146 Operating Systems Both logical and physical addresses are contiguous in nature, meaning that each consecutive address refers to a cell. Physical addres tm. mode while logical addresses are used in user mode. ithe sizeof physical memory is 4 megabytes (2 bytes] then the physical adciresses will run from 0 to 22 ~ 1 under the issumption thet physical memory is divided into small memory cells of size 1 byte (8 bit) A computer system has only one physical address space, but can have served logical address space (ig. 7.3). * a7 7.3 | MEMORY MANAGEMENT SCHEMES Memory management schemes are broadly divided into following categories: (Figure 7.4) 7.3.1. Contiguous Memory Allocation Contiguous allocation means that each logical object is placed in a set of memory locations with strictly consecutive addresses, Bare machines, Resident monitor, Multiprogramming are the further division of contiguous allocation. While multiprogramming is categorised {nto two parts: Fixed partition and variable partition. 7.3.2 Non-Contiguous Memory Allocatjon Non-contiguous allocation implies that a single logical abject may be place in non- consecutive sets of memory location. Paging (System view) and Segmentation (user view) are the two mechanisms that are used to manage non-contiguous memory allocation. MEMORY MANAGEMENT SCHEME oo — Contiguous memory allocation Non-contiguous memory allocation Bare Residont Muti machine imonitor} | programming Food Varible partion pariion { ‘Segmentation Paging {Oser view) (System view) Fig. 7.4 Various Memory Management Schemes, 1 Bare Machine (Single User) Itis one ofthe most simplest memory management method in which user has complete control over the memory while in other methods operating system has complete control over memory.Memory Management 147 tei 2 Bo eee ee ‘The advantages of using this method are: veel { Flexible {i No hardware support is required, {ii No software is needed for OS. While the disadvantage of using this method is: ‘As OS has no control over the memory, it does not provide any services to user. Such memory management method is used in user dedicated systems. 100K USER se =, cere | oo ee eo 18.1.2 Resident Monitor (Single Process Monitor) Vitis also a simplest memory management method in which memory is divided into two contigdane aneas One of them la uouely the permanently allocated to the resident parion ttansient processes, which are loaded and executed one at a time, in response towser Commands: When a transient process is completed, the OS may load another one for txecution, Both user processes and non-resident portions of the OS may be executed in the transient process area. This form of memory management is commonly used by single process microcomputer {PC} operating systems, such as CPM and PC-DOS, “The operating systems expends little time and effort managing meméry in this way. Basically, Operating systems needs to keep track of the frst and last locations available for allocation to transient processes. The first location is commonly the one immediately following the resident monitor, and the last one is determined by the capacity of memory Used in & computer eystem. In order of provide free space for transient processes, operating tystems is loaded at one extreme end of memory. Some portions of operating systems like loader or command-line interpreter is placed at another extreme end of memory, thus Jeaving & large contiguous area of free memory in the middle for loading the transient process At instant of time, only one transient process in this area, for its gxecution; and after fon of jis execution, new process will take this place. The Operating systems has to make sure that the size of the process image to be loaded is Within the bounds of the available memory, Otherwise, loading cannot be completed and tin exvor message is generated. Once in memory, the process receives control, from the Gperatiag systems and executes until completion or abortion due to some error. The process tthnounces its termination and transfers control to the operating systems by invoking the BXIT service or its equivalent. At this time, another waiting process may be loaded. 1m general purpose applications, such as personal computer, this method is rarel areata sn inaiity toatch and pate the operating systems code.148 Operating Systems With straight forward memory allocation and absence of multiprograrhminig ‘complexities, single process monitors are relatively simple to design. They wy often used in system where little hardware support is required. Processor and Memory utilization is reduced due to lack of multiprogramming Support. Processor eyele are wasted because there ig no pending work that may be executed while the process is waiting for completion of 1/0 operation. 7.3.1.3 Multiprogramming with Fixed Partition ‘The above two approaches sections 7.3.1.1 and 7.3.1.2 of memory management are based on single user. That ia, at a single instant of time only one process is executed. ‘Since, CPU executes only those process which resides in our memory (main memory) So, only one process resides in main memory at a time and other process at another time, "To impeove the pextummansthe somarer ate, tv concegrat mas ‘ was introduced, which states that “more than one processes are accessed at a single instant of time”, But only one pro< i a uniprocess: ‘System (PC) and at that particular time other processes may be accessed by I/O processor. Heh proce is executed and in which oasis deccd GPU sebedue To access more than one processes at a time, they must reside in our memory. For this, we should know that how more than one processes can be allocated in our memory. Various memory management policies are developed to provide the solution of this problem ina inultiprogramming environment. Partitioned Memory Management for contiguous memory allocation is one of that method in which physical memory is divided into various sectors called ‘partitions’. cach of which may be allocated to a diferent process. Depending on when and how partitions are created and modified, memor ioninig may be fixed (static) or varlable (dynamic) Tm xed pariton method, thove pardons SULT Be of ferent ees, But diss decided atthe tine of eyatem generation (at aome time prior tothe execution of user programs), they could not be changed, Le, fixed. This method could be perpen gamit ‘The number and sizeé of individual partitions are determined at the time of eystem generation by gathering the statistical data about the capacity ofthe available (installed) Styeical memory, desired degres of malliwrogramming, end the elses of Proocasea moet frequently run on given installations. Individual partition sizes are adjusted to fit the seuda of Reach ot froceswes, SiGe at rowan Frocowenay @cecuts iba» dec Datiion at any tine, the mumaber of distinet partitions represents an upper limit on the Bumnber of active processes in a system. This figure is sometimes eallod the degree af multiprogramming.* ‘An example of partitioned memory is depicted in Figure 7.7. Out of six partitions, one is azsumed to be occupied by the resident portion of OS and three parttigna are allocated by the processes P, P,and P;,. The remaining two shaded partitions are free and available for allocation of next process. * Degree of Multiprogramming: CPU utilization can be improved by multiprogramming. Since CPU is busy all time when many processes resides in memory for execution simultaneously. Ifa process spends ‘t’ time waiting for I/O operation to complete and there are ‘n’ number of processes residing in memory for their execution then the probability of waiting ‘n’ processes for 1/O operation is given by (i)". So, CPU utilization = 1 ~ (¢)" ‘The CPU utilization for ‘n’ processes is called degree of multiprogramming.