The Arts and Crafts of Tibet and the Eastern Himalayas

Author(s): J. Claude White

Source: Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 58, No. 2998 (MAY 6, 1910), pp. 584-594
Published by: Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41339145
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 584 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. May 6, 1910.

Maharaja of Sikhim was living in Tibet. The people
of Sikhim were for the most part Lepchas, and not
Tibetans at all, having a different language, and
possessing different ideas, and they were in dismay,
and bewildered with their own leading man, hostile
to their Thibetanising Raja, and no one to assume
control. The author was at that time on a depu-
tation to Sikhim for the purpose of making roads
and bridges, and thus acquired so much personal in-
fluence over the leading men in Sikhim that his
advice, experience, and knowledge of what was
going on was everything to the Government at the
time. UJtimately, when the little war was over,
and the Tibetans had been driven out of the
country, and a hollow peace had been made
with Tibet, the Maharaja of Sikhim was brought
back to his country, and had to live there,
the author being put in charge as guide and
counsellor. Ever since then things had gone on most
amicably. The author had managed to increase the
revenues of Sikhim, and largely to increase the culti-
vation ; to establish industries, to make ways and
communications, and, in fact, to bring the country
into the flourishing state it was now in. During
those twenty years the author naturally acquired con-
siderable influence with, and knowledge of, the leading
men in the other States round about, such as Nepal
and Bhutan, and that was very useful when, as
assistant to Sir Francis Younghusband, he was sent
on the expedition to Tibet. The author had a good
deal to do with smoothing the way, both materially
and morally, in the early part of that expedition, and
the knowledge he possessed came in very useful later
on. Mr. Claude White became intimately acquainted
with the leading man in Bhutan, and had large deal-
ings with him during the Tibetan Expedition, the
result of which was that he was invited to Bhutan.
To understand what that meant, it was necessary to
explain that forty-five years had elapsed since this
country had had any friendly communication of any
sort with the rulers of Bhutan. In 1865 the last
Treaty was made with Bhutan, after Ashley Eden's
Commission had been sent back, insulted and
outraged, with the result that a little war ensued,
and the lower part of the submontane country, or
" Doars," was occupied by British troops. Compen-
sation was paid to Bhutan for their loss of revenue,
and, except for the purpose of paying that annual
subsidy, the Government of India had had no com-
munication whatever, so far as he knew, with the rulers
of Bhutan. Two minor officiais had come every year 1
and received the subsidy, and that was all that had
taken place until the author's acquaintance with the
Tongsa Penlop began. That led to the author being
invited into the country, and becoming the friend and and have overrun Sikhim, while a steady flow
counsellor of the Tongsa Penlop, who was now the
Maharaja of Bhutan. It had also led indirectly to the ing a very sure foothold in all the lower hills.
treaty which had been entered into between Bhutan
and this country, which brought Bhutan distinctly
within the British sphere of influence, and removed
any immediate danger of its being absorbed by China. completely swamp the indigenous population.
Apart from the record he had given of the author's
work, his profession as an engineer had been of great
use to him. He also possessed a great personality ;
he was a man of considerable artistic taste and know-
ledge, and he was also a very fine photographer ; and
his skill in that direction the audience would have an
opportunity of judging.
The paper read was -
THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF TIBET
AND THE EASTERN HIMALAYAS.
By J. Claude White, C.I.E.
Recent events in Tibet and the flight of the
Délai Lama to India, consequent on his disa-
greement with China and Chinese officials in-
Lhasa/bring the independent States of Nepal,
Sikhim, and Bhutan, on our North-East frontier,
into considerable prominence. China, under
this new development, advances more closely
to our frontier and acquires greater facilities-
for intrigue in the three border States. How-
ever, it is satisfactory to learn that the policy
v/hich I have persistently advocated in regard
to Bhutan has now been adopted by the Govern-
ment of India, and that a new treaty with
Bhutan has been signed, by which Chinese
interference is, to a great extent, excluded,
and which also gives to the new Maharaja,
Sir Ugyen-Wang-chuk, an increased revenue
with which to carry out the many improve-
ments he has so much at heart.
These events may possibly make the; public
more anxious to hear something about these
States, but in a paper of this description 1
have only time for a very brief account.
