission from UOP LLC, a Honeywell
company.
cracking of gas oils has ceased to be an important process in removing the coke from the drums and problems with
for gasoline production in modern refineries. As opposed grinding, although shot coke has some niche applications
to ionic chain reactions controlling catalytic cracking, free such as in titanium dioxide (TiO2) production. Sponge coke
radical chain reactions govern the thermal cracking chem- is used as solid fuel and manufacturing anodes for alumi-
istry that generates high yields of gas, particularly methane num production. Among the delayed coking products, needle
(CH4), ethane (C2H6), and ethylene (C2H4), and produces coke is a specialty coke produced mostly from coking the
straight-chain alkanes in liquid products with low octane FCC decant oil; its production is approximately 1 million t
numbers. Therefore, a principal application of the thermal almost exclusively in the United States, United Kingdom,
cracking of distillate fractions in current refineries is lim- and Japan.
ited to naphtha cracking for the purpose of producing C2H4 The major properties of the needle coke include
for the petrochemical industry. However, thermal cracking • A low coefficient of thermal expansion,
of residual fractions, particularly VDR, is still practiced in • A low puffing tendency during graphitization because
association with visbreaking and coking processes in the of lower nitrogen and sulfur contents, and
refineries. • High mechanical strength.
Visbreaking is a mild thermal cracking process applied The anode coke has limits on metal contaminants,
to reduce the viscosity of VDR to produce fuel oil and some requiring less than 500 ppm of Ni and V in the coke. The
light products to increase the distillate yield in a refinery. price of fuel coke depends on its carbon purity (S, N, and
Commercial visbreaking processes and their significance metal contaminants); however, the fuel coke is traded at a
in the overall refinery scheme are discussed in Chapter 8. price comparable to that of the coal.
5.4.2.2.3 Coking
Despite the development of catalytic cracking processes,
coking processes in particular, the delayed coking process
has survived as a popular refining process all over the world
to refine the heavy end of crudes or heavy oils through carbon
rejection as coke. Chapter 8 discusses coking technologies
and processes (including fluid coking and flexicoking) in
some detail. Here, a brief description of the delayed coking
process is given with focus on the properties and the appli-
cations of the coke products. The petroleum coke produced
through the delayed coking process has reached 100 million
t/year in the world, and 20 million t are calcined for use in
metallurgy for processing alumina and titania as well as
raw material in the carbon industry for producing graphite
electrodes for electric arc furnaces and nuclear graphite.
There are basically three kinds of coke produced by
delayed coking: high-density shot coke, porous sponge coke,
and needle coke. Figure 5.16 describes the appearances,
specifications, and applications of these cokes. The formation Figure 5.16—Appearances, properties, and applications of
of shot coke is usually troublesome because of difficulties cokes produced from delayed coking of vacuum residue.
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Producing a high-quality coke (e.g., anode coke from the of coke as fuel, aluminum anode, or steel electrode coke,
delayed coking process) as a byproduct adds to the benefit respectively.
of producing distillate liquid fuels from very heavy feed- Operational control factors in the delayed coker are
stocks. Therefore, the pretreatment of the feed to increase mainly drum pressure, recycle ratio, and heater outlet
the coke quality becomes feasible. temperature. Their effects are not so significant on the
Delayed coking can deal with the heavy feeds that properties of the products, although there are optimal con-
cannot be upgraded by other refining processes because of ditions that can be selected. The properties of the products
the high coking yield and high contamination with metals, depend strongly on the properties of the feedstocks.
sulfur, and nitrogen. However, the feeds are recently being For a better performance of delayed coking opera-
treated before delayed coking to obtain better performance tion and higher product values, several feed pretreatment
in the processes and higher quality products. The treatment options are available and practiced. These procedures are
must be well designed in terms of objectives and procedures summarized in Table 5.6. One extreme is to charge the
because the treatment itself must overcome the difficulties heaviest feed into the delayed coker. Other thermal or
as expected from the composition of the feed. The objec- catalytic processes can refine the light fraction. Another
tives of pretreatment are summarized in Table 5.4. extreme is to reject the particular fraction, often the heaviest
The variety of feeds for delayed coking is now expanded end, to improve the coke quality. SDA (solvent deasphalt-
because of the larger variety of crudes and products from a ing process) is proposed as an effective way to remove the
greater variety of processes in petroleum refining and pet- heaviest end (the metal and S compounds present in the feed)
rochemical processes. To keep the coking process feasible to improve the coke quality. This also improves the liquid
and to improve the products’ quantity and quality from product quality and makes the process easier to control.
the particular feed, the feed can be adjusted. The delayed The issue that needs to be addressed with this option is how
coker requires limited viscosity and coking reactivity of to use the separated asphaltene fraction.
the feed, which must pass rapidly through the heating tube The feed can also be catalytically or thermally treated
(preheated) without any coke deposit on the tube wall. The to obtain a better performance in terms of product
heating of the feed may lead to the phase separation of yield and quality. Blending feeds with particular additives
the heavy fractions because of the vaporization and thermal (e.g., aromatic and hydroaromatic compounds) could also
cracking of the particular fraction. The phase separation improve the process and the quality of products and pro-
may result in the deposition of coke precursors on the vide a better control of the coking process.
heater tube and heterogeneous coking in the coker drum. The refining of the coker feed includes removal of con-
Heterogeneous coking often leads to the considerable deg- taminants, conversion of the heavy fraction, aromatization/
radation of coke quality and causes the formation of shot/ condensation of light paraffinic fractions, and hydrogenation
ball coke in the bottom of the drum. Some feed produces of the aromatic fraction. Such refining reactions are com-
such coke in the whole zone of the drum. bined for better performance. Selective hydrogenation is a
The quality and quantity of the products are controlled
as desired by the refiners. Usually refiners want high yields
of the distillates such as coker gasoline and gas oil. A higher Table 5.5—Quality Factors for Cokes from
quality of distillates such as low sulfur content is also the Delayed Coking Process
desired. Low-grade coke obtained from a low-grade feed
Quality Factor Fuel Coke Electrode Quality
does not have much value; therefore, its yield is minimized
by design. However, a high-quality coke, such as premium Free carbon
needle coke, is highly desired and its yield is maximized. contaminants
Quality factors for delayed cokes are summarized in Ash and minerals
Table 5.5. These factors are defined by their application Metal Lower fuel Lower electrode
quality quality
Sulfur SOx Puffing
Nitrogen NOx Puffing
Table 5.4—The Objectives for Feed
Pretreatment in Delayed Coking Metal Metal deposition Contamination in
electric refining
Feed Properties Effects
Sulfur SOx Puffing
Fluidity No coking in the heater tubes
Liquid phase coking Nitrogen NOx Puffing
Non-fusible component Fluidity and coking properties Density Very strong coke Coke strength and
is not desirable density of carbon
Contamination Quality of distillate and coke
electrode
Coke yield or Distillate Yield Higher yields of desired
Porosity cracks and Large coke size
products
their distribution desired
Coke structure Density
Graphitization extent Steel production
Porosity
Optical texture Optical texture Aluminum
Graphitization isotropic, mosaic, production
needle Steel production
Coking reactivity of the feed Coking in the heater and coke
drum Thermal expansion Steel production
metals from 10 to 1000 ppm. Once crude is fractionated by

