Six Ideas That Shaped =e a i us a 4 i Bs ll l ALES UOC z AesSome Physical Constants Speed of light © 300% 10° m/s Gravitational constant G 667 x 10 J-m/kg? Coulomb constant k 899 x 10°]-m/C? Planck’ constant 6.63 x 10° kg:m?/s Boltzmann's constant fy 1.38 x 10° J/K Proton charge e160 x10C Electron mass me 9211 x 10 kg Proton mass my 1.67 x 1077 kg, ‘Neutron mass My 1.68 x 10-77 kg, ‘Commonly Used Physical Data Gravitational field strength ¢ 9.80:m/s? Mass of the earth Me 5.98 x 10 kg Radius of the earth Re 6380 km (equatorial) ‘Mass of the sun Mz 1.99 x 10" kg, Radius of the sun R, £696,000 km. Distance to moon 3.84 10°m Distance to sun 1.50 x 10! m Den Density of air* Absolute zero Freezing point of water! Room temperature Boiling point of water" Normal atmospheric pressure of water* 373K = 100°C 101.3kPa Useful Conversion Factors ‘meter = 1 m= 100 cm = 39.4 in. = 3.28 ft ‘mi = 1609 m = 1.609 km = 5280 ft 254m Lily = 9.46 Pm = 0.946 x 101m I mile Lin ‘Llight-year Thou Aday year =1 y = 365.25 d =31.6Ms = 3.16 x 107s 1 kg-m?/s* = 0.239 eal Leal = 4.186] 1W=1J/s 1kWh =36 Mj 1K (temperature difference) = 1°C = 18°F 1592 rev *Atnormal pressure and at 20°C *Atnormal atmosphere presure Standard Metric Prefixes For powers of 10 Power Prefix __ Symbol 108 exa E 1085 pea =P 102 aes ay 10° siga = G 108 mega M 10 Kilo ik 2 centile 106) tl = an wo = micro 10% nano ee ey oS temo f Ost aa =212°F m/s =224 mi/h. 1 mi/h =1.61 km/h 1 = 0.02832 ms 1 gallon =1 gal =3.79 x 10-* m’ ~3.8kg HO. 1N=1kg-n/s*=1J/m = 0.225 Ib 1ib= 445. Weight of I-kg object near earth =9.8 N =2.2 Ib L cal = energy to raise temperature of 1 g of HO by 1K 1 food calorie = 1 Cal = 1 keal = 1000 cal {horsepower = 1 hp = 746 W 5c Te (3) rm -32Fl 5K &) IT p+ 459.67°F] 360° = 21 rad = 6.28 radFN ia ee itIdeas That Shaped eee Wal AY Second Edition Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA Madison, WI New York San Francisco St. Louis Bangkok Bogoté Caracas KualaLumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei TorontoMcGraw-Hill Higher Education x A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies SIX IDEAS THAT SHAPED PHYSICS, UNIT C: CONSERVATION LAWS CONSTRAIN INTERACTIONS, SECOND EDITION, Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2003, 1998 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Moore, Thomas A. (Thomas Andrew) Six ideas that shaped physics. Unit C, Conservation laws constrain interactions / Thomas A. Moore. — 2nd ed. p. cm Includes index ISBN 0-07-229152-4 (acid-free paper) 1. Conservation laws (Physics). I. Title: Conservation laws constrain interactions. Il. Title QC793.3.C58 Mes 2003 2002020009 cP www.mbhe.comDedication For All My Family, Near and Far (and in Memory of Anne Moore), whose love has conserved what is best.Table of Contents for Six Ideas That Shaped Physics Unit C Conservation Laws Constrain Interactions Cl Introduction to Interactions C2 Vectors C3 Interactions Transfer Momentum. C4 Particles and Systems C5 Applying Momentum Conservation C6 Introduction to Energy C7 Some Potential Energy Functions C8 Force and Energy C9 Rotational Energy C10 Thermal Energy Cli Energy in Bonds C12 Power, Collisions, and Impacts C13. Angular Momentum C14 Conservation of Angular Momentum Unit N The Laws of Physics Are Universal N1 Newton's Laws N2__ Vector Calculus N3___ Forces from Motion N4 Motion from Forces N5 Statics N6 __Linearly Constrained Motion N7 Coupled Objects N8 — Circularly Constrained Motion N9 — Noninertial Reference Frames N10 Projectile Motion NII Oscillatory Motion N12 Introduction to Orbits N13 Planetary Motion Unit R The Laws of Physics Are Frame-Independent Ri The Principle of Relativity R2 Synchronizing Clocks R3_ The Nature of Time R4__ The Metric Equation R5__ Proper Time R6 Coordinate Transformations R7 Lorentz Contraction R8 The Cosmic Speed Limit R9 — Four-Momentum R10 Conservation of Four-Momentum Unit E Electric and Magnetic Fields Are Unified El Electrostatics E2 Electric Fields E3. Electric Potential E4 — Conductors E5 Driving Currents E6 — Analyzing Circuits E7 Magnetic Fields E8 Currents and Magnets E9 Symmetry and Flux E10 Gauss’ Law Ell Ampere’s Law E12 The Electromagnetic Field E13 Maxwell’s Equations E14 Induction E15 Introduction to Waves E16 Electromagnetic WavesTable of Contents for Six Ideas That Shaped Physics vii