140 (GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHBIOUES installation of sand pile causes compaction only in the lateral direction, the pile spacing S may be abtained from (Mitchell and Katti, 1981). nas an s=[SA1 a tragie paten wQte))'” s=100 {#222 2 fortriangular pattern in which d is the diameter of the pile Fig. 6.18 a & b). —— $ © | DL sae rre/emanen ene ot, prem oo (a): Square arrangement (b). Regular Triangular arrangement Fig. 6.15. Spacing between granular piles (After Renjan, 1988). Closer pile spacing (S/d < 2) may cause construction difficulties where large spacings (Sid > 4) may have no appreciable effect. Hance a pile spacing S/d between 2.5 and 4 may be adopted with reasonable accuraey (Ranjan, 1989). 6.8.4, STONE COLUMNS. Stone columns also called as granular piles aro installed mostly using vibration techniques. A eylindtieal vertieat hole is made and gravel backfill s placed into the hole in ineroments and compactedby a suitabledovico which simultaneously displaces the material radially. This results in a densely compacted stone column of certain depth and diameter. Formation of stone columns using a vibroflotis quite suitable techniques for improve- ment of cohesive soils (Engelhardt and Kirsch, 1977 ; ‘Thornburn and McVicar, 1988). The ut ((a) Bore hole ts formed by sinking vitrator into the ground * (b) Bockfil material is (€)_ Alternate Boek filing placed into the bore ‘and. compaction forms hole tn stages ond continucus granular compacted file Fig, 6:18, The sbyo reptncoment prscess (Aftor Bauinenn and Bauer, 1974). vibroflot is allowed to sink into the ground due to its own weight, assisted by water or air ‘a5 a flushing medium, up to the reduired depth, The soil surrounding the vibroflot is disturbed or Yemoulded and the softened matorial can be removed by jetting fluid (water or compressed ait), Wator is used asa jotting fluid for fully saturated soils while comprossed air is used for partially saturated sotls (Engelhardt and Kirsch, 1977), By this process 2 borehole of larger diameter than the vibroflotis formed once the vibroflot is withdrawn (Fig. 6.16). So formed borohole is backfilled with gravel of 12 to 76 min size or furnace slag (Thorburn and McVicar, 1968). With the repenetration of the vibroflot the backfill material is displaced into the sides of the borohole and compacting underneath its tip. While backfilling the vibroflot is raised and lowered, This procedure is repeated till the hole is completely filled and compacted which forms a eylindvieal granular pile, Unlike in vibroflotation, wherein water jets are used, some dry processes ave aleo in ‘use to make the hole. A:closed end pipe mandel is driven to a desired depth and the gravel je atlovied to fillafter opening trip valve, Avammer is used to pack the soil through the pipe as it is withdrawn and gravel added, Apatt from the use of vibroflot and hollow pipe, different simple techniques are being ‘usod for constructing stone columns. Datye and Nagaraju (1978, 1985) proposed a method ‘which primarily uses a hammer weighing 16 to 20 EN falling through a height of Ito 1.5 m for compacting stone aggregates placed in pre-bored holes. The resulting stone column is referred to as rammed stone column and the technique has been claimed to be economical than vibrator éompaction. A simple method usingthe conventional auger boring equipment142 ‘GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIOVES and a tree fall cast iron hammer has also been used (Rao, 1982, Ranjan and Rao, 1983). In this mothod the bore hole is made by spiral auger and the bore hole is cleaned manually by using specially madle tools In the cleaned bore hole granular pites are cast using 20 to 80 mm’ size stone aggregate and 20 to 25% of sand with uniformity coefficient of 2. The aggregate and send layers are placed altornatively with layer thicknesses of 800 to 600 mm and 60 to 100mm respectively. Bach two-layer unit with sand layer at top is compacted with the help o°a east iron hammer of weight 1260 KN with a free fall of 750 mm. Due to the impact cof hatamer the sand fills the voids of the stone aggregate followed