Laboratory Manual of Production Technology 1 (ME F243)

Mechanical Engineering Department

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, Hyderabad – 500078

2018-19
Instructor in Charge: Dr. Sujith R

Instructors: Dr. Ravi Shankar Vidyarthy

Mr. Pavandatta Jadhav

Mr. Ankit Sharma

1
 List of Experiments

1. Pattern making for the sand casting (Casting 1)

2. Characterization of the molding sand (Casting 2)

3. Gating design and sand casting (Casting 3)

4. Disc compression test (Forming 1)

5. Deep drawing test (Forming 2)

6. Hydraulic bulge test (Forming 3)

7. TIG & MIG welding (Welding 1)

8. Gas welding (Welding 2)

9. Characterization of weld joint (Welding 3)

10. Spur gear tooth thickness measurement (Metrology 1)

11. Study on Coordinate Measuring Machine (Metrology 1)

12. Taper measurement (Metrology 2)

13. Surface roughness measurement (Metrology 2)

2
Weekly Schedule

3
 Experiment No: 1 Pattern Making for the Sand Casting

Aim: To calculate the allowances and prepare the pattern for sand casting

Drawing: (choose the dimensions as per the maximum capacity of the crucible)

Material: Wood (pattern), Aluminium (casting) m.p: 660 ˚C

EQUIPMENT/MACHINERY Required: Need to be identified during experiment and written in

the report

THEORY

Pattern

The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It is the replica of the object to be
made by the casting process, with some modifications. The main modifications are the addition
of pattern allowances, and the provision of core prints. If the casting is to be hollow, additional
patterns called cores are used to create these cavities in the finished product.

Allowances

Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of the casting.
Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the sizes specified in
the finished component drawing so that a casting with the particular specification can be made.
The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce machining costs and avoid rejections.
The allowances usually considered on patterns and core boxes are as follows:

1. Shrinkage allowance
2. Machining allowance
3. Draft allowance
Shrinkage allowance:

4
 i. Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from
liquid state to solid state at the solidus temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser,
which feed the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the mold.
ii. Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses
temperature in solid state. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the
patterns.

Machining allowance:

The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and therefore when the
casting is functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate, it is
generally achieved by subsequent machining. Machining or finish allowances are therefore
added in the pattern dimension.

Draft allowance:
By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it can be
removed from the sand without tearing away the sides of the sand mold and without excessive rapping by the
molder.

Allowances for Aluminium (Density=2700 kg/m3)

Shrinkage allowance Machining Draft allowance

allowance
1.3% 1.5 mm 1o

Procedure/Observation/Calculations:

Include a neat sketch of the pattern with all the allowances. Show the dimensions properly in the
sketch.

5
 Experiment No: 2 Characterization of the molding sand

Aim: To characterize the molding and determine its properties

Procedure/Observation/Calculations:

The report should include the following results

1. Composition of the molding sand used. Typical molding sand consists of silica sand, moisture
and clay.

2. Determine the moisture content in the molding sand.

3. Determine the variation in the green strength of the sand with varying moisture content. Show
the plot of strength variation with moisture content

4. Estimate the permeability and grain fineness number of the molding sand.

Permeability, P = V H/ (pAt)
Volume of air, V = 2000 cm3.
Height of the sand specimen, H = 5.08 cm
Air pressure, p in g/cm2
Cross sectional area, A = 20.268 cm2
Time in minutes for the complete air to pass through, t

∑ 𝑀𝑖 𝐹𝑖
Grain fineness number, GFN = ∑ 𝐹𝑖
th
Mi – multiplying factor of the i sieve
Fi – amount of sand retained on the ith sieve

6
 Experiment No: 3 Gating design and Sand Casting

Aims: (i) Design a proper gating system for the casting

(ii) Perform sand casting and observe the defects

Procedure/Observation/Calculations:

1. Determine the weight of the casting (w) [Density of Aluminium, ρ = 2700 kg/m3]

2. Determine the time to fill the mold cavity (t) [Typical pouring rate is 0.25 to 0.3 kg/s].

3. Determine the gate area. (A= w/ρCdtV3)

Cd- coefficient of discharge
V3 – gate velocity

4. Choose an appropriate gating ratio and decide the dimensions of runner and sprue. [Typically
non-pressurized gating ratio is adopted for light alloys and pressurized gating ratio for ferrous
alloys].