Table 5.6—Pretreatments of Feeds for distillation, the heteroatoms (particularly S, N, and metal
Delayed Coking compounds) are distributed in the products. Heteroatom
Procedure Objectives compounds are mainly associated with the higher boil-
ing fractions and the residues that are rich in aromatic
Fractionations
compounds. The presence of heteroatom compounds in
Heavy end cut (SDA is Uniform fluidity
typical.) petroleum products is undesirable because they reduce fuel
Light component cut Higher coke yield stability, contribute to the emission of pollutants, and dam-
Treatment of lower quality age engines. Heteroatom compounds in refinery streams
feed (e.g., basic nitrogen compounds, sulfur compounds, and
(reactor volume efficiency) metals) can deactivate catalysts and promote coke formation.
The light products such as LPG and naphthas have low
Blending with Coking control
Aromatic additive Solvent fraction to keep liquid concentrations of sulfur and require minimal treatment,
Hydroaromatic additive phase during the coking such as absorption in alkaline solvents (e.g., H2S or mercaptan
Hydrogen donative additive sulfur) or conversion of mercaptans to sulfides to eliminate
to induce and keep liquid odor. For example, the UOP Merox™ process is widely used
phase to remove H2S and mercaptan sulfur (Merox extraction)
or to convert mercaptan sulfur to less-objectionable disul-
Acidic treatment
Dealkylation Aromaticity enhancement to fides (Merox sweetening) [20]. The Merox process can be
Aromatization control coking reactivity used to treat liquids such as LPG, naphtha, and kerosene.
Removing sulfur from higher molecular weight and more
Hydrogenation Hydroaromatic feed controls complex molecules requires hydrotreatment processes that
coking reactivity to increase
use hydrogen. The advancement in hydrotreatment pro-
the distillate and coke quality
cesses to desulfurize higher boiling distillate fractions and
Hydrocracking Hydroaromatic feed controls FCC products are discussed in Chapters 9 and 10. A brief
coking reactivity to increase introduction to hydrotreatment processes is given later in
the distillate and coke quality this section.
Hydrorefining Particularly strict sulfur limits have recently been
HDM Metal reduction for coke imposed on diesel fuels so that the particulate emissions
HDS quality from diesel engines can be reduced. In the United States,
HDN Sulfur reduction for coke the government regulations [21] require that highway and
quality nonroad, locomotive, and marine engines that use diesel
Nitrogen reduction for coke fuel meet a maximum specification of 15 ppm sulfur by
quality 2014 with a full compliance for highway use and nonroad
diesel fuel since December 2010. It also requires full com-
pliance for locomotive and marine diesel fuel use by 2012.
particular reaction that can control the coking through mod- Table 5.7 shows the evolution sulfur limit of diesel fuels
erating the condensation reactions via hydrogen transfer and in the United States, Europe, and Japan. In 2006, new U.S.
enhancing the thermal cracking and ring-opening reactions. standards for ultralow-sulfur diesel (ULSD) took effect under
The catalytic process is ideal; however, the catalysts a 2001 rule issued by the U.S. Environmental Protection
must be designed to function under severe conditions. Agency (EPA). Diesel fuel sulfur content must be reduced
Solvolytic and thermal reactions constitute another choice to no more than 15 ppm from the 500 ppm that was
to modify the feed. established by a 1993 rule that reduced the level from
5000 ppm (0.5 wt %). To account for pipeline contamina-
5.4.3 Finishing Processes tion, refiners may have to produce diesel fuel with a sulfur
5.4.3.1 Hydrotreatment content as low as 7 ppm. EPA estimates that the marginal
As a natural substance, crude oil contains heteroatom (S, N, cost of producing ULSD ranges from 2.5 to 6.8 cents
and O) compounds as well as metals (mainly Ni and V) in per gallon in the United States. The Energy Information
addition to hydrocarbons. The sulfur content of crude oils Administration (EIA) projects that the total investment in
normally ranges from 0.05 to 6 wt %, nitrogen content U.S. refineries to meet the requirements for ULSD ranges
varies from 0.1 to 1 wt %, oxygen from 0.1 to 2.0 wt %, and from $6.3 to $9.3 billion. Because the energy content of
Table 5.7—Limits of Sulfur Content of Diesel Oil in Europe, Japan, and in the United States
(in ppmw) [22]
1953 1976 1990 1992 1996 1997 2000 2005 2006 2011a
European Union – – – – 500 – 350 50 – 10
Japan 12,000 5000 – 2000 – 500 – 50 – –
United States – – 500 – – – – – 15 –