by tho lateral and downvard displacements of the charged material till full eampaction is achieved, Various stages of installation by this technique is shown in Fig. .17. This tochnique cx be applied to small building foundations. Ranjan and Rao (1988) have indicated that granulat piles of 600 mm diameter and 16 m deep have been successfully installed using-this technique. A detailed treatment of granular piles is dealt.by Ranjan (1989). sett sia (al Nokrg. (Fong. (6) Compaction (8 Feng ) cont A natal” er a of-second "granular hole cauregate layer material ayer Bile and sad Fig. 6.17. Granular pile installation mothed using indigenous know how (ARer Reo, 1982), ‘The variation in pile diameter installed by vibroflot (diameter 300 to 600mm) varies betwesn 0.6 m (stiff claye) and 1.1 m (ery soft cohesive soils), Datye and Nagaraju (1985) havo reported stone columns ranging from 400 to 750 mm using rammed process. Using the simple boring equipment and the light hammor Rao (1962) and Ranjan and Rao (1986) reported granular pile diameters ranging from 260 to 600 mm. The spacing of stone columnns is determined based on the settlement tolerances for the loads to he applied’ (Greenwood, 1970) and the degree of improvement required (Engelhardt and Kirsch, 1977). Stone columns aro spaced from 1.2 to about 3 mon centro over the site (Bowles, 1988). Spacing ranges recommended for sand piles ean be adopted for granular piles also, ‘The length of the stone columns is sufficient either to extend below the depth of sighificant stress increase caused by the foundation or should extend through the soft clay: VIBRATION METHODS “a _- tofirm strata to control settlements, The resistance is derived by stone columns only by the porimeter shear and not by ond:-bearing. On this basis the stone column length (Z,) should be greator than Bowles, 1988) Le PaA lee) where P= total load on the stone column A, = cross-sectional area of the stone column 2 average dianieter of the stone column oop ‘There is no theoretical procedure available to accurately predict the combined improvement.of the ground:'Thus it is usual to assume the foundation loads are cartied only by the total number of stone columns with no contribution from the intermediate ground Bowles, 1988). Stone columns may be arranged to support isolated footings, strip footings or mat foundations: 'Tho entire foundation area should be covered with a blanket of sand or gravel at least 0.3-m thick to help distribute loads and to facilitate drainage of water eonducted out ofthe soft soll through the columns which act as vertical drains as well as reinforeing _ elements. ‘The'load capacity of a stone column is controlted by the passive resistance ofthe soft soil that ean be mobilised to withstand radial bulging and on the friction angle of the gravel, | ‘An approximate formula for the allowable bearing eapacity of stone eoltimins is given by side and point cohesion. Ge= & (fo 40%) where Kx tan? (46 + 4/2) 4 = drained angle of intornal friction of stone “eweithor drained cohesion (suggested for large areas) or the undrained shear strerigth, oy, offective radial stress as measured by a pressure meter (bit may use 2eif presstire meter data is not available) SF = safety factor-used about 1.6 to 2. As bearing capacity of stone columns is generally high, settlement is the important. ‘ritorion, For wantef theoretical equations to predict.eettlementofstoneeolumns, empirical ‘methods are used. The sottlement of stone column foundation depends on column spacing: ‘Tho settlement of a single column of a group in a load test may be in ths rangéof 5 to 10m _at the design load. The settlement of large group is usually about 5 to 10 time’, the single _column settlement (Mitehell, 1976). Figure 5.18 shows estimated settlement ofthe treated Stone columns are very much suitable for soft, inorganic cohesive soils. They also.can ‘be used in loose, sand deposits to increase the density. Stone columns are capable ofGGKOUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES 4a Leo r r r : 3 secs | 33 fe ents ond Sher a See Guplacements neglected : aa cou : zg 3 40 bn fv a Se «| —t 20 