5. Determine the solidification time for the casting (ts) [ts = C(V/A)n]

𝜌√𝜋𝛼(𝐿+𝐶(𝑇𝑝 −𝑇𝑚 ))
Mold constant, C0.5 = 2𝑘(𝑇𝑚 −𝑇𝑎 )

V- volume of the casting

A – surface area of the casting
n=2
α- thermal diffusivity of sand (m2/s)
ks – thermal conductivity of sand = 0.8655 W/mK
ρs – density of sand = 1600 kg/m3
Cs – specific heat capacity of sand = 1.17 kJ/kgK
L- latent heat of fusion of Al = 415 kJ/kg
Tp – pouring temperature
Tm – melting point, 660˚C
Ta – ambient temperature

6. Determine the solidification time for the riser.

7. Determine the casting yield = (w/W) x 100

7
W – weight of the casting including the gating system

8. Note down the defects in the casting and comment on how to avoid the defects.

In the report the aforementioned details to be included along with a neat sketch of the
gating system.

8
 Experiment No:4 Disc compression test (Upset forging)

Aim: To study the effect of friction on barreling during upset forging.

APPARATUS/MATERIALS REQUIRED:
SPECIMEN DETAILS: Type of material & dimensions

Theory:

Upsetting or Upset Forging is the simplest case of open-die forging involving compression of a
workpiece between two flat dies. Upset forging reduces the height of the workpiece but increases
its cross-sectional area. The present study considers upsetting of a round billet. Under ideal
conditions where there is no friction between the work piece and the dies, the billet deforms
homogeneously (the cylindrical shape of the billet remains cylindrical throughout the process,
see Figure 4.1). But in practical conditions the billet tends to barrel since there is some friction as
shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.1: Homogeneous upsetting of a cylindrical billet (without friction)

Figure 4.2: Practical upsetting of a cylindrical billet (with friction & barreling)

Do, D, Df = average billet diameters before, during and at the end of deformation

ho, h, hf = billet heights before, during and at the end of deformation

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Procedure:

Observations:

Without Lubricant With lubricant

Load Diameter, Diameter, Hieght h rf/h
Sl.No. Hieght h (mm) rf/h
(Tonnes) 2rf (mm) 2rf (mm) (mm
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
*Note: Final reading in each case should be the average of at least 3 readings.

Graph: Plot Load versus rf/h

Calculations:

The expression for the radius of curvature of the barrel which follows a circular arc is as follows:

ℎ𝑓 2
𝑅=
4(𝑑𝑏 − 𝑑𝑐 )

R(without Lubricant)=

R(with Lubricant)=

Conclusions:

10
 Experiment 5: Deep drawing test

Aim: To learn the forming characteristics of sheet metal specimens with Deep Drawing
operation.

Objective:

 To do the deep drawing experiment of any metallic specimen with the help of a
Compression Testing Machine
 To correlate the initial and final dimensions of the job
 To determine the deep drawing ratio of the material (given sample)
 To determine the deep drawing load (i.e. drawing initiation load and fracture load)
 To measure the thickness variation in the critically deep cup
 To study the nature of load-displacement curve

Theory:

Deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process in which a sheet metal blank is radially drawn
into a forming die by the mechanical action of a punch. It is thus a shape transformation process
with material retention. The process is considered "deep" drawing when the depth of the drawn
part exceeds its diameter. This is achieved by redrawing the part through a series of dies. The
operation is carried out on a pass with punch and dies as shown in Fig.1. The material initially
flat flanges of the blank flows to form the walls of the cup. Due to shrinkage of the outer
periphery, circumferential compressive stress develops which might thicken the sheet or cause
local buckling (wrinkling). The flange region (sheet metal in the die shoulder area) experiences a
radial drawing stress and a tangential compressive stress due to the material retention property.
These compressive stresses (hoop stresses) result in flange wrinkles (wrinkles of the first order).
Wrinkles can be prevented by using a blank holder, the function of which is to facilitate
controlled material flow into the die radius [1].
For all forming operations, some important solid material’s properties are involved, given as
follows:
 Ductility is the ability of material to deform under tensile stress; this is often
characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire.
 Malleability is the ability of material to deform under compressive stress; this is often
characterized by the material's ability to form a thin sheet by hammering or rolling
 Formability is the ability of material to undergo plastic deformation without being
damaged. The mechanical properties are aspects of plasticity, the extent to which a solid
material can be plastically deformed without fracture [1].