Unit O Ql4 Radioactivity : : 15 Nuclear Technol Particles Behave Like Waves = on erne QI Standing Waves Q2 The Wave Nature of Light Unit T 3 The Particle Nature of Light Some Processes Are Irreversible Q4 The Wave Nature of Matter Q5 The Quantum Facts of Life T1 Temperature Q6 The Wavefunction T2 Ideal Gases Q7 Bound Systems ae Gas Processes Q8 — Spectra T4 — Macrostates and Microstates Qo Understanding Atoms ae The Second Law Q10 The Schrédinger Equation T6 Temperature and Entropy QI Energy Figenfunctions 17 Some Mysteries Resolved Q12 Introduction to Nuclei T8 Calculating Entropy Changes Q13 Stable and Unstable Nuclei T9 Heat EnginesContents atc Conservation Laws Constrain Interactions About the Author Preface Introdu ction for Students Chapter C1 Introduction to Interactions Chapter Overview Cli: The Nature of Science C12: — The Development and Structure of Physics C13: An Overview of This Unit C14: Introduction to Mechanics CLS: Fundamental Interactions C16: Macroscopic Interactions C17: Describing “Motion” CLS: Physics Skills: Technical Terms C19: Physics Skills: Units Aristotelian Thinking Diagnostic Test Two-Minute Problems. Homework Problems Answers to Exercises Answers to the Aristotelian Diagnostic Chapter C2 Vectors Chapter Overview C21 Vectors and Scalars. Basic Vector Operations Components The Magnitude of a Vector Vectors in One and ‘Two Dimensions Vector Operations in Terms of Components Vectors Have Units Reference Frames Two-Minute Problems Homework Problems Answers to Exercises xi xii xvi Chapter C3 Interactions Transfer Momentum Chapter Overview C31: Velocity 3.2; Interactions Transfer Momentum C33: Impulse and Force C34: Mass and Weight C3. Momentum Flow and Motion 3.6: Physics Skills: [egal Vector Equations ‘Two-Minute Problems Homework Problems Answers to Exercises Chapter C4 Particles and Systems Chapter Overview ‘Systems of Particles Conservation of Momentum A System’s Center of Mass ‘How the Center of Mass Moves Inertial Reference Frames Interactions with the Earth Two-Minute Problems Homework Problems Answers to Exercises Chapter C5 Applying Momentum Conservation Chapter Overview Momentum Conservation Without Isolation Degrees of Isolation A Problem-Solving Framework Constructing Model Diagrams Solving Conservation of Momentum Problems 44 44 46 48 50 55 57 59 61 62 62, 64 66 69 74 76 76 80 80 82 83 86Contents: Unit C C5.6: Airplanes and Rockets Two-Minute Problems Homework Problems Answers to Exercises Chapter C6 Introduction to Energy Chapter Overview C61: Interactions and Energy 6.2: Kinetic Energy 6.3: Measuring Potential Energy 6.4: Negative Energy? C65: | ALook Ahead C6.6: Adapting the Framework to Energy Problems Two-Minute Problems Homework Problems Answers to Exercises Chapter C7 Some Potential Energy Functions Chapter Overview The Electromagnetic Interaction The Gravitational Interaction Gravitation near the Earth The Potential Energy of a Spring Some Examples Physics Skills: Significant Digits ‘Two-Minute Problems Homework Problems Answers to Exercises Chapter C8 Force and Energy Chapter Overview C81: Momentum and Kinetic Energy C82: The Dot Product 8.3: An Interaction’s Contribution to dK C84: The Meaning of k-Work 8.5: The Earth’s Kinetic Energy C86: — Force Laws C87: Contact Interactions 92 94 95 97 98 98 100 101 103 107 108 109 112 13 4 136 136 138 139 140 142 143, 144 146 Two-Minute Problems Homework Problems Answers to Exercises Chapter C9 Rotational Energy Chapter Overview 9.1: Introduction to Rotational Energy 9.2: Measuring Angles C93: Angular Velocity 9.4: The Moment of Inertia C95: — Calculating Moments of Inertia 9.6: Translation and Rotation C97: Rolling Without Slipping ‘Two-Minute Problems Homework Problems Answers to Exercises Chapter C10 Thermal Energy Chapter Overview The Case of the Disappearing Energy Caloric Is Energy ‘Thermal Energy Friction and Thermal Energy Heat and Work Specific “Heat” Problems Involving Thermal Energies ‘Two-Minute Problems Homework Problems Answers to Exercises Chapter C11 Energy in Bonds Chapter Overview C11: Potential Energy Diagrams C12: Bonds Latent “Heat” Chemical and Nuclear Energy Other Forms of Hidden Energy Two-Minute Problems Homework Problems Answers to Exercises 149 150 152 169 174 174 176 176 178 179 180 182 184 188 189 191 192 192 194 197 198, 201 205 205 206 209x