To begin with the ethnology. The countries-
of Nepal, Sikhim, and Bhutan are inhabited by
a very heterogeneous mass of people, who may
be divided roughly into
1. Paharias in the West,
2. Bhuteas or Lepchas in the middle country,
3. Bhutanese in the East,
4. Other tribes still further to the East in
Eastern Bhutan.
Of those known collectively as Paharias, or
dwellers in the Hills, the greater number in-
habit Nepal, and in addition form by far the
largest portion of the population of these
regions. They are increasing very rapidly,
continues into Bhutan, where they are obtain-
In Sikhim they now form three-fourths of the
population, and, so prolific are they, I am
afraid that before many generations they will

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 May 6, 1910. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 585
111 Sikhim and Bhutan, and in the meantime
will make the government of the States ex-
tremely difficult for their rulers. They do
flot assimilate themselves in any way to the
country of their adoption, but carry with them
their own manners, customs, and religion.
The difficulty is augmented by the fact that
no Bhutea or Bhutanese cares to inhabit or
even to enter the lower hills during the rainy
season, and, therefore, the settlers are left
practically to their own devices for over half
the year, and, consequently, are quite out of
touch with their rulers.
Nepal has already so often been fully de-
scribed that I will pass at once to Sikhim, where
the Nepalese and Paharia tribes and castes,
■of which I give a fairly full, though not com-
plete, list in Appendix I., are very fully repre-
sented. By religion the Paharias are Hindoos
either by birth, adoption, or conversion, al-
though there are still a few Nepalese Paharia
tribes who are still Buddhists, not having
entirely gone over to Hindooism, such as the
Newars, Sherpas, Murmis, and a few others.
Their language is chiefly Parbatia, a dialect
of Hindu.
I will now show you some slides of
Paharias: - 1. Nepalese captain and his wife.
2. Paharia women. 3. Paharia women and
men. 4. Paharia children. 5. Paharia girl,
with a child in basket. 6. Paharia men. 7.
Wood carvers. 8. Silversmiths. 9. Weavers.
The Bhuteas living in Sikhim are of Tibetan
origin, and are divided into 44 clans and sub-
clans, of which a list is given in Appendix II.
They entered Sikhim, the greater number from
Tibet and the remainder from the adjacent
valleys of Hah and Chumbi. Their religion
is Buddhism, and they talk a Tibetan dialect.
Eight families of a clan called Bab-tsen-
gyat, set out from Kham, reached Lhasa,
and then gradually went on to Sakya. One
of the most prominent amongst them came to
be called Gyet-bum-sar (a hero equalling a lac
of persons) on his being able to raise up the four
famous pillars of the celebrated Sakya Monas-
tery, a feat which had defied the combined
■efforts of the entire congregation, which won
him the above name. The great Sakya Pen-
chen- Rim-po-che (the hierarch of Sakya
Monastery) gave him a prophetic injunction
to proceed Southwards, and that he would be-
come the ruler of a country. In obedience
to these injunctions he proceeded Southwards
-and founded the Pashi Monastery, and at
Phari he built another monastery, called
Sam - duk Lha r khang, which still exists.
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Gradually he came and settled down at
Tromo (Chumbi Valley), whence he paid a
visit in Sikhim to one Thek-kong Salang, who
was then said to be an incarnation of the
Guru-Rimpo-che (Padma Sambhawa) and
accredited with having lived 300 years.
Thek-kong Salang conferred, at his request,
the boon of three sons, at a place called
Tacktsen, a cave a little below Pheongong
La, and hence the three sons came
to be called Tack-tsen-dar brothers. They
were bred up in Chumbi, and when they
had attained the full age, their father asked
them one by one what life each would like to
live. The eldest is said to have preferred a
roving nomadic sort of life, and he was called
Kyao-rab. He became the ancestor of Yul-
thon-pa clan, who thenceforth emigrated from
place to place. The next said he would
become an agriculturist, and he was called
Langmorab. He became the ancestor of the
Ling-ze-pa clan. The third or youngest
said he would accumulate grains and corn,
and get people to work for him. So
the father predicted that he would be a
chief amongst men, and called him Mi-pon-
rab. Subsequently Mi-pon-rab married a lady
of a high rank from the Sakya hierarch' s
family, who, after her marriage, went back to
Sakya -jong to pay a visit to her parents whilst
pregnant, and was delivered of a son at Sakya-
jong. This son was called Shang-po-dar (from
Shangpo, a maternal uncle), because he was
born while the mother was at her parents'
home (the term Shang-po-dar means prolific
maternal uncle). The second son, being born
while a puja was being held on the 10th of the
moon, was called Tse-Chu-dar. The third
son, being born on Sunday, was called Nima
Gyalpo. The fourth, or the youngest son, was
born whilst a consecration service was being
held ona completed image of Guro-Rimpo-che
(Padma Sambhawa), and he was called Guru
Tashi, This latter was the family from which
the present Royal family of Sikhim is de-
scended. The descendant tribes from these
four brothers were called Tong-du-ru-zi (the
four divisions of the 100,000 equalling heroes).