Mh /t a BS hee # ” 2.00 2.28 2.80, 28 3.00 3.25 STONE COLUMN, SPACING - m Pig. 5:18. Effect of stone colurons on anticipated foundation settlement (ARtar Groonscond, 1970), dissipctingexcess pore water pressuroin the in-situ soil and thereby reducing the vokd ratio qn the rono of influence, As they are constructed on volume displacement basis, there is an intimate contact between soll and column, Stone columns can not be used effectively in thick doposits of poat or highly organic silts or clays, Stone columns using vibroffot has been installed in India in abigg way forstrengthen- ing eof soil for foundation of steel eylindrieal storage tanks (more than 100) all around the const of India for refineries and ehemsieal plants from seventies (Varadarajulu and Gupta, 11998). The-tanks sizes varied from 2.6 to 79 m in diameter and up to 16 ma holght. Tt hes tbeon reported that the subsoil conditigns around coast starting from Haldia to Kandla through Madvas on tho east coast and Cochin on the west coast eohsist of deposits of thick soft chay/clayey soils of very high compressibility. Table 6.8 (Pilot, 1981) gives a few case “stories of stone column applications. The results reveal tho following (Pilot, 1981) : G) Stone columne are generally employed in thick deposits of soll of very Tow shear strength, : ) The undrained sheat strength has increased whieh is not taken into account at the design stage, {ii) Settlements are reduced and stability of embankments and slopes are increased: Gu) A good installation technique is important to ensure efficient functioning of the columns, vise TIOn METHODS nas 5.3.5. HEAVY TAMPING ‘This technique also called as Dynamic compaction or Dynamicconsolidation has been, _ dealt in Section 2.4.6. This technique basically utilizes the vibration and shock caused by’ the dropping’of « heavy weight. Evidently the densification takos place by displacement of soil grains. As explained carlicr this technique ean be adopted for all soils ‘Table 6.8, Case Histories of Stone Column Applications: (Adopted from Pitot, 1982) “Building site| eundationseit Column date Results Canvey Island, | Tmeofvelay under 2m | Loading, test applied to | Ultimate lead = 200%KN jmmaxi- England Glughes | overeonsclatedclay [column 10 m long, 0.68 m |raura settlement = 0,17 m chal 1975) |f@u= 1640.30 Pe), | diam, Angle of intemal |(0.01 m under 100 KN). Very. fiction Gessumed) 230" | good egreament _botweon Taeasisremonts and design of column's ectual diemetor | (013m, PreymingAS4, [8m peaty clay. Columns under founda: | Settlement under Toads Jess Branco Bashy, |(Menard presture. [tions mbagkment, 1 then 100 sun, tx improve- 1976) moter :P{ +270 kPa, | column perm" nant prosess, py = 20,000, yy = 2,000 42). KP, By = 54,000 KP: Argentouil RB — | 8,61 softorganicelay | Columns under embank. |No settlement or stability 211,France. — |(gu210to 33 kPa). | mont slope, 5.6m longx0.8 | problems encountered ; aftor Gardin, 1974) sn,giam. 1 column por 8 | unpeovement process, = 40 m kPa CopnesAB,Prance,|26m sofesilty lay | Calunms under vieduet | Average soil, strength in Casson, 1974) |(Gy=10to70KPa), | ebutment and approach crease! 70% Trouble-freo be: sfibaniment 18 m long 30.83 digm. 1 colume aviounef abutment. per 2.8m" Konstanz, Asmeofeandlow | Textarea with 12columnns, Greatly decreased settle- Germany. consiatoncy silty lay. | 12m daep x 0.8m diam. 1 | ments: under stross of (Engelherdtet al, coluran por 1.1m? 200 kPa, 65 mm pries to 1874) fand 10mm after improve. ment process. ast Brent, 32rasilty sofeelay | Columne under embankc | No reduction in settlersent Englend (215 t050%P2) [ment abutment, 11.8 m| nor in pore tater pressure (MecKennact.al, Jover 1G milly sand, [long x 08 m’ diam, 1)(might be duo to columns 1875) coltimn per 8.7 me logged by raud). Rouen, France, | About 10 m soft salle: | Columns underreinforced- | Greatest settloment _mea- (Wautrsin, 1977) |elay,peatandchalles, | earth embankment 10 m | sueed = OA m (0.9 m without = 20 to 50kPe). long < 0.9 m diam. 1|improvement — tveatment), column per 8 m? greater than etiipated. Test apparentlyearriod outto column ultimato strongth