Proposal of European Union commission.
a
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ULSD is somewhat less than that of the 500-ppm sulfur the presence of 1.67 % H2S over CoMoS and NiMoS
content of diesel, fuel efficiency may be affected, requir- supported on acidic supports. Such supports are believed
ing higher demand on diesel and more consumption [23]. to enhance the sulfur release from active sites and the
Desulfurization of fuels is commonly achieved by hetero- hydrogenation of refractory sulfur species to accelerate
geneously catalyzed hydrodesulfurization (HDS), in which their deep desulfurization.
the organic sulfur species are converted to H2S and the
corresponding hydrocarbon: R-SH + H2 → R-H + H2S. Here 5.4.3.2 Product Blending
R represents an alkyl group, such as methyl (CH3–) or ethyl As a major finishing process, product blending plays a key
(C2H5–). The reactivity of R-SH compounds is higher than role in preparing the refinery products for the market in
that of disulfides (R-S-S-R). The H2S is easily removed compliance with all of the product specifications and quality
from the desulfurized oil by absorption in a gas treatment control measures. The objective of product blending is to
unit and subsequently converted to elemental sulfur by the assign all available blend components to satisfy the product
Claus process [24]. demand and specifications to minimize cost and maximize
Sulfur ring compounds such as methylated dibenzo- overall profit. Almost all refinery products are blended for
thiophenes have the lowest reactivity in HDS reactions the optimal use of all of the intermediate product streams
because of the shielding of the S atom by the methyl for the most efficient and profitable conversion of petro-
groups. Removing sulfur from these compounds (i.e., deep leum to marketable products. For example, typical motor
desulfurization) requires more hydrogen consumption to gasolines may consist of straight-run naphthas, crackates,
saturate the aromatic rings in dibenzothiophene to form reformates, alkylates, isomerates, polymerates, pyrolysis
nonplanar compounds and eliminate the steric hindrance gasoline, etc., in proportions to make the desired grades
of methyl groups to make the S atom accessible to active of gasoline and the specifications. Chapter 4 describes the
sites on the catalyst surface for removal as H2S. specifications of the petroleum fuels and materials and
Hydrodenitrogenation (HDN) is a similar process in Chapter 19 is devoted to discussing the fuel blending tech-
which hydrogen is used to remove nitrogen, and for this nology and management in petroleum refineries. Until the
reason during HDS the nitrogen content of fuels is also 1960s, the blending was performed in batch operations.
reduced. Pyridine (C5H5N) can be reduced to pentane With computerization and the availability of the required
(C5H12) and ammonia (NH3) by adding 5H2 in three steps equipment, online blending operations have replaced blend-
that consist of saturating the aromatic ring with 3H2 to ing in batch processes. Keeping inventories of the blending
form piperidine (C5H11N), a ring-opening reaction with one stocks along with cost and physical data has increased the
H2 to form amylamine (C5H11NH2), and forming n-pentane flexibility of and profits from online blending through opti-
by removing nitrogen as NH3 with one H2. The overall HDN mization programs. In most cases, the components blend
reaction is C5H5N + 5H2 → C5H12 + NH3. nonlinearly for a given property (e.g., octane number, cetane
Removal of basic nitrogen compounds such as C5H5N is number, freezing point), and geometric programming is
an important pretreatment step before a process that uses required for reliable predictions of the specified properties.
acidic catalysts, such as FCC. On the other hand, HDS is an
important pretreatment process for feedstocks that would be 5.4.4 Supporting Processes
exposed to noble metal catalysts that are poisoned by sulfur Supporting processes are not directly involved in the pro-
compounds, such as Pt in the catalytic reforming process. duction of fuels or materials, but they are essential for the
HDS reaction conditions are typically 350°C and 7 MPa. operation of a petroleum refinery. Major supporting processes
With respect to the increasing demand for practically include hydrogen production, environmental remediation of
sulfur-free fuels (<10 ppm), sulfur species with very low refinery emissions, and sulfur recovery. Hydrogen produc-
reactivity such as dibenzothiophene derivatives have to be tion and environmental remediation issues are discussed in
converted in a second-stage deep HDS step that leads to detail in Chapters 12 and 29, respectively, and will not be
additional high investment and operating costs [22]. covered here. The following section reviews sulfur recovery.
Shih et al. [25] developed a simple correlation for pre- Sulfur exists in natural gas and refinery gases (i.e., over-
diction of reactivity over a temperature range of 520–780°F. head gas from crude distillation and hydrotreating units) as
The reactivity is defined as the temperature (°F) required to H2S. An acidic gas, H2S is removed by absorption in basic
achieve a 500-ppm sulfur product (T500ppmS) and is given as a solutions of ethanol amines and sent to the Claus process.
function of two feed properties: In the Claus process, H2S is converted to elemental sulfur,
which can be safely stored and sold as a byproduct. The
T500ppmS = 454°F + 31 exp(S600F+) + 25 ln(N) (5.2) process consists of two steps that take place consecutively in
burner and converter reactors. In the burner, part of H2S is
where: oxidized to form sulfur dioxide (SO2), which subsequently
S600F+ = weight percent of sulfur in the 600°F+ fraction reacts with the remaining H2S over an alumina catalyst in
of the feed, and the converter reactor to produce elemental sulfur [24]:
N = feed nitrogen content (ppmw). 3
For ULSD fuel (10 ppm sulfur), usually alumina- H 2S + O → SO2 + H2O (Burner reaction)
2 2
supported CoMo or NiMo-sulfide (NMA) catalysts are used.
An alternative to this is carbon-supported Ni-Mo-sulfide 2H2S + SO2 ↔ 2H2O + S (Converter reaction)
(NMC) with surface areas ranging from 900 to 3000 m2/g
as discussed in reference 26. Kunisada et al. [27] show that The overall reaction in the Claus process becomes
a hydrotreated gas oil containing 340 ppm sulfur can be
3
successfully desulfurized to less than 10 ppm sulfur under 3H2S + O2 → 3H2O + S
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Fri Oct 12 12:15:43 EDT 2018 2
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Because of equilibrium limitations, the sulfur recovery 1861 to 1975 as the development of the internal combustion
is usually limited to 94–95 %. Therefore, the Claus offgas engine has demanded the production of gasoline and diesel
contains small amounts of H2S, SO2, and other sulfur gases fuels, and the aviation industry has demanded high-octane
such as COS and carbon disulfide (CS2) formed in the side aviation gasoline for the turbo engine and kerosene-based
reactions. Using a separate process (e.g., the Shell Claus jet fuel for the gas turbine engine of jet aircraft. The increas-
Off-gas Treatment [SCOT]), SO2, COS, and CS2 are converted ing demand for distillate fuels that has exceeded the supply
to H2S upon reaction with hydrogen on a tungsten catalyst. that can be obtained from distillation alone has ushered in
The H2S product is absorbed by an amine solvent and thermal and catalytic conversion processes in addition to
recycled to the Claus unit feed. A combination of the Claus physical separation processes such as vacuum distillation
process with a tail gas clean-up process such as SCOT leads (1870), dewaxing (1935), and deasphalting (1950) to produce
to sulfur recovery in excess of 99 % [24]. lubricating oils along with byproducts such as wax and
asphalt that have found other industrial applications.
5.5 Evolution of Refinery Processes and In 1913, the thermal cracking process was developed
Refinery Configurations to break the large molecules into smaller ones to produce
5.5.1 Development of Refinery Processes additional gasoline and distillate fuels. Visbreaking and
Consumer demand has driven a continuous evolution of coking were developed in the late 1930s to treat the heavy
petroleum refining with the introduction of new processes ends. Catalytic cracking and polymerization processes
to increase the quantity and quality of refinery products in a were also introduced in the mid- to late 1930s to meet the
long path from producing just one main product, kerosene, by demand for higher octane gasoline required by the higher-
simple atmospheric distillation in 1861 with the byproducts compression gasoline engines. Other catalytic processes, such
tar and naphtha to the multitude of hydrocarbon fuels, as alkylation and isomerization, were developed in the early
chemicals, and petrochemicals produced in the complex 1940s to produce high-octane aviation gasoline and petro-
refineries of the present day. Table 5.8 shows a timeline of chemical feedstocks. Catalytic reforming and isomerization
the refinery processes introduced in the time period from were developed in the 1950s to increase the gasoline
Table 5.8—A Timeline for the Development of Petroleum Refining Processes from 1861 to
1975 [28]
Year Process Purpose Byproducts, etc.
1861 Atmospheric distillation Produce kerosene Naphtha, tar, etc.
1870 Vacuum distillation Lubricants (original) and cracking feedstocks (1930s) Asphalt, residual coker feedstocks
1913 Thermal cracking Increase gasoline Residual, bunker fuel
1916 Sweetening Reduce sulfur and odor Sulfur
1930 Thermal reforming Improve octane number Residual