I now show you slides of Bhuteas : - 1 . Bhutea
girls and boy. 2. Bhutea woman. 3. Crowd of
women, showing head-dresses.
The Lepchas are the original inhabit-
ants of Sikhim and the adjoining valleys
in Nepal and Bhutan. (See Appendix
III.) Their origin is uncertain, but it is
improbable that they entered Sikhim from
across the Himalayas, and more probable that
 586 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. кау 6, 19ю.
they migrated from the East along the foot
hills till they found suitable localities, and
then settled down. They are a race which
possesses a language of its own and many
distinctive characteristics. They are of a mild
and gentle temperament, fond of solitude, and
are excellent entomologists and naturalists,
having names of their own for all animals,
birds, insects, and plants, the number of which
exceeds that in any other similar area 'in the
world. They are not good cultivators, and
are improvident, but withal a very charming
and interesting people. They profess Budd-
hism, but also worship the spirits of the moun-
tains and forests.
I give you slides of a few of these people : -
I. The Maharani of Sikhim. 2. Lepcha Lamas
in dancing dress. 3. Lepcha man. 4. Pro-
cession of Lepcha priests at Tumlong. 5.
Lepcha cultivators.
The Bhutanese are of the same parent stock
as the Bhuteas, but, under somewhat different
conditions, have developed into a much sturdier
race, with a better physique and greater in-
dependence of character. The Bhuteas are
the Tibetans who have migrated into Sikhim :
the Bhutanese are the Tibetans who have
entered Bhutan. Their religion is Buddhism,
and their language an offshoot of Tibetan.
They came originally from the monasteries of
Sakya and Ralong, in Tibet.
I show some interesting slides of these
people : -
I. His Highness Sir Ugyen Wang-chuk, Maharaja
of Bhutan. 2. Lamas. 3. Women in ancient
costume. 4. Women in modern costume. 5. Bhutan
orderlies. 6. Sir Ugyen and councillors. 7. Lamas
and novices. 8. Men dancing. 9. Lama band.
The tribes in the East of Bhutan have their
origin in the hills still further to the East,
and in the plains of India. They differ in
physique, language, and general appearance
from the other inhabitants of India. Their
language is one peculiar to themselves and
differs in each valley, so much so that it is diffi-
cult for a man from one village to understand
those in the next.
The Tibetans, although of the same original
stock as the Bhuteas and the Bhutanese,
are very much smaller in stature, and are
much dirtier on the whole, and, owing to the
depressing effect of the very corrupt Lamaism
by which they are governed, of a very much
more cringing disposition.
Slides of Tibetans : -
i. Doctor.
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2. Avatar of the Lhalung Monastery and his
teachers.
3. Tibetans.
4. Nuns of the Tutsung Nunnery near Kbam-
ba Jong.
5. Tibetan woman.
In this paper I need give no account of the
Government of Sikhim,. which is to be found in
the Sikhim Gazette of 1З94. Sikhim is super-
vised by the Government of India, and in my
limited space of time I can give only a very
brief outline of the administration of Bhutan.