Contents: Unit C Chapter C12 C136: Twirl and Torque 242 : Two-Minute Problems 245 Power, Collisions, and Impacts 210 Homework Problems Day Chapter Overview 210 Answers to Exercises 248 C121: Power 212 12.2: Types of Collisions 215 12.3: Elastic Collisions 216 C124: The Slingshot Effect 221. Chapter C14 C125: Inelastic Collisions 222 . C126: Asteroid Impacts 24 Conservation of Angular Momentum 250 Two-Minute Problems 227 Chapter Overview 250 Homework Problems 228 C141: Precession of a Top 252 Answers to Exercises 230 C14.2: Applications 254 C14.3: Conservation of Angular Momentum 255 Cl4.4: Some Worked Examples 257 C145: Application: Neutron Stars 263 Chapter C13 Two-Minute Problems 265 Angular Momentum 232 Homework Problems 266 Answers to Exercises 269 Chapter Overview 232 C13.1: The Case of the Rotating Person 234 C13.2: The Cross Product 235 C133: The Angular Momentum of a Particle 238 Glossary O71 C184: The Angular Momentum of a Rigid Object 239 C135: The Angular Momentum of a Moving Object 241 Index 281About the Author Thomas A. Moore graduated from Carleton College (magna cum laude with Distinction in Physics) in 1976. He won a Danforth Fellowship that year that supported his graduate education at Yale University, where he earned a Ph.D. in 1981. He taught at Carleton College and Luther College before taking his current position at Pomona College in 1987, where he won a Wig Award for Distinguished Teaching in 1991. He served as an active member of the steering com- mittee for the national Introductory University Physics Project (IUPP) from 1987 through 1995. This textbook grew out of a model curriculum that he developed for that project in 1989, which ‘was one of only four selected for further devel- opment and testing by IUPP. He has published a number of articles about astrophysical sources of gravitational waves, detection of gravitational waves, and new approaches to teaching physics, as well as a book on special relativity entitled A Traveler’s Guide to Spacetime (McGraw-Hill, 1995). He has also served as a reviewer and an associate editor for American Journal of Physics. He currently lives in Claremont, California, with his wife Joyce and two college-aged daughters. When he is not teaching, doing research in relativis- tic astrophysics, or writing, he enjoys reading, hiking, scuba diving, teaching adult church-school classes on the Hebrew Bible, calling contradances, and playing traditional Irish fiddle music. Sinhonce te aed Wea :Opening comments about Six Ideas That Shaped Physics The six volumes of the Six Ideas text Preface Introduction This volume is one of six that together comprise the text materials for Six Ideas That Shaped Physics, a fundamentally new approach to the two- or three- semester calculus-based introductory physics course. Six Ideas That Shaped Physics was created in response to a call for innovative curricula offered by the Introductory University Physics Project (TUPP), which subsequently sup- ported its early development. In its present form, the course represents the culmination of more than a decade of development, testing, and evaluation at a number of colleges and universities nationwide. This course is based on the premise that innovative approaches to the presentation of topics and to classroom activities can help students learn more effectively. | have completely rethought from the ground up the pre- sentation of every topic, taking advantage of research into physics education wherever possible, and I have done nothing just because “that is the way it has always been done.” Recognizing that physics education research has consistently underlined the importance of active learning, I have also pro- vided tools supporting multiple opportunities for active learning both inside and outside the classroom. This text also strongly emphasizes the process of building and critiquing physical models and using them in realistic settings. Finally, | have sought to emphasize contemporary physics and view even classical topics from a thoroughly contemporary perspective. Thave not sought to “dumb down” the course to make it more accessible. Rather, my goal has been to help students become smarter. | intentionally set higher-than-usual standards for sophistication in physical thinking, and I then used a range of innovative approaches