1932 Hydrogenation Remove sulfur Sulfur
1932 Coking Produce gasoline basestocks Coke
1933 Solvent extraction Improve lubricant viscosity index Aromatics
1935 Solvent dewaxing Improve pour point Waxes
1935 Catalytic polymerization Improve gasoline yield and octane number Petrochemical feedstocks
1937 Catalytic cracking Higher octane gasoline Petrochemical feedstocks
1939 Visbreaking Reduce viscosity Increased distillate, tar
1940 Alkylation Increase gasoline octane and yield High-octane aviation gasoline
1940 Isomerization Produce alkylation feedstock Naphtha
1942 Fluid catalytic cracking Increase gasoline yield and octane Petrochemical feedstocks
1950 Deasphalting Increase cracking feedstock Asphalt
1952 Catalytic reforming Convert low-quality naphtha Aromatics
1954 Hydrodesulfurization Remove sulfur Sulfur
1956 Inhibitor sweetening Remove mercaptan Disulfides
1957 Catalytic isomerization Convert to molecules with high octane number Alkylation feedstocks
1960 Hydrocracking Improve quality and reduce sulfur Alkylation feedstocks
1974 Catalytic dewaxing Improve pour point Wax
1975 Residual hydrocracking and flexicoking Increase gasoline yield from residual Heavy residuals
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Table 5.9—Evolution of the Demand for Petroleum Products in the World from 1970 to 2010 [30]
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
106
10 6
10 6
106
10 6
tons % tons % tons % tons % tons %
Gasoline 492 25.4 626 26.6 750 26.8 876 26.2 1047 26.0
Middle 530 27.4 721 30.6 950 33.9 1163 34.8 1472 36.6
distillates
Heavy fuels 608 31.4 645 27.4 500 17.9 426 12.8 456 11.3
Others 307 15.8 363 15.4 600 21.4 875 26.2 1046 2.0
Total 1937 100 2355 100 2800 100 3340 100 4021 100
Middle distillates = jet fuels, heating oil, and diesel oil. Others = refinery gas, LPG, naphthas, lubricants, wax, bitumen, petroleum coke, etc. 1 bbl/day =
~50 t/year.
yields with high octane numbers and improve antiknock produced a large amount of fuel oils (~40 %). In the late
characteristics. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, new 1970s, the oil shocks caused a decrease in the demand
catalysts were developed for hydrocracking and residue for heavy fuels and a need for lighter products. This was
hydrocracking processes to produce higher yields of light the main reason for using more cracking units such as
and middle distillates and for catalytic dewaxing to improve visbreakers, catalytic crackers (FCC), and hydrocrackers
the pour point of lubricating oils. to produce low-sulfur products. For example, in France,
In parallel to the development of conversion processes, 15 million t of fuel oil were used in 1973 whereas in 1993
various treatment (finishing) processes have been developed this number reduced to only 2 million t [29]. Heating oil
to remove heteroatoms and other impurities. Treating pro- has been largely replaced by gas and electricity. In France,
cesses can involve chemical reaction or physical separation nuclear power plants generate 75 % of electricity. In the
or both. Typical examples of such treating processes are meantime, the demand for the petroleum products with
chemical sweetening (1916), hydrogenation (1932), and no easy substitute such as gasoline and middle distillates
HDS (1954). continued to increase.
Table 5.9 shows the evolution of the demand for petro-
5.5.2 Changes in Refinery Configurations leum products in the world from 1970 to 2010 as given
Until the 1960s and 1970s, refineries had relatively simple by Marcilly [30], clearly showing the significant drop in
configurations consisting primarily of distillation, cata- the demand for heavy fuels from 31.4 % of the petroleum
lytic reforming, and HDS units. Such simple refineries refined in 1970 to 11.35 % in 2010.
Figure 5.17—A refinery scenario for 2010. Source: Figure modified from Marcilly [30], a European model.
AST-MNL58-11-0801-005.indd 122 3/12/13 1:53 PM