The Government of Bhutan has remained
almost unchanged since the days when the
Tibetan Lamas from Sakya and Ralong first
migrated to the South, and the laws still in
force are those which were formulated by
Dugom Dorji in the sixteenth century. For
an account of them I must refer you to my
book, " Sikhim and Bhutan (Arnold), where
they are given in full, as it would take too long
to recount here. It will suffice to say that the
Government of Bhutan until quite lately has*
always been a dual one, with a spiritual as well
as a temporal ruler. The spiritual ruler is the
incarnation of the Shabdung Rimpoche in
the person of the Dharma Raja, and the
temporal ruler is the Deb Raja, not neces-
sarily a Lama. The former attended to-
all matters spiritual and the latter to those
temporal. This arrangement existed as late-
as 1907, when the people of Bhutan, finding
that owing to the opening up of intercourse
with other countries the old-fashioned system
was attended with great inconvenience,
decided to elect their Tongsa Penlop,
Sir Ugyen Wang - chuk, to be their new
Maharaja. The Deb Raja, who was also
acting as Dharma Raja, owing to the latter
being in abeyance, i.e., his spirit not having
re-appeared on earth, resigned his position
as Deb, and retired into a monastery to live a
life of contemplation, while the new Maha-
raja proceeded to rule the country with the
assistance of a council of headmen. Ihe
Council consist of six members, of equal
status, alwrays available for purposes of con-
sultation, wherever the Maharaja's head-
quarters may be. The country is divided
into four large districts, each administered
by an official called a Penlop, who has some
Jongpensand other subordinates for executive
duties. The intercourse with the outer world
has also made [apparent to the whole world
the fact that many of the old laws and
customs are unsuited to present conditions.
For example, the village boundaries, which»
 May ó, 19x0. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 587
were laid down, and the amount of rent
which was fixed, over 300 years ago, are
still in existence, and are found to be out
of date. The population of a village may
have diminished largely, through disease or
emigration, with the result that the smaller
number of houses are called upon to pay the
full rent, although, with their diminished
numbers, the inhabitants cannot utilise the
ground, and vice versâ when, in a village
which has largely increased, the ground is in-
sufficient for its support. On the other hand,
many of the laws and injunctions laid down by
the founder of Bhutan are excellent in every
way.
This dual control, with the balance of power
in the hands of the spiritual head, has led to
much abuse, with the result that Bhutan is a
priest-ridden country. Everything was done for
the monasteries and Lamas ; to the former were
given large grants of land, while the Lamas
were fed and clothed at the expense of the
State, with the result that the country cannot
now support the enormous incubus, and steps
will have to be taken to regulate and reduce
the number of Lamas in each monastery. The
laý population have commenced to see that they
would be better off in other countries, where they
have not to give everything they possess to the
Lamas. Consequently the lay population, in
contradistinction to the ecclesiastical popula-
tion, are rapidly diminishing, and houses are to
be found empty in every direction ; fields which
were formerly cultivated are lying fallow, and
irrigation works, with which Bhutan abounds,
are falling into ruin.
Arts and Crafts.
Throughout these hills the people are artistic,
and show most excellent taste in almost every
form of art and manufacture. The design of
their buildings is distinctly good. In Nepal,
they are built very much after the Chinese
style, with pagoda-like roofs, and are profusely
ornamented with excellent wood-carving, in
very bold designs, which give much richness to
the architecture.
Nepal building slides : -
i. Door in Patan. 2. Street, Bat gaon. 3. Street,
Batgaon. 4. Market place, Khatmandu. 5. Shrines,
Swyambunath.
In Bhutan, again, the buildings show
Chinese influence, but are of a bolder design
which has come from China through Tibet.
The sloping walls are very characteristic, as
is also the deep projections of the roofs, the
outcome of the very wet climate. But the
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lines are in all cases, excellent, the masonry
is well built, and the sites chosen are unex-
ceptionable, both from the point of view of
defence in the forts and for habitation in the
private dwellings. Buildings in Tibet differ
only from those in Bhutan on account of the
scarcity of timber and the difference of climate,
which, with its scanty rainfall, makes flat roofs
possible.
Bhutan Buildings.
Forts.
1. Duggye Jong. 9. Poonakhaa Jong.
2. Ditto. 10. Ditto.
3. Ditto. II. Angduphodong Jong
4. Paro. Jong 12. Tongsa Jong.
5. Ditto. 13. Ditto.
6. Tassicho Jong. 14. Ditto.
7. Ditto. 15. Ditto.
8. Ditto.
Domestic .
1. Courtyard, Tongsa's 4. Village.
house. 5. Paro Penlop's house.
2. Village. 6. Tongsa's sister's
3. Ditto. house.
Monasteries.
1. Guru Lhakhang 4. Gorina.
2. Parotaktsang. 5. Chutens.
3. Ditto.
Bridges.
1. Bridge at Angduphodong.
2. Same bridge as sketched by Turner 130 years
ago.
3. Bridge above Duggye.
Probably the most artistic metal work to be
found in Nepal, is in the silver, brass, and
copper beaten work and in the brass castings.