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Fig 6.1: Schematics of deep drawing: (a) Die-Punch combination and position of Blank before
drawing, (b) Drawn cup with flange, and (c) Drawn cup without flange

Blank size
The size of the blank required for deep drawing operation can be easily calculated as the
thickness of the blank does not change much and can be assumed to remain constant before and
after drawing for all practical purposes. The maximum diameter of the blank that can be
successfully drawn into a cup is a material property.
The maximum draw able diameter can be empirically calculated as:
𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝑑𝑜 2 + 4𝑑𝑜 ℎ When do ≥ 20rcp

𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝑑𝑜 2 + 4𝑑𝑜 ℎ − 0.5𝑟𝑐𝑝 When 15 rcp ≤do ≤ 20 rcp

𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝑑𝑜 2 + 4𝑑𝑜 ℎ − 𝑟𝑐𝑝 When 10 rcp ≤do ≤ 15 rcp

Where, 𝒓𝒄𝒅 = die corner radius, 𝒓𝒄𝒑 = Punch corner radius, F = drawing force, Fh = blank holding
force, c = Clearance, h = height of cup (or shell), di = inner diameter of the cup, do = outer
diameter of the cup. The radii of the punch, the job (blank), and die are 𝒓𝒑, 𝒓𝒋 and rd, respectively
and corresponding diameters are dp, dj and dd respectively. The clearance between the die and the
punch (𝒓𝒅− 𝒓𝒑) is equal to the job thickness t and 𝝈𝒛 is the maximum allowable stress of the
material.

Drawing ratio
Fracture occurs in the wall of the cup when the forces necessary to draw the material from under
the blank holder is more than what can be sustained by the wall of the cup, as the force has to be
transmitted from the punch to the unreformed blank through the cup walls

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The limiting drawing ratio (LDR) i.e. βo is defined as the ratio of the maximum blank diameter
(Dmax) that can be safely drawn into a cup without flange to the punch diameter (dp). The ratio
of blank diameter (dj) and the punch diameter (dp) is called drawing ratio (𝛽𝛽).

𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝛽0 =
𝑑𝑝

𝑑𝑗
𝛽𝛽 =
𝑑𝑝

𝐷𝐹
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑒𝑝 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝛽𝐹 =
𝑑𝑖

Drawing Force
The force on the punch required to produce a cup is the summation of the ideal force of
deformation, the frictional forces, and the force required to produce ironing (if present). If the
clearance between the punch and the die is less than the thickness, the material in this region will
be squeezed, or ironed, between the punch and die to produce a uniform wall thickness. In
commercial deep drawing clearances about 10 to 20 percent greater than the metal thickness are
common. Ironing operations in which applicable uniform reductions are made in the wall
thickness use much smaller clearances.
The drawing force depends upon the material property, its dimension (desired shape and size).
The drawing force can be calculated using the following equation for cylindrical shell:

𝐷
𝐹 = 𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝑡𝜎𝑧 [ − 0.7]
𝑑𝑜

Where, D is the blank diameter taken.

Procedure:

13
Observations:

Table 6.1

Take five thickness readings of blanks at five different points with the help of screw gauge for
three samples, and make its average

Table 6.2: Load and displacement

Table 6.3: Inner and outer diameter of the cup

Table 6.4: Flange diameter

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Calculations

 Calculate Dmax, 𝜷𝒐, and 𝜷 for given sample with the help of 𝒓𝒄𝒑, h and do values.
 Calculate the drawing force F (𝝈𝒛 for given sample material = )

Results

Conclusions:

15
 Experiment 6: Hydraulic Bulge Test

Aim: To find out the flow stress behavior of sheet metal under equi-biaxial stress condition.

Theory:

The stress-strain relationship of sheet metals are conventionally determined by tensile test, where
the specimen is loaded uniaxially; but the range of stable uniform strain is restricted to approx
30% of the fracture value. Mostly the stress-strain states in actual sheet metal forming processes
are biaxial but not uniaxial; so for finding out the biaxial stress-strain relationship of sheet metals
Hydraulic bulge test is widely used, which gives flow curves for sheet metals with extended
range of plastic strain up to 70% of fracture value. Another advantage of the process is that the
deformation occurs isothermally.