Figure 5.17 shows a flow diagram for the sophisticated In all three regions, hydrotreatment and cracking processes
and ultracomplex refineries of the present day [30]. The have been on the rise and the trend continues.
principal feature of these refineries is the high level of A future scenario for refineries in the United States is
conversion of heavy ends into light products. Most of the shown in Figure 5.18 [31]. In this scenario, a light Saudi
conversion takes place through FCC-type units with high Arabian crude is considered with a sulfur content of 1.78
yields of gasoline at low cost. In Western Europe conver- wt %. The produced gasoline has a sulfur content of 5–10
sion processes in refineries increased from 6 % in 1975 to ppm. In this scenario, coking provides the principal carbon
more than 30 % in 1977 [29]. In 1977, only one third of rejection as coke, and all of the liquid products from coking
143 refineries in Western Europe were equipped with FCC are further treated to manufacture light and middle distil-
units whereas in 2000 this is more than 80 %. Furthermore, lates and fuel oil. Further discussion on future scenarios for
environmental regulations require fuels with less sulfur, and petroleum refineries is given in Chapter 34.
production of ultralow-sulfur fuels (gasoline and diesel fuels)
is on the rise. The manufacturing of such high-quality fuels 5.6 Future Outlook—Markets and
requires more severe conversion and finishing processes in Technology
refineries. Table 5.10 shows the evolution of refinery pro- Factors that would affect future refineries over time include
cesses in various parts of the world for the last 20 years financing, technology, people/organizations, business, and
[30]. The figures represent capacity in million tons per year. the environment. Regardless of government regulations,
Table 5.10—Development in the Structure of World Refining Capacities from 1979 to 1999 for
the Main Geographical Zones in Million Tons per Year [30]
1979 1999
North America Western Europe Asia-Pacific North America Western Europe Asia-Pacific
HDT 437 346 214 577 404 374
FCC 260 49 30 298 106 125
HDC 46 6 1 84 34 35
Atmospheric distillation 997 998 520 923 723 982