Many examples of these are excellent, such
as lamps, singhis or lions, pen-holders, and
many other things. The Nepalese also excel
in iron work such as kookris and sacrificial
knives. Their wood-carving is also very fine,
and I have seen some superb pieces of carved
work in doors and windows as well as in the
supports of eaves, &c.
Slides of Buildings in Tibet.
Forts and Monasteries.
т. Potala Lhasa. 7. Gyantze Jong.
2. ditto. 8. Khama Jong.
3. ditto. 9« Lhalung Monastery
4. ditto. 10. ditto.
5. ditto. golden il. The Orrcle's room»
roofs. Nechung.
6. Tuwa Jong.
Domestic .
i. Lalu house, Lhasa. 2. Street, Lhasa.
3. Street, Lhasa.
 588 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. May 6, x9zo.
In Sikhim also some very good silver work
is done, now chiefly by Paharia workmen,
although there are some few Bhutanese who
are very skilful. The Lepchas and Bhu-
tanese are good carvers in wood, and all the
interior decorations of the temples are first
carved in wood and subsequently painted.
They also weave good cotton cloths, known
locally as Lepcha chudders, made in strips in
white and colours, and latterly some excellent
carpets have been made at Gangtok by the
Maharani. I started the industry some
little time ago, and since my departure it has
been carried on by Her Highness, with excel-
lent results. She has had the weaving sheds
erected close to the Palace, where she employs
a number of village girls, and is very glad to
receive orders for carpets. I shall be very
pleased to give any information on the
subject.
Bhutan also turns out much excellent work in
silver and gold, and a pan box and teapot I
have are beautiful specimens of what they
can do. Their castings are also very
good, and the ornamentation of daggers
and swords could not easily be surpassed.
They are also good wood-carvers, and a
speciality in Bhutan are the appliqué and
embroidered silk banners, which show great
ingenuity of design, andare veritable works of
art. They are also adepts in weaving cloths
in wool and silk.
I attribute the excellence of the work obtain-
able in those countries partly to the tempera-
ment of the people, but even more to the
old feudal system still in force, which enables
a workman to put the very best he has into his
task and relieves him from the necessity of
working for gain.
In Tibet the workmanship varies consider-
ably, but some of the copper, silver, and brass
work is excellent. Their carving is also good,
and they turn out some good iron work in
swords and daggers, as well as in water bottles.
The arts in all these countries show very
markedly the influence of China. The designs
are many of them purely Chinese and the
Chinese dragon appears in almost everything.
The Buddhas also are generally excellently
designed and carried out, whether cast or
beaten out by hand.
My time, however, will not permit me to
enter further into the subject here, but I hope
I have said sufficient and shown enough
pictures of these countries to enlist your
sympathy in them, their people, and their
arts.
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APPENDIX I.
Order of Social Precedence in respect of
Nepalese Tribes and Castas.
High Castes and Tribes.
1. Brahman or Bahun. 3. Thakuri.
2. Sannyasi. 4. Khas or Chetri.
Intermediate Castes and Tribes .
5. Gurung. 12. Murmi.
6. Mangar. 13. Sherpa.
7. Sunwar. 14. Tharu.
8. Khambu alias 15. Thami.
Jimdar. 16. Hayu.
9. Limbu. 17. Khawas.
10. Yakha. 18. Charti.
11. Manjhi. 19. Kamara.
Low Castes.
20. Kami. 23. Badhi.
21. Sarki. 24. Gain.
22. Damai.
Remarks.
1. Brahmans eat rice cooked only by members of
their own caste. They drink water from the hands
of members of castes Nos. 2 to 19.
2. Sannyasis eat rice cooked by Brahmans, Tha-
kuris, and Khas only. They drink water from the
hands of members of all castes up to No. 19.
3. Thakuris eat rice cooked by Brahmans only.
They drink water from the hands of members of all
casts up to No. 19.
4. Khas or Chetri eat rice cooked by Brahmans
or Thakuris only. They drink water from the hands
of members of all castes up to No. 19.
5. Nos. 5 to 9 eat rice only but not dal. Drink
water from the hands of members of all castes up to
No. 19.
6. Nos. 20 and 2 1 eat rice cooked by and drink water
from the hands of members of the Kami and Sarki
castes only.