In Hydraulic bulge test a thin metallic sheet is clamped at its periphery between circular die ring
& blank holder and then uniform hydraulic pressure is applied at one side of the sheet; as shown
in the figure 3. The edge of the dome is prevented from slipping by a lock bead placed in the die
ring. It consists of a ridge with small radii on one side and a matching groove on the other. The
constant parameter for die set is the die corner radius rc; as it affects the bulged sheet`s shape &
size. Initial thickness of sheet metal t0 is another constant. As pressure is introduced, the metal
starts to bulge to a hemispherical dome shape. Instantaneous variables of this bulging are the
dome height hd, pressure P, dome apex thickness t and bulge or dome radius Rd. In order to
obtain the flow curve, these values should be measured at different stages of bulging, and then
should be converted into strain and stress values. These values should then be plotted as a flow
curve.

Since the bulge diameter is greater than 10 times of the sheet thickness, so the effect of bending
of the sheet can be neglected & the bulged sheets can be treated as a ‘membrane’ in which the
stresses are tangential to the middle surface of the wall & uniformly distributed across its
thickness. Such stresses are called membrane stresses and can easily be calculated by applying
membrane theory neglecting bending stresses as:
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 𝜎𝑐 𝜎𝑟 𝑃
+ =
𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝑟 𝑡𝑑

Where σc and σr are the principle stresses on the sheet surface along the circumferential & radial
directions, Rc and Rr are the corresponding radii of the curved surface, P is the hydraulic
pressure, and td is the thickness of bulged sheet. For axisymmetric case of the hydraulic bulge
test, σc = σr and radius of the bulged dome is Rd = Rc = Rr.

𝑃𝑅𝑑
𝜎𝑐 = 𝜎𝑟 =
2𝑡𝑑

In, hydraulic bulge test initially both internal & outer sheet surfaces remain at atmospheric
pressure. But once hydraulic pressure is applied the internal sheet surface experiences pressure
P. Therefore the average stress 𝜎𝑛 in the sheet metal normal to the sheet surface will be:

1
𝜎𝑛 = (−𝑃 + 0)
2
1
𝜎𝑛 = (−𝑃)
2

Now the effective stress 𝜎 can be calculated using ‘Von Mises’ Plastic flow criterion as:

1
𝜎̅ = √[(𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )2 + (𝜎𝑦𝑦 − 𝜎𝑧𝑧 )2 + (𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 )2 + 6(𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 + 𝜏 2 + 𝜏 2 )]
𝑦𝑧 𝑧𝑥
√2
Substituting
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = 𝜎𝑟 , 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝜎𝑛, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 0; and then simplifying the equation we get:

𝑝 𝑅𝑑
𝜎̅ = ( + 1)
2 𝑡𝑑

Similarly the strain normal to the sheet surface can be calculated using Volume constancy
condition as:

𝜖𝑥𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦𝑦 + 𝜖𝑧𝑧 = 0

𝜖𝑥𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦𝑦 = −𝜖𝑧𝑧

17
Substituting ɛ𝑥𝑥=ɛ𝑐, ɛ𝑦𝑦= ɛ𝑟 & ɛ𝑧𝑧= ɛ𝑡 in the above equation we get;

𝜖𝑐 + 𝜖𝑟 + 𝜖𝑡 = 0

𝜖𝑐 + 𝜖𝑟 = −𝜖𝑡

Now similar to the effective stress, effective strain can also be calculated as:
𝑡𝑑
𝜖̅ = − 𝜖𝑓 = − ln( )
𝑡0

Observations:

Initial thickness of the sheet blank 𝑡0 =

Length between two legs of spherometer (𝑎𝑙) = _____mm

Diameter of circle marked on the sheet = ________mm

Initial depth micrometer reading (𝐻0) = _______ mm

Table: 1

18
Table 2

Calculations:

19
Results:

Plot a graph for following variations & give a proper justification for each variation

 Variation of Dome height with Hydraulic pressure

 Variation of Dome bulge radius with Dome height
 Variation of Dome apex thickness with Dome height
 Variation of Effective stress with Effective strain
𝑝 𝑅
 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎̅ = 2 ( 𝑡 𝑑 + 1)
𝑑