HDT = hydrotreatment, HDC = hydrocracking.
Figure 5.18—A scenario for a future refinery for light Arabian crude (a U.S. model). Sulfur in the feed is 1.78 wt % and refinery
capacity is 150,000 bbl/day. Source: Figure modified after [31].
future refineries should have safer operations to prevent hydrogen consumption for classical refineries depends on
explosions, fires, spills, and environmentally undesirable the product quality.
emissions with strict commitment to the production plan The hydrotreatment required for deep conversion
and economical operation. demands additional hydrogen to supplement what was sup-
Petroleum refining involves physical and chemical pro- plied traditionally by the refinery reformer. The additional
cesses, and the complexity of refining depends on the crude sources of hydrogen include a natural gas steam-reforming
quality and the required specifications of the products. unit or partial oxidation of the residue to totally convert the
Crude quality varies from one part of the world to the other; residue into synthesis gas [30].
it also changes with time. Usually the crude quality in terms Looking ahead, five drivers have been identified as
of API gravity and sulfur content decreases with time. For having the greatest affect on the petroleum industry in the
example, the API gravity of crude oils refined in the United coming decades [32]:
States has decreased from 33.8 to 32.0 in the period of 1. Environmental concerns: Lifecycle effects of petroleum
1 decade from 1980 to 1990. During the same period, the fuels on air pollution and global climate change and
sulfur content of U.S. crudes has increased from 0.86 to continuously evolving regulations.
1.1 wt % [1]. Such quality changes require more advanced 2. Markets and demand: Strong demand for petroleum
crude refining. In conflict with the trend of crudes getting fuel and objectives to reduce this demand by replacing
heavier, on the product side in the past few decades there them with cost-effective and renewable energy sources.
has been higher demand on distillates such as gasoline, jet 3. Competitive forces: Increased global competition leading
fuel, and diesel fuel and less demand on heavy fuel oil and to joint ventures and mergers to reduce cost.
residues. This conflict, along with the environmental regu- 4. Process improvements: Capability to respond to changes
lations that demand cleaner fuels, requires more extensive in the crude slate with more sophisticated and new
conversion processes to transform heavy oils into lighter technology, including new catalysts, new chemistry
and cleaner products. and concepts in refining, and modeling technologies
A high-sulfur and heavy crude costs up to one third interfaced with online measurement technologies for
less than lighter or better crudes. However, high-sulfur optimization.
crudes require more processing and therefore more fixed 5. Energy efficiency: New technologies, market incentives,
expenses and labor. They also require more energy. Energy and increasing scale of operations to improve energy
accounts for roughly half of the operating cost of a refinery. efficiency and increased engine efficiencies driven by
A refinery close to crude oil sources and a high-demand mandates and competitive forces as well as opportuni-
market entails lower transportation cost. A refinery can ties for treating an engine-fuel combination as a single
make good profits if it is well equipped to run some of entity to increase the efficiency of gasoline and diesel
the heaviest, cheapest crudes in the world. Large invest- engines.
ments are needed to meet the environmental constraints With these major drivers, future refineries will become
and product quality (i.e., high-octane unleaded gasoline, safer, more reliable, more energy-efficient, and have reduced
ultralow-sulfur fuels). To increase the octane number of environmental impact. A high degree of automation with
gasoline without the use of TEL, refineries must oper- integrated process and energy systems control could effec-
ate at greater severity for catalytic reforming, have more tively address the changing product specifications and
isomerization and alkylation units, and use oxygenated respond to the market demand [32]. Further discussion on
compounds as additives. Changing market conditions also these issues is provided in Chapter 34.
affect future refineries.
The evolution of investment, energy consumption, and 5.7 Summary
hydrogen consumption for three categories of refineries as Petroleum refining has evolved from a one-pot batch dis-
of 2000 in the European Union is given in Table 5.11 [30]. tillation process to separate kerosene from crude oil for
The cost of refinery investment as well as the amount of lighting lamps to the most sophisticated network of inte-
grated physical and chemical processes that run around the
Table 5.11—Evolution of Investment, clock. These processes separate crude oil into hydrocarbon
Energy, and Hydrogen Consumptions for the fractions and convert/finish these fractions into a multitude
Refineries of 2000 [30] of commercial fuels and materials. The primary objective
of a petroleum refinery is to add value to a crude oil feed
Energy by producing marketable fuels and materials at the lowest
Type of Investment Consumption Hydrogen possible cost in accordance with the required product
Refinery (billion $) (wt % of crude) Consumptiona
specifications and environmental regulations.
Simple 0.5 ≈4 α The refinery products include LPG, gasoline, solvents,
jet fuel, diesel fuel, fuel oil, asphalt, wax, lubricating oils,
Classical 1–1.5 ≈6 2α
conversion
and petrochemicals. Considering the variability of crude
oils with geography and time and the evolving demand,
Deep 2.5 ≈ 10 5α specifications, and environmental regulations for the refinery
conversion products, refineries need to have the flexibility to handle
a
The figures are not absolute because the hydrogen and therefore Â these variations in a competitive market. This chapter
will depend on operating conditions (nature of crude and S content provides an overview of how refinery processes work and
of products, etc.). Investment costs are given for a typical refinery of relate to one another to make use of physical separations
~150,000- to 160,000-bbl/day capacity.
and chemical changes to provide the market with the
AST-MNL58-11-0801-005.indd 124 3/12/13 1:53 PM