7. Nos. 20 to 24. These five castes do not have Brah-
mans as priests. Their priests are members of their
own castes.
N.Bň - (1) Castes Nos. 20 to 24 have no dealings
of any kind with castes Nos. 1 to 20. They have to
leave the road on the approach of a member of castes
Nos. i to 19, and call out to give warning of their
approach. They may not enter the courtyards of
temples.
(2) The Bantor, Danuar, and Drai tribes belong to
the plains, and no one knows how to classify them in
respect of social precedence.
List of Newar Castes in order of Social
Precedence.
A. - High Castes, Nos. 1 to 7.
1. Devabhaju (Brahman and spiritual teacher).
2. Suryabansi Mull (royal family of Newars).
3. Srestha (ministers and other officials).
4. Karmacharya (officiating priest).
 May 6 i9, о. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 589

5. Joshi (astrologer). Sub-castes of Newar Castes.

6. Japu (cultivator). (Newar synonyms are Bali Name and Number of Caste as per List.
and Dokakawmi). 2. Suryabansi Mull.
7. Tiniacha (officiating priest at death ceremonies). 3. Srestha.

Б. - Intermediate Castes Nos. 8 to 28. Names of Sub-castes.

I. Thakungjoojoo.
8. Awa (mason). 1. Maike.
9. Kawmi (carpenter and sweetmeat maker). Si-
2. Bhanil.
Kawmi is the Newar name of the occupation of car-
3. Achar, alias Acharya.
penters, i .е., workers in wood, while Loha-Kawmi is
that of the workers in iron. Neither of these are the 4. Palu Banja.
5. Biju Kuche.
names of the castes, which is Kawmi. Chuñara is
6. Thaku Khule.
the Gurkhali name of a carpenter.
10. Cheata (burner of bodies of high caste people).
Newar Terms.
11. Chhipi (dyer of cloth).
12. Pung (maker of intoxicating liquor). The (a) Phungin means a beggar. A member of any
members of this caste are Buddhists. caste may be a Phungin.
13. Kumhar (potter). Kumhal is the Gurkhali (b) Bhanr is the Newar term for a prostitute of any
name. caste.

14. Chalan (musicians who perform when dead

bodies are taken to be buried).
15. Khusal (small-pox inoculator). A Newar
synonym is Sawa.
16. Duita (collector and seller of wood and fuel).
17. Gatha (gardener).
18. Gubhaju (Buddhist priest).
19. Baray (goldsmith and ornament maker). The
members of this caste are Buddhists. Bara is the
Gurkhali name for this caste.
20. Tama (metal utensil maker). A Newar
synonym is Dhusi.
21. Udas (traders). The members of this caste are
Buddhists. A Newar synonym is Urai.
21. Chhipa (dyer of wool, thread, &c.). The mem-
bers of this caste are Buddhists.
23. Kau (blacksmith).
24. Nau (barber).
25. Bhat (religious caste, receivers of gifts at
funerals).
26. Tati (weavers of cloths for dead bodies).
27. Katha (cut the cord at birth). The members
of this caste are Buddhists. A Newar synonym is
Manandhor. The jGurkhali name for the caste is
Salmi.
C. - Low Castes Nos. 29 to 35.
29. Pasi (washerman). A Newar synonym is
Sangat.
30. Nya (butcher). The Gurkhali name for this
caste is Kasai.
31. Jugi (tailor and musician). Kusulliah and
Suchikar are Gurkhali names for this caste.
32. Dauta (musicians). Newar synonyms are Dung,
Duni, and Dong.
33. Po (sweeper and burner of dead bodies, not
night soil remover, also executioner and worker in
bamboo). Pore and Porya are the Gurkhali names
for this caste.
34. Chama Khala (Mehter, i.e., remover of night-
soil). A Newar synonym is Chama Khalak.
35. Kulu (drum maker and currier).
APPENDIX II.
In Sikhim there are 14 clans of Bhuteas, of
whom the oldest were called Beb-tsan-gyat
(eight clans of Bebs). These are : -
1. Gon-sag-pa (Rai Lama Ugyen-Gyatcho Baha-
dur, of Yangang, is a descendant of this stock).
2. Nam-tsang-khor-pa.
3. Pon-po (Yangthang Kazi isa descendant of this
stock).
4. Tak-chung-tar-pa (Tun-yik We-sel Dorji, the
present Tibetan Head Clerk of the Maharaja's Court).