𝑡
 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜖̅ = − 𝜖𝑓 = − ln(𝑡𝑑 )
0

Conclusions:

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 Experiment 7-9. Compare and contrast gas welding with arc welding

Objectives:

1. To familiarize with various welding processes.

2. To estimate the influence of the various welding parameters on the welding quality.

3. To characterize the weld microstructure and determine the various zones in the weldment.

Procedure:

1. Determine the dimension of the plate to be welded.

2. Remove the dust/rust/oil from the surfaces using a sand paper/a cloth.

3. Edge preparation.

4. Measure the welding speed, welding current, welding voltage, shielding gas flow rate and gas
mixture.

Note: Welding parameters may vary as per the welding process.

5. When the welded plate is cooled down below 500 ˚C, remove the plate from the table with the
help of tong and cool it to the room temperature in running water.

6. Remove the slag deposit from the welded plate by wire brushing.

7. Cut the welded plate across the weld direction to study the weld bead cross-section.
Metallographic examination can be done after polishing and etching.

8. Etch the polished surface and observe the microstructures of various weld zones. (i) Use SiC
sheets of progressive finer grades (ii) Do alumina polishing (iii) Do diamond polishing (iv) Etch
the sample using nitric acid (2%) + alcohol (98%). Estimate the width of the HAZ in each case.

9. Measure different aspects of the weld bead geometry such as depth of penetration bead width
and HAZ width.

10. Measure the hardness of the welded joint as the function from the distance from the weld
axis.

Report:

1. Material used and its dimensions.

2. Details of the edge preparation, if any.

3. Name of the welding process, welding process parameters used

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3. Effect of welding process parameters on the welded joint.

4. Power characteristics used and its effect.

5. Electrode/filler details if any.

6. Welding characteristics like easiness of the welding process, fumes, spattering and noise.

7. Appearance, weld geometry as a function of different welding processes.

8. Metallographic preparation (sectioning, grinding, polishing and etching)

8. Hardness vs distance details from the center of the weld for different processes.

9. Width of the HAZ as a function of welding processes.

10. Microstructure of the weld joint.

22
 Experiment 10: Spur gear tooth thickness measurement

Aim: To measure the spur year parameters by using Gear tooth Vernier calipers and compare
with Analytical Value

Introduction
Gears are mainly used for transmission of power & motion. In order that the rotary
motion of the driven shaft be perfectly uniform relative to the rotating shaft. It is essential that
both gears be of perfect geometrical form & be perfectly mounted on perfect shaft, running in the
perfect bearing_ It is thus obvious that big factor which decides the accuracy of gearing is the
precision with which gears mounted.
For close control over accuracy of manufacture, precision measurement of gear plays a
vital role.

Measurement of Tooth Thickness

The permissible error or the tolerance on thickness of tooth is the variation of actual
thickness of tooth from its theoretical value. This is generally measured at pitch circle & is
therefore, the pitch line thickness of tooth. It may be mentioned that the tooth thickness is
defined as the length of arc which is difficult to measure directly.

Instruments Used for Tooth Thickness Measurement

1. Gear Tooth Vernier Caliper:

It is used to measure the thickness of gear tooth at the pitch line or choral thickness of the
teeth and the distance from top of the tooth to the chord. The thickness of tooth at the pitch line
and addendum is measured by an adjustable tongue, each of which is adjusted independently by
adjusting screw on graduated bars.

It is simple & inexpensive. However, it needs different settings for a variation in number
of teeth for a given pitch & accuracy is limited by least count of instruments.

Method of Measuring the Gear Tooth Thickness by Gear Tooth Vernier Caliper
The tooth thickness can be very conveniently measured by gear tooth Vernier. Since the
gear tooth thickness varies from the tip to the base circle of the tooth. The instrument must
capable of measuring tooth thickness at specified position on tooth. Thy. Tooth thickness
generally measured at pitch circle & is therefore referred as pitch line thickness of tooth. The
gear tooth Vernier has two Vernier scales & they are set for the width (w), of the tooth & depth
(d) from the top at which 'w' occurs.

