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The method of limit state design, developed in the USSR and based on research led by Professor N.S. Streletski, was introduced in USSR building regulations in
1955.
Contents
Criteria
Ultimate limit state (ULS)
Serviceability limit state (SLS)
Factor development
Example treatment of LSD in building codes
In the United States
In Europe
See also
Notes and references
Criteria
Limit state design requires the structure to satisfy two principal criteria: the ultimate limit state (ULS) and the serviceability limit state (SLS).[2]
Any design process involves a number of assumptions. The loads to which a structure will be subjected must be estimated, sizes of members to check must be
chosen and design criteria must be selected. All engineering design criteria have a common goal: that of ensuring a safe structure and ensuring the functionality of
the structure.
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The limit state criteria can also be set in terms of load rather than stress: using this approach the structural element being analysed (i.e. a beam or a column or
other load bearing elements, such as walls) is shown to be safe when the "Magnified" loads are less than the relevant "Reduced" resistances.
Complying with the design criteria of the ULS is considered as the minimum requirement (among other additional demands) to provide the proper structural
safety.
In addition to the ULS check mentioned above, a Service Limit State (SLS) computational check must be performed. As for the ULS, here also the SLS is not a
physical situation but rather a computational check. The aim is to prove that under the action of Characteristic design loads (un-factored), and/or whilst applying
certain (un-factored) magnitudes of imposed deformations, settlements, or vibrations, or temperature gradients etc. the structural behavior complies with, and
does not exceed, the SLS design criteria values, specified in the relevant standard in force. These criteria involve various stress limits, deformation limits
(deflections, rotations and curvature), flexibility (or rigidity) limits, dynamic behavior limits, as well as crack control requirements (crack width) and other
arrangements concerned with the durability of the structure and its level of everyday service level and human comfort achieved, and its abilities to fulfill its
everyday functions. In view of non-structural issues it might also involve limits applied to acoustics and heat transmission that might also affect the structural
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design. To satisfy the serviceability limit state criterion, a structure must remain functional for its intended use subject to routine (read: everyday) loading, and as
such the structure must not cause occupant discomfort under routine conditions. This calculation check is performed at a point located at the lower half of the
elastic zone, where characteristic (un-factored) actions are applied and the structural behavior is purely elastic.
Factor development
The load and resistance factors are determined using statistics and a pre-selected probability of failure. Variability in the quality of construction, consistency of the
construction material are accounted for in the factors. Generally, a factor of unity (one) or less is applied to the resistances of the material, and a factor of unity or
greater to the loads. Not often used, but in some load cases a factor may be less than unity due to a reduced probability of the combined loads. These factors can
differ significantly for different materials or even between differing grades of the same material. Wood and masonry typically have smaller factors than concrete,
which in turn has smaller factors than steel. The factors applied to resistance also account for the degree of scientific confidence in the derivation of the values —
i.e. smaller values are used when there isn't much research on the specific type of failure mode). Factors associated with loads are normally independent on the
type of material involved, but can be influenced by the type of construction.
In determining the specific magnitude of the factors, more deterministic loads (like dead loads, the weight of the structure and permanent attachments like walls,
floor treatments, ceiling finishes) are given lower factors (for example 1.4) than highly variable loads like earthquake, wind, or live (occupancy) loads (1.6). Impact
loads are typically given higher factors still (say 2.0) in order to account for both their unpredictable magnitudes and the dynamic nature of the loading vs. the
static nature of most models. While arguably not philosophically superior to permissible or allowable stress design, it does have the potential to produce a more
consistently designed structure as each element is intended to have the same probability of failure. In practical terms this normally results in a more efficient
structure, and as such, it can be argued that LSD is superior from a practical engineering viewpoint.
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Limit state design has replaced the older concept of permissible stress design in most forms of civil engineering. A notable exception is transportation engineering.
Even so, new codes are currently being developed for both geotechnical and transportation engineering which are LSD based. As a result, most modern buildings
are designed in accordance with a code which is based on limit state theory. For example, in Europe, structures are designed to conform with the Eurocodes: Steel
structures are designed in accordance with EN 1993, and reinforced concrete structures to EN 1992. Australia, Canada, China, France, Indonesia, and New Zealand
(among many others) utilise limit state theory in the development of their design codes. In the purest sense, it is now considered inappropriate to discuss safety
factors when working with LSD, as there are concerns that this may lead to confusion.
The ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete uses Limit State design.
The ANSI/AISC 360 Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, the ANSI/AISI S-100 North American Specification for the Design of Cold Formed Steel Structural
Members, and The Aluminum Association's Aluminum Design Manual contain two methods of design side by side:
1. Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD), a Limit States Design implementation, and
2. Allowable Strength Design (ASD), a method where the nominal strength is divided by a safety factor to determine the allowable strength. This allowable
strength is required to equal or exceed the required strength for a set of ASD load combinations. ASD is calibrated to give the same structural reliability and
component size as the LRFD method with a live to dead load ratio of 3.[3] Consequently, when structures have a live to dead load ratio that differs from 3, ASD
produces designs that are either less reliable or less efficient as compared to designs resulting from the LRFD method.
In contrast, the ANSI/AWWA D100 Welded Carbon Steel Tanks for Water Storage and API 650 Welded Tanks for Oil Storage still use allowable stress design.
In Europe
In Europe, the limit state design is enforced by the Eurocodes.
See also
Allowable stress design
Probabilistic design
Seismic performance
Structural engineering
McCormac, Jack C. (2008). Structural Steel Design (https://books.google.com/books?id=dNatiPqlD8QC) (Google books (preview)) (4th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-221816-0.
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