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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter gathers information that allow us to gain knowledge about technologies
that have been used relative to this project. In order to gain knowledge, several papers
are reviewed. These papers consist of PLC and sensor that has been used in the project.
The entire projects more focus at PLC as a controller. The research and previous work
is included in Related Studies. In addition to that, some of the software will be used
include XC Programming. This programming used for creating the ladder diagram that
has to download to the PLC.

2.2 Programmable Logic Control System

A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a special form of microprocessor based

controller that uses a programmable memory to store instructions and to implement
functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic in order to control
machines and processes and are designed to be operated by engineers with perhaps a
limited knowledge of computers and computing languages [3]. Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLC) are used in almost every aspect of the industry to expand and
enhance production. Where the older automated systems would use hundreds or
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thousands of electromechanical relays, a single PLC can be programmed as an efficient

replacement. The functionality of the PLCs has evolved over the years to include
capabilities beyond typical relay control. Motion control, process control, distributive
control systems, and complex networking have now been added to the PLC’s functions
[4]. Therefore, this type of control provides huge advantages including increased
reliability, more flexibility, lower cost, communication capability, faster response time
and convenience to troubleshoot. The PLC process block diagram shown in figure 2.1
below and the function of each block.

Figure 2.1 PLC block diagram

1. The processor unit or central processing unit (CPU) is the unit containing the
microprocessor and this interprets the input signals and carries out the control
actions, according to the program stored in its memory, communicating the
decisions as action signals to the outputs.
2. The power supply unit is needed to convert the mains a.c. voltage to the low
d.c. voltage (5 V) necessary for the processor and the circuits in the input and
output interface modules.
3. The programming device is used to enter the required program into the memory
of the processor. The program is developed in the device and then transferred
to the memory unit of the PLC.
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4. The memory unit is where the program is stored that is to be used for the control
actions to be exercised by the microprocessor and data stored from the input
for processing and for the output for outputting.

5. The input and output sections are where the processor receives information
from external devices and communicates information to external devices. The
inputs might thus be from switches other sensors such as photo-electric cells,
as in the counter mechanism in temperature sensors, or flow sensors, etc. The
outputs might be to motor starter coils, solenoid valves, etc.

6. The communications interface is used to receive and transmit data on

communication networks from or to other remote PLCs. It is concerned with
such actions as device verification, data acquisition, synchronisation between
user applications and connection management.

2.3 PLC as controller

In the past, humans were the main methods for controlling system as manual
controller. When the operator operates the process to desired condition, then it carries
out the corrective action to be manual control. Nowadays PLC have widely used as a
controller of industries. One of the application is liquid mixture control system. The paper in
previous work by Azman Bin Abdul Rahman. In this project, two or more types of liquids with
different PH values. PH sensor is used to detect PH value of the mixture, which this signal is
fed to analogue input PLC terminal, that to be used for comparing PH value required as a
product. It consists of six tanks, with one mixture motor and also five pumps are used to control
the system via PLC [5].

Besides that, one of the application is a movable conveyor driven into and out of the
trailer. The paper in previous work by Liping Guo was used as a control. This conveyor is used
in distribution centers to load boxes onto trailers. It moves along a good track in the floor and
can be driven in and out of the trailer. The conveyor is operated with one push button for
forward and the other for reverse movement. The push button must be held down the entire
time when the conveyor is moving. Inputs of the system include the diffuse type photoelectric
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sensors on the front and back of the conveyor to prevent a collision, and inductive proximity
switches at the bottom of the front and back to prevent over travel condition [6].

Next, PLC used widely especially in beverage industries. One of the application is
automatic bottle filling system. The paper in previous project by Md. Mahadi Hassan. In this
project, bottles are required to be filled-up with a pre-determined amount of liquid. The filling
process is usually kept automated to ensure a higher production rate and to lessen the burden
on human resources, since the human operator is required to take only a supervisory role here.
The whole process of bottle filling is therefore performed automatically through machines
which are controlled by PLCs [7].

Manufacturing industries always having a problem with man power which to

pay their salary and thus this project will be invented to overcome the problem by
reducing the number of employees and at the same time save the cost. Using this
project by Jamaludin Sapii PLC also can use as a controller for to develop a vibrator
loader for the contact lenses cup project. PLC functioned to control the power window
and DC motor based on the signal from the infrared sensor. The DC motor is functional
to vibrate the spiral shape vibrating feeder bowl to feed the contact lens carp to singular
conveyer. Despite loading process, the sensor also being attached to sense the quality
of the lens cup that being fed into the vibrating bowl. The sensor will send the signal
to the motor whenever it detects the existence of the contact lens cup so the motor will
rotate and move the conveyor. The average time for single contact lenses to finish for
the whole process is faster compared to industrial technique nowadays [8].
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2.4 Configuration of automatic filling bottles system

2.4.1 Processing Unit

Processing unit is the main component that control the whole operation of the project.
Behaviour of the developed system is defined or determined by the program designed
in the processing unit. The type of PLC that will be used in the project will be discussed
in this section.