Considering one gear tooth, the theoretical value of 'w' and 'cl` can be found out of which
may be verified by the instrument.
The theoretical value of 'W' is found out by,

23
 90
𝑊 = 𝑁𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑁

The theoretical value of 'd' is given

𝑁𝑚 2 90
𝑑= (1 + − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ))
2 𝑁 𝑁
Where
N = Number of tooth on gear
m = Module of gear

Figure 1: Gear tooth Vernier Caliper

Procedure:

1. Determine the parameters analytically using the formulae given the theory
2. Measure these parameters using measuring instrument like gear tooth Vernier caliper
(Figure 1).
3. Check these reading with analytical value.

24
Observation and Calculation

Sl. Analytical Value Measured Value

No. Parameter Trial %age Error
in mm in mm
Width, w 1
2
3
Avg.
Depth, d 1
2
3
Avg.

Conclusion: Above method can be used for measurement of spur gear parameters.

25
 Experiment 11: Coordinate Measuring Machine

Objective: Demonstration of CMM

Working principle:

A coordinate measuring machine (CMM): is a device for measuring the physical geometrical
characteristics of an object. Basically, they consist of a platform on which the workpiece being
measured is placed and moved linearly or rotated. A probe attached to a head capable of lateral
and vertical movements records all measurements. There are five types of CMM are available
i.e., Cantilever, Bridge Type, Column Type, Gantry and Horizontal type.

Presently we are discussing about Bridge Type which is available in our lab.

(a) (b)
Figure: Co-ordinate Measuring machine (a) Schematic representation (b) co-ordinates axis
movements.

The typical 3D "bridge" CMM is composed of three axes, X, Y and Z. These axes are orthogonal
to each other in a typical three-dimensional coordinate system as show in fig.1(b). Each axis has
a scale system that indicates the location of that axis. The machine reads the input from the touch
probe, as directed by the operator or programmer. The machine then uses the X, Y, Z coordinates
of each of these points to determine size and position, typically with micrometer precision.A
coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is also a device used in manufacturing and assembly
processes to test a part or assembly against the design intent. By precisely recording the X, Y,
and Z coordinates of the target, points are generated which can then be analysed via regression
algorithms for the construction of features.

26
Outline produce to operate CMM:

 Click on software icon ARCO CAD inspection. Once software opens on power button on
service desk then probe moves to home position.
 Go to file new project, click on wizard then go to calibration wizard click next then click
tick mark on carriage for deleting old angles and then press delete.
 Click new- graphical- sensor designer- select TP20SF-18.7- click add- stylus- Click A-
500-4161-20.0-4.0-PS17R- Click add-then ok- again click next button.
 Angle Back- RIT- put tick mark in row 0.0-put tick mark in column-0.0 &90.00. then
click ok- next button- then click finish button, later select carriage use sensor P10 0P00.
 It asks the dimensions of standard sphere. For this new gauge enter 29.9992, travelling
speed 500 mm/sec, measure position speed enter 100 mm/sec and then click next and
then finish.
 Then CMM asks to select five points on object. manually select 5 points then click ok
 Later CMM again selects 5 points automatically and again asks to tilt stylus to 90degree
position. Once you tilt the stylus to 90-degree position click ok. It again selects five
points on objection automatically and report is generated in new window.
 At last go to file save project and exit project.

Conclusions:

Discussion questions/ assignments:

1. Draw figures of left hand and right hand turning tools.

2. How is the size of lathe specified?
3. Why are follow-rest and steady-test used?
4. What is Live Center and Dead center of the lathe?
5. What is coordinate measuring machine, how it works, how accuracy of machine is
defined?
6. Define axial length measuring accuracy.
7. Mention the advantages of CMM.

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 Experiment 12: Measurement of external and internal taper

Aim: To determine the taper angle of the given specimen using slips & rollers.

Introduction

Taper is defined as uniform reduction in dimension (may be width, height or diameter)

over specified length. For example, for the shank of a twist drill bit, if the taper is specified as
1:10, it means that for every 10 mm length there will be a reduction of diameter by 1 mm (from
major to minor dia.). Taper is employed on elements like cotter, keys and shanks of twist drill
bits, end mills, reamers adapters etc. Presence of taper enables self-locking of the element in the
corresponding mating part. For close control over accuracy of manufacture, precision
measurement of gear plays a vital role.