desired quantity and quality of the petroleum products. [17] “UOP Par-Isomer™ Process,” http://www.uop.com/clean-fuel-
Most innovations in petroleum refining processes took specifications-met-light-naphtha-isomerization-technologies-
uop/ (accessed February 19, 2012).
place around the time of World War II and often with the
[18] Gary, J.H., Handwerk, H., and Kaiser, M.J., Petroleum Refin-
collaboration of several oil companies to meet the demand ing: Technology & Economics, 5th ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton,
for the higher quantity and higher quality of distillate FL, 2007, p. 161.
fuels. The recent increase in the demand for distillate fuels, [19] “A Two-Stage Hydrocracking Process,” http://www.uop.com/
particularly in Asia, could initiate another wave of innova- hydrocracking-unicracking-stage/ (accessed February 20,
tions in refinery operations to exploit the breakthroughs in 2011).
[20] “UOP Merox™ Process,” http://www.uop.com/processing-
digital communications and process modeling to yield the solutions/refining/gas-lpg-treating/ (accessed February 20, 2011).
demanded products under the current environmental and [21] U.S. Title 40, Part 80 40 CFR 80 § 500-620, http://ecfr.
feedstock constraints. gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=e8e7d79c681c4a
6fa6a64275952d9c3f&rgn=div6&view=text&node=40:16.0.1.1
References .9.9&idno=40 (accessed February 20, 2011).
[1] Speight, J.G., The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum, 4th [22] Schmitz, C., Datsevitch, L., and Jess, A., “Deep Desulfurization
ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 2006. of Diesel Oil: Kinetic Studies and Process-Improvement by the
Use of a Two-Phase Reactor with Presaturator,” Chem. Eng.
[2] Manning, F.S., and Thompson, R.R., Oilfield Processing,
Sci., Vol. 59, 2004, pp. 2821–2829.
PennWell Publishing, Tulsa, OK, 1995.
[23] Andrews, A., Oil Shale: History, Incentives, and Policy, Con-
[3] Geankoplis, C.J., Transport Processes and Separation Process
gressional Research Service Report for Congress, Library of
Principles, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2003.
Congress, Washington, DC, 2006.
[4] McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., and Harriott, P., Unit Operation of
[24] Gary, J.H., Handwerk, H., and Kaiser, M.J., Petroleum Refin-
Chemical Engineering, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2005.
ing: Technology & Economics, 5th ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton,
[5] Kister, H.Z., Distillation Operations, McGraw-Hill, New FL, 2007, pp. 283–290.
York, 1990.
[25] Shih, S.S., Mizrahi, S., Green, L.A., and Sarli, M.S., “Deep
[6] Siemanond, K., and Kosol, S., “Retrofit of Crude Preheat Train Desulphurization of Distillates,” Ind. Chem. Res., Vol. 31,
with Multiple Types of Crude,” in SIMULTECH11 Proceedings, 1992, pp. 1232–1235.
2011, pp. 303–308.
[26] Kouzu, M., Kuriki, Y., Hamdy, F., Sakanishi, K., Sugimoto, Y.,
[7] Elvers, B. (Ed.), Handbook of Fuels: Energy Sources for Trans- and Saito, I., “Catalytic Potential of Carbon-Supported NiMo-
portation, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany, 2008, pp. 29–34. Sulfide for Ultra-Deep Hydrodesulfurization of Diesel Fuel,”
[8] Gary, J.H., Handwerk, H., and Kaiser, M.J., Petroleum Refin- Appl. Catal. A, Vol. 265, 2004, pp. 61–67.
ing: Technology & Economics, 5th ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, [27] Kunisada, N., Choi, K.-H., Lorai, Y., and Mochida, I., “Effec-
FL, 2007, p. 83. tive Supports to Moderate H2S Inhibition on Cobalt and
[9] “UOP/FWUSA Solvent Deasphalting Process,” http://www.uop. Nickel Molybdenum Sulfide Catalysts in Deep Desulfurization
com/solvent-deasphalting-sda/ (accessed February 19, 2012). of Gas Oil,” Appl. Catal. A, Vol. 260, 2004, pp. 185–190.
[10] “U.S. Energy Information Administration, U.S. Depart- [28] “OSHA Technical Manual, Section IV: Chapter 2,” http://www
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data_publications/petroleum_marketing_monthly/pmm.html ary 20, 2011).
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[14] “CCR Platforming,” http://www.uop.com/refining/1031.html w w w. m u s t a n g e n g . c o m / A b o u t M u s t a n g / P u b l i c a t i o n s /
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(accessed February 20, 2012). on February 22, 2011).
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6
Fluid Catalytic Cracking
Ravi Kumar Voolapalli1, Chiranjeevi Thota1, D.T. Gokak1, N.V. Choudary2, and M.A. Siddiqui3
6.1 Introduction place. In this section, gas oil feed streams are converted to
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is a major secondary pro- gasoline, LPG, cycle oils, gas, and coke. The main fraction-
cessing unit in the petroleum industry for converting gas ator separates the cycle oils and bottoms whereas the off-
oil streams into high-octane gasoline, cycle oils, liquefied gas, light olefins, and gasoline are separated from unstable
petroleum gasoline (LPG), and light olefins. After the car- gasoline in the gas concentration section.
bon rejection route, it upgrades low-value streams such as The riser-reactor section consists of three key compo-
vacuum gas oil (VGO), atmospheric residue, deasphalted nents: the riser, stripper, and catalyst regenerator. In the
heavy oils, etc., into distillates while operating at low pres- riser section, gas oil feed comes in contact with hot regen-
sures and moderate temperatures. It has gained a special erated catalyst, feed vaporizes in the first few metres, and
place in the refining industry because of its feed flexibility, concurrently starts cracking as it moves upward along with
ability to produce diverse products, and quick response to the catalyst. A substantial amount of enthalpy is consumed
the market demands through minor changes in process from the hot catalyst for feed vaporization and endother-
operating conditions. The economics of the FCC process mic cracking reactions leading to a drop in temperature
are so attractive that it is almost impossible to imagine a and thus reduced cracking severity. The cracking reactions
modern refinery without this unit. also produce a significant amount of coke, due to which the
catalyst loses its activity. Therefore, continuous regenera-
6.2 History tion of catalyst is vital. The spent catalyst is regenerated by
FCC technology was originally developed nearly 70 years burning the deposited coke in the regenerator. Because of
ago, primarily for producing gasoline from gas oil feed- the exothermic heat of coke combustion, the catalyst tem-
stocks [1]. The first FCC unit was commissioned in 1942 at perature increases in the regenerator. The enthalpy carried
the Esso refinery in Baton Rouge, LA, using powder cata- by the hot catalyst is the only source of heat for vaporiza-
lyst that was made to flow like a liquid through fluidization. tion and cracking the feed in the riser. Before entering the
The world’s leading oil-producing and technology com- regenerator, the spent catalyst is efficiently separated from
panies such as M.W. Kellogg, Standard Oil (Indiana), BP, the product stream in the riser termination section and
Royal Dutch/Shell group, Texaco, and UOP undertook this steam is stripped to remove the adsorbed hydrocarbons so
challenging task through a consortium approach employing that the load on the regenerator is only due to hard coke.
approximately 1000 scientific and technical personnel. It The product stream separated from the catalyst leaves
was the first time in the history of mankind that such large- the riser and enters the bottom section of the main fraction-
scale fluidized reactors were built and solids were made ator, where it is quenched in the column’s bottom circuit pro-
to flow like liquid. Since then, technological innovations ducing medium-pressure steam. In the main fractionators,
have continued over the years for improved operation ease, light cycle oil and heavy naphtha are separated as side draws
product selectivity, and feed flexibility, thus spreading the whereas unconverted heavy slurry oil is removed from the
scope of this process in a substantial way [2]. Today, petro- bottom. The gas, condensed water, and unstable gasoline are
leum refiners are viewing FCC not as a high-octane gasoline recovered from the column top through a partial condenser.
production unit alone but also as a major source for light In most applications, the bottom product is used as such
olefins and petrochemical feedstock production as well as except when the catalyst fines content is high, necessitat-
an important option for upgrading resid feeds. ing some type of filtration. The bottom product is used as a
cutter for fuel oil production or finds application as carbon
6.3 Process Description black feedstock. The main fractionator bottom temperature
FCC is a selective cracking process for converting high- is maintained below 370°C to avoid coking while the column
molecular-weight hydrocarbon molecules, typically gas oil top pressure is typically approximately 1.5 bar.
range, into low-molecular-weight compounds using crys- The uncondensed vapor stream mainly contains gas,
talline zeolite, a silica alumina-based catalyst. Figure 6.1, LPG, and gasoline. The vapors are compressed in a two-
shows the process scheme of a typical FCC plant. Concep- stage compressor to a pressure of 15 bar and enter a high-
tually, the process can be divided into three main sections: pressure separator (HPS) system. The gases from the HPS
the riser-regenerator section, the FCC main fractionator, are contacted in the primary absorber with unstabilized
and the gas concentration unit. The riser-reactor section is gasoline and debutanized gasoline to remove the C3+ frac-
the heart of the process where the cracking reactions take tion from the C2– fraction. The offgases from the primary
1
Bharat Petroleum Corp., Ltd., Greater Noida, India
2
Hindustan Petroleum Corp., Ltd., Beguluru, India
3
Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, New Delhi, India
127