2.4.1.1 CP1L (OMRON)

In this project, to implement the control logic of the system, PLC will be used. Here I
have Cpm1a which is manufactured by Omron Company. This PLC is manufactured
to industrial standards. It’s communication with input and output component is fast.
Figure 2.2 shows the PLC unit that used in the project which has 10 I/O.

Figure 2.2: PLC module

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There are several models of central processing unit (CPU) available with different
models of CP1L. The PLC that being used in this project is CPM1A-10CDR-A-V1.
The PLC dimension is show in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: Dimension of PLC

It is a compact high-performance CPU and has an integrated power supply of 24 VDC.

It is built-in input terminals which has 6 inputs and 4 outputs. Control method is stored
program method while the program language that being used is ladder diagram. It has
10K steps program capacity with common processing time 0.4ms. This PLC also have
1 analog input with resolution: 1/256 and memory backup flash memory or battery
backup. Flash memory will save the programs, parameters (such as the PLC Setup),
comment data, and the entire DM Area can be saved to flash memory as initial values
while battery backup for example The Holding Area, DM Area, and counter values
(flags, PV) are backed up by a battery.
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2.4.2 Sensing Unit

In this project, only used 1 type of sensor which is call photo retro-reflective sensor.
Figure 2.4 shows the reflective sensor used in the project to detect the arrival of a bottle
at the filing station and the size of container. The photoelectric sensor acts as a non-
contact object detector. The photoelectric sensor is cylindrical and its diameter is 18
mm. The operating voltage is 10-30 VDC.

Figure 2.4: Reflective sensor

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2.4.3 Data Storage Unit

There are several memory elements in a PLC system:

1. System read-only-memory (ROM) to give permanent storage for the

operating system and fixed data used by the CPU.
2. Random-access memory (RAM) for the user’s program.
3. Random-access memory (RAM) for data.
This is where information is stored on the status of input and output devices
and the values of timers and counters and other internal devices. The data RAM
is sometimes referred to as a data table or register table. Part of this memory,
i.e. a block of addresses, will be set aside for input and output addresses and
the states of those inputs and outputs. Part will be set aside for data and part for
storing counter values, timer values, etc.
4. Possibly, as a bolt-on extra module, erasable and programmable read-only-
memory (EPROM) for ROMs that can be programmed and then the program
made permanent.

The programs and data in RAM can be changed by the user. All PLCs will have
some amount of RAM to store programs that have been developed by the user and
program data. However, to prevent the loss of programs when the power supply is
switched off, a battery is used in the PLC to maintain the RAM contents for a period
of time.
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2.5 Hardware requirement

2.5.1 Power Window Motor

The power window motor consists of a motor, connector and gear. Two Hall effect
switches are set in the connector. The Hall effect switch utilizes magnets set on a
rotating axis to sense the power window motor rotation, and outputs a synchronized
pulse to the power window main switch [9]. Hall effect switch No. 1 outputs one pulse
cycle for each rotation of the power window motor axle. Power window acts as the
main switch that will detects the rotational speed of the power window motor. It will
detect the rotational direction of the power window motor by the difference between
high and low pulse points from Hall effect switch No. 1 and 2.

Figure 2.5: Construction of Power Window

1. Motor
2. Connector
3. Gear
4. Hall effect switch No 1
5. Hall effect switch No 2
6. Shaft
7. Magnet
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2.5.2 Solenoid Valve

A solenoid valve is an electromechanical device used for controlling liquid or gas flow.
The solenoid valve is controlled by electrical current, which is run through a coil.
When the coil is energized, a magnetic field is created, causing a plunger inside the
coil to move [10]. The plunger will either open or close depends on the design of the
valve. There are two common parts in solenoid valve which is an inlet and outlet. For
advanced designs, it could have three or more ports. Modern solenoid valves offer fast
operation, high reliability, long service life and compact design. The illustration in
Figure 2.6 below show the basic components of solenoid valve. This type of solenoid
valve is the simplest and easy to understand the principle of the operation.

Figure 2.6: Basic Components of solenoid valve

1. Valve body: This is the frame or the body of the valve which solenoid valve is
connected. Usually the valve is connected in process flow pipeline to control
the flow of certain fluid like liquid or air. The valve is controlled by the handle
but in automatic valve it might be connected with the solenoid valve.

2. Inlet port of the body: This is the port through which the fluid enters inside the
automatic valve and from here it can enter into the final process.
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3. Outlet port: The fluid that is allowed to pass through the automatic valve leaves
the valve through the outlet port. The solenoid valve controls the flow of the
fluid from inlet port to the outlet port. The outlet port is eventually connected
to the process where the fluid is required.

4. Coil/ Solenoid: This is body of the solenoid coil. The body of the solenoid coil
is cylindrical in shape, and it is hollow from inside. The body is covered with
steel covering and it has metallic finish. Inside the solenoid valve there is
solenoid coil.

5. Coil windings: The solenoid consists of several turns of the enamelled wire
wound around the ferromagnetic material like steel or iron. The coil forms the
shape of the hollow cylinder. Externally this coil is covered with the steel
covering and inside the hollow part there is a plunger or the piston, whose
motion inside the hollow space is controlled by the spring.