Procedure

1. Place the Taper specimen on the surface plate as shown in the figure.
2. Pile up slip gauge combinations of equal heights H1 and place them on opposite sides of taper
specimen.
3. Place two rollers of equal diameter on slip gauge combinations.
4. Take measurement over the rollers with the help of micrometer (say M1)
5. Take slip gauge combinations of another height H2 and repeat steps 3 and 4 let the
measurement over the rollers be M2
6. If θ is the included angle of taper specimen.
Taper angle may be obtained as follows:
M 2  M1
tan θ/2 =
2( H 2  H 1 )

7. To check the uniformity of taper H2 may be varied by two to three values and ‘θ’ may be
calculated.
8. Verify the obtained taper angle using Bevel Protractor.

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 Fig.1. External taper measurement

Internal taper measurement:

In this method, we require two balls of different sizes, depth gauge, height gauge etc.
This method is particularly suitable for checking the angle of a tapered ring gauge.
First a small ball of R1 is inserted in the hole in lower position and depth H1 from upper surface
of tapered hole to the top of the ball is measured. Small ball must be of such size as to be seated
somewhere in between hole. Then bigger ball of radius R2 is placed in the hole and distance H2
i.e. between the top of ball and tapered hole is measured with height gauge. In Fig. 2, O 1 and O2
represent the centers of two balls. Draw O1S parallel to the XY of tapered hole in section and
02S perpendicular to O1S. Then O2O1S = A/2; (where A is the angle of tapered hole.)

𝑂2 𝑆 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
sin ( 𝐴/2) = =
𝑂1 𝑆 𝐻1 + 𝐻2 + 𝑅1 − 𝑅2

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 R2 Y H2

O2 S
H1

O1
R1

Fig. 2. Internal taper measurement by unequal balls

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 Experiment No: 13 Surface roughness measurement

Aim: To study the effects of cutting parameters on surface roughness of turned parts.

Materials required:

Machine tools
Cutting tools
Work holding fixtures (If any)
Measuring instruments
Miscellaneous
Job details:

Theory:

Surface topography is of great importance in specifying the function of a surface. A significant

portion of component failure starts at the surface due to either an isolated manufacturing
discontinuity or gradual deterioration of the surface quality. The most important parameters
describing surface integrity is surface roughness. Therefore, measuring surface roughness is vital
to quality control of machining work piece. Below are the definition of surface roughness and its
main measured methods.

ROUGHNESS is a quantitative measure of the process marks produced during the creation of the
surface and other factors such as the structure of the materials. The action of the cutting tool,
chemical action, polishing, lapping, and the structure of the material all contribute to the
roughness of the surface. There are many different roughness parameters in use, but Ra by far the
most common one. Other common parameters include Rz and Rq.

Ra (Average Roughness): The average roughness is the area between the roughness profile and
its mean line, or the integral of the absolute value of the roughness profile height over the
evaluation length. Graphically, the average is the area (shown below) between the roughness
profile and its center line divided by the evaluation length (normally five sample lengths with
each sample length equal to one evaluation length). This is the parameter that has been
universally for many years.

Ra = ∑ A/L = ∑ H/N

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Where A= Area between the center line & the profile.

L= Sampling length.

H= height of a point chosen from the profile with respect to the center line.

N= number of heights taken.

CUTOFF is a filter and is used as a means od separating or filtering the wavelength of a

component. Cut-off’s have a numerical value that when selected will reduce or remove the
unwanted wavelengths on the surface. For example, a roughness filter cut-off with a numeric
value of 0.8 mm will allow wave length below 0.8 mm to be assessed with wavelength above 0.8
mm being reduced in amplitude; the greater the wavelength, the more severe the reduction. For a
waviness filter cut-off with a numeric value of 0.8m, wavelength above 0.8mm will be assessed
with wavelength below 0.8mm being reduced in amplitude.

SAMPLE LENGTH: after the data has been filtered with a cut-off, we then sample it. Sampling
is done by breaking the data into equal sample lengths. The sample lengths have the same
numeric value as the cut-off. In other words, if you see a 0.8mm cut-off, then the filtered data
will be broken down into 0.8mm sample length. These sample lengths are chosen in such a way
that a good statistical analysis can be made of the surface. In most cases, five sample lengths are
used for analysis.

PROCEDURE:

OBSERVATIONS/CALCULATIONS:

Plot a curve: Surface roughness vs feed

CONCLUSION:

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