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5

Crude Oil Refining Processes

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preflash column) may be included in the crude preheater

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Siemanond and Kosol [6] have studied the energy

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HF- propane stripper, defluorinator, and potassium hydroxide

Figure 5.13—Typical polymerization reactions [15].

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metals from 10 to 1000 ppm. Once crude is fractionated by

European Union – – – – 500 – 350 50 – 10

Japan 12,000 5000 – 2000 – 500 – 50 – –

United States – – 500 – – – – – 15 –

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1861 Atmospheric distillation Produce kerosene Naphtha, tar, etc.

1913 Thermal cracking Increase gasoline Residual, bunker fuel

1916 Sweetening Reduce sulfur and odor Sulfur

1930 Thermal reforming Improve octane number Residual

1932 Coking Produce gasoline basestocks Coke

1933 Solvent extraction Improve lubricant viscosity index Aromatics

1935 Solvent dewaxing Improve pour point Waxes

1937 Catalytic cracking Higher octane gasoline Petrochemical feedstocks

1939 Visbreaking Reduce viscosity Increased distillate, tar

1940 Isomerization Produce alkylation feedstock Naphtha

1950 Deasphalting Increase cracking feedstock Asphalt

1952 Catalytic reforming Convert low-quality naphtha Aromatics

1954 Hydrodesulfurization Remove sulfur Sulfur

1956 Inhibitor sweetening Remove mercaptan Disulfides

1960 Hydrocracking Improve quality and reduce sulfur Alkylation feedstocks

1974 Catalytic dewaxing Improve pour point Wax

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tons % tons % tons % tons % tons %

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HDT 437 346 214 577 404 374

FCC 260 49 30 298 106 125

Atmospheric distillation 997 998 520 923 723 982

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