6. Lead wires: These are external connections of the solenoid valve that are
connected to the electrical supply. The current is supplied to the solenoid valve
from these wires. When the solenoid valve is energized, the current flows
through these wires to the solenoid valve and when the solenoid valve is de-
energized the flow of current stops.

7. Plunger or piston: This is the solid round metallic part cylindrical in shape and
placed in the hollow portion the solenoid valve. When the electrical current is
passed through the solenoid valve, the magnetic field is generated inside the
hollow space. Due to this the plunger tends to move vertically in the hollow
space. When the electrical current is stopped to the solenoid valve, the
magnetic field is stopped and the plunger is remains the existing place due to
the force of the spring

8. Spring: The plunger moves inside the hollow space due to the action of the
magnetic field against the action of the spring. The magnetic field generated
inside the solenoid valve tends to move the plunger, but the spring tends to stop
the motion of the plunger in which ever the position it is. This action of the
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spring against the magnetic field helps keeping the plunger in the position
where the flow of current to the solenoid valve is stopped. The spring performs
very crucial action inside the hollow space.
9. Orifice: The orifice is an important part of the valve though which the fluid is
flowing. It is the connection between the inlet and the outlet port. The flow of
fluid from the inlet port to the outlet port takes place from this port. In the
ordinary valves, this port is covered with the valve disc at the bottom of the
stem of the valve to which the handle is connected.

Working Principle of Solenoid Valve

Initially the sensor senses the process towards the outlet side of the solenoid valve.
When it senses that certain quantity of the flow of the fluid is required, it allows the
current to pass through the solenoid valve. Due to this the valve gets energized and the
magnetic field is generated which triggers the movement of the plunger against the
action of the spring. Due to this the plunger moves in upwards direction, which allows
the opening of the orifice. At this instant, the flow of the fluid is allowed from the inlet
port to the outlet port.

2.5.3 Relay

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate

a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used [11].
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal, or
where several circuits must be controlled by one signal [12]. Figure 2.7 show a
structure of the relay.
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Figure 2.7: Relay Construction

Relays have the exact working of a switch. So, the same concept is also applied. A
relay is said to switch one or more poles. Each pole has contacts that can be thrown in
mainly three ways. They are:

▪ Normally Open Contact (NO) – NO contact is also called a make contact. It

closes the circuit when the relay is activated. It disconnects the circuit when
the relay is inactive.
▪ Normally Closed Contact (NC) – NC contact is also known as break contact.
This is opposite to the NO contact. When the relay is activated, the circuit
disconnects. When the relay is deactivated, the circuit connects.
▪ Change-over (CO) / Double-throw (DT) Contacts – This type of contacts is
used to control two types of circuits. They are used to control a NO contact and
also a NC contact with a common terminal. According to their type they are
called by the names break before make and make before break contacts.

Figure 2.8: Relay Working Concept

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The diagram Figure 2.8 shows an inner section diagram of relay. An iron core
is surrounded by control oil. As shown, the power source is given to the electromagnet
through a control switch and through contacts to the load. When current starts flowing
through the control oil, the electromagnet starts energizing and thus intensifies the
magnetic field. Thus, the upper contact arm starts to attract to the lower fixed arm and
thus closes the contacts causing a short circuit for the power the load. On the other
hand, if the relay had been already de-energized when then the contacts were closed,
then the contact move oppositely and make an open circuit.
As soon as the coil current is off, the moving armature will be returned by a
force back to its initial position. This force will almost equal to half the strength of the
magnetic force. This force is mainly provided by two factors. They are the spring and
also gravity.
The relay is mainly for two basic operations. One how is low voltage
application or the other is high voltage. For low voltage applications, more preference
will be given to reduce the noise of the whole circuit. For high voltage application,
they are mainly designed to reduce a phenomenon called arcing.
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2.5.4 DC Motor Pump

Figure 2.9 shows the DC motor with pump assembly used in my project. This motor
has a pump assembly attached to it to pump liquids. The motor used in our project is
rated at 12 V DC and draws about 3.5 A current.

Liquid Outlet

Power Cable

Liquid inlet

Figure 2.9: DC motor pump

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2.6 Software requirement

To control a process using PLCs, it is required to program the PLC according to the
desired control logic. One of the reasons for PLCs gaining so much popularity is that,
they can be programmed using simple and intuitive programming technique. In this
project, ladder diagrams is used to implement the control logic. Every PLC
manufacturer provides their own software interface to program the PLCs. The software
provided by Omron Company is named ‘CX-Programmer’. This software is user
friendly and provides efficient functions for configuring and programming the PLC
using ladder diagram.

2.6.1 CX- Programmer

CX-Programmer, the programming software for all Omron's PLC series, is fully
integrated into the CX-One software suite. CX-Programmer includes a wide variety of
features to speed up the development of your PLC program. New parameter-setting
dialogues reduce setup time, and with standard function blocks in IEC 61131-3
structured text or conventional ladder language, CX-Programmer makes development
of PLC programs a simple drag & drop configuration.

Figure 2.10: CX-Programmer Software