5. Kar-tshog-pa.
6. Trong-tod-pa (the present Dorji Lopon (Abbot)
of Pemionchi Monastery is a descendant of this stock) .
8. Do-khang-pa.
Some of these families came and settled
down in Ha and Paro in Bhutan. Hence their
family names have been derived from the
names of the different localities where they
settled. Of these the Ponpos (3) are again
sub-divided into five, viz. : -
(a) Nag-dig.
(b) Lha-sung.
(1 с ) Yo-chhag-pa.
(d) Na-pon.
(e) Pon-chung-pa.
The next are called Tak-tsen-tar, ©f whom
there were three brothers, viz., Yul-thon-pa,
Ling-zer-pa, and the third brother is the four
branches of the Tong-du, called Tong-du-ru-zi.
A brief history of their origin is set forth
herein.
They are the : -
1. Kyao-rab or Yul-thon-pa.
2. Langmorab or Ling-ze-pa.
3. Mi-pon-rab.
The following are the four sons of Mi-pon-
rab : -

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 590 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. May 6, i9u>.

(a) Shang-po-dar or Shang-dar-pa (the late old Of these the (4) Tod-pa or Tromo Tod-pa,
Linqua Lama, abbot of Pemiongchi Monastery, and so called from their having first settled in the
one of the members of the Sikhim Council, and Upper Chumbi valley, are again sub-divided
Rai Sahib Lobzang, Chhoden of Lingmo, are into -
descendants of this stock).
(a.) Tod-lha- god-pa.
(b) Tse-chu-dar (the old Khetsoperi Lama) and
( Ь .) Tod-jam-yang-pa.
Sakyong are descendants of this stock.
(c.) Tod-chhu-kha-pa.
(c) Nima-gye-po (this family is now extinct in
Sikhim). There are again Chumbi-pas. These are
(d) Guru Tashi or Shal-ngo Guru Tashi (Pacha also immigrants from Kham. They first came
kazi is a descendant of this stock).
down to Hah in Bhutan, and gradually settled
down in Chumbi and Lachen Lachung valleys.
These four families formed the Tong-du-ru-zi, They are : -
or the four divisions of the 100,000 equalling 1. Lha-ma-dar.
heroes.
2. Do-sheot-pa.
Guru Tashi's eldest son is called Shal-ngo 3. Geo-nyen-putso.
Aphag. Aphag's son was Guru Tenzing and 4. Agon.
Guru Tenzing' s son was Phutso Namgyal, who 5. Athubputso.
was elected and crowned as thefirst Maharaja of 6. Rhim- bar-ma.
Sikhim by a Council of three great Lamas, the There are other Sikhim Bhutea families of
chief of whom was Gyal-wa Lha-tsun chenpo, the following names : -
the great pioneer Saint of the Dzog-chhen-pa 1. Assam-pa.
sects in Sikhim.
2. Mang-be-pa.
The first Maharaja in Sikhim was Phuntso 3. Shag-tsang-pa.
Namgyal, and the first Prime Minister was 4. Na-mang-pa.
Chhag-zod Ringzing Namgyal, a Shang-po- 5. Do-rob-pa.
dar by caste. His son, Tschering Tenduk, 6. Ka-gye.
was the first Minister under him. They had 7. La-hog-pa.
their summer residence at Shangla, near 8. Mang-tshang-pa.
Pemionchi Monastery. It used to be called 9. Gang'gyap-pa.
Tag-chung Jong, and its ruins are to be seen
APPENDIX III.
to this day. The winter residence was at
Congpong, called Tom-chung Jong, also in The following are the names of the Lepcha
families in Sikhim : -
ruins, and is visible even now. This family
continued to be famous for its immense wealth. 1. Bar-phong-pu-tso-pa. (The name of this
One Si-shing Chug-po, a member of the family family is derived from a small place called Bar phak
who had once gone to Bhutan, was said to near Rinchenpong.)
be rich enough to feed the entire population 2. Aden putso.
3. Luk-sum-mo.
of Bhutan for a day. The Maling, Chug-po
Pagen, of Sikhim, a descendant of the above 3. Sung-gut-mo. (Phodang Lama and Khangsa
Dewan are the descendants of this stock.)
family, was said to have been rich enough to
feed all Sikhim for a day. 4. Sing-diang-mo. residents of Ligni in Samdong.