and classroom structures to help even average students reach this standard. I don’t believe that the mathe- matical level required by these books is significantly different from that of a standard university physics text, but I do ask students to step beyond rote thinking patterns to develop flexible, powerful conceptual reasoning and model-building skills. My experience and that of other users are that normal students in a wide range of institutional settings can, with appropriate sup- port and practice, meet these standards. The six volumes that comprise the complete Six Ideas course are: Unit C (Conservation Laws): Conservation Laws Constrain Interactions The Laws of Physics are Universal Unit R (Relativity): The Laws of Physics are Frame-Independent Unit E (Electricity and Magnetism): Electricity and Magnetism are Unified. Unit Q (Quantum Physics): Matter Behaves Like Waves Unit T (Thermal Physics): Some Processes are Irreversible Unit N (Newtonian Mechanic: Thave listed these units in the order that I recommend that they be taught, though other orderings are possible. At Pomona, we teach the first three units during the first semester and the last three during the second semesterPreface of a year-long course, but one can easily teach the six units in three quarters or even over three semesters if one wants a lower pace. The chapters of all these texts have been designed to correspond to what one might realistically discuss in a single 50-minute class session at the highest possible pace. A rea- sonable course syllabus will therefore set an average pace of not more than one chapter per 50 minutes of class time: For more information than I can include in this short preface about the goals of the Six Ideas course, its organizational structure (and the rationale be- hind that structure), and the evidence for its success, as well as many other resources for both teachers and students, please visit the Six Ideas website (see the next section). Important Resources Thave summarized important information about how to read and use this text in an Introduction for Students immediately preceding chapter C1. Please look this over, particularly if you have not seen other volumes of this text. The Six Ideas web site contains a wealth of up-to-date information about the course that I think both instructors and students will find very useful. The URL is www.physics.pomona.edu/sixideas/ One of the most important resources available at this site are a number of computer applets that illustrate important concepts and aid in difficult cal- culations. Past experience indicates that students learn the ideas much more effectively when these programs are used in both the classroom and the homework. These applets are freeware and are available for both the Mac (Classic) and Windows operating systems. Some Notes Specifically About Unit C This unit is the foundation on which the rest of the Six Ideas course is built. The current course structure assumes that unit C will be taught first and will be immediately followed by unit N. Why study conservation laws before newtonian mechanics? The most im- portant reasons are as follows: (1) Conservation laws are easy to understand and use, which helps build student confidence at the beginning of the course; (2) using conservation laws does not really require calculus, thus delaying the introduction of calculus for several weeks; (3) studying conservation of momentum and angular momentum does require vectors, allowing vector concepts to be developed for several weeks in simple contexts before getting into vector calculus; and (4) conservation laws really are more fundamental than even newtonian mechanics, so it is good to start the course with physi- cal concepts that are crucially important and will be useful throughout the course, We did not intuit these benefits at first: the earliest versions of Six Ideas presented mechanics in the standard order. Rather, this inversion emerged naturally as a consequence of observations of student learning and some re- flection about the logic of the course. (Interestingly, a number of people interested in reforming the course have independently come to the same conclusion.) xiii The Six Ideas website Instructions about how to use this text Essential computer programs Why study conservation laws first?