Besides the above there are other families of 5. Tar-shet-mo. „ Ghar Jong.
6. Nim-deon-putso ,, Upper Rangeet.
Tibetan origin. These came into Sikhim at
7. Atang-tondub mo ,, Lingmo.
various times since the Raj was established, 8. Ada-mo „ Samdong.
and are divided into groups (named after their 9. Te-li-mo ,, ff
place of origin) : - 10. Seriok mo ,, „
11. Ri-ghi-mo ,, „
1. Pu-tso-pa (some descendants of these families are
12. Bri-sha-khi-mo „ Mamring.
in Chongpong, below Pemionchi).
13. Lig-vo-mo „ Lingmo.
2. Lag-ding-pa (Richenpong Lama and Ralong
Lama are descendants of this stock).
14. Sam-bha-mo „ Namthang,
Chidam.
3. God-rong-pa.
15. Tir-ji-mo „ Samdong.
4. Tod-pa (Upper Chumbi valley people). 16. Thi-mik-mo ,, Ghar Jong.
5. Shar-pa (Kal on Da wat is a descendant of this 17. Yong-mi-mo ,, >t
stock).
18. Karthak-mo ,, Singtam.
6. Gyeng-pa (Phuntso-ngo-Jup of Gangtok is a
descendant of this stock).
19. Tor- z эк-то „ Wak. Choba-agye
and others.

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 May 6, icio. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 591
20. Kan-zam-mo ,, Rinchenpong.
21. Sambha-ton-den-mo ,, Neb, Samdong and
Lingmo.
22. Tam-yok-mo ,, Namohi and Ling-
mo.
23. Bri-ayeong-mo ,, Simick.
24. Sing-deo-mo ,, Ghar Jong and
Samdong.
25. Saman-mo „ Samdong.
26. Sig-non-mo ,, ,,
27. A-sheo-mo ,, Gangtok.
28. Sam-dar-mo ,, ,,
29. Tar-gok-mo ,, Rinchenpong.
30. Tuk-nyil-mo ,, Cheungthang.
31. Sing-yang-mo ,, Nepal.
32. Mulu-mo ,, Daramdhin, Raling
in Rechuk's land.
33. De-vong-mo ,, Ghar Jong.
34. Nim-bang-ma ,, . Daramdhin.
DISCUSSION.
Sir Francis Younghusband, K.C.I.E., in
opening the discussion, desired in the first place
to add a few words to those spoken by the Chair-
man in praise of the author. The author had
been for many years serving on the frontier of
India, and at the time that he (Sir Francis) was
put in charge of the Tibet Mission he had the
great good fortune to have Mr. Claude White
with him as a colleague. It was impossible for a
Commissioner to have had anybody more thoroughly
adapted for the work than the author, because he had
at that time served for fourteen years in Sikhim, and
was thus thoroughly acquainted with all the local
people, and most sincerely respected, admired, and
loved by them. He thought the achievement of
which the author would be most proud as the result
of his life's work was the bringing of Bhutan within
the British sphere of influence. He had often dis-
cussed that matter with the author, when they were
put in charge of the Commission, and a glance at the
map of the country proved how very important it was
that the Bhutanese should be thoroughly friendly to
the British, and support them in their advance to
Lhasa. Bhutan was at that time, as the Chairman
had remarked, practically isolated. The British had
very little influence there : the last Commissioner who
had been sent into the country was most disrespect-
fully treated, the natives opening his mouth, spitting
down it, and then sending him out of the country.
That was the last direct dealing this country had with
the Bhutanese. The Government of India authorised
the Commission to enter into communication with the
Bhutanese, and as the result of those communications
the Tongsa Penlop came into the British camp.
He himself was not present when the Tongsa
Penlop appeared, but when he subsequently saw him
he realised that the author must have thoroughly
established a friendly footing with him, because the
Tongsa Penlop was wearing Mr. White's hat ! That
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seemed a very small matter, but personally he realised
its political significance ; in the first place, because a
hat amongst those people was looked upon as a sign
of authority and nationality. The native hat was a
most distinctive feature of his dress ; the Tongsa
Penlop's hat was a remarkably magnificent one, and
as he had given it up for the author's wideawake hat
he felt some significance must be attached to the pro-
ceeding. He at once entered into conversation with
the Tongsa Penlop. At that time he (Sir Francis)
had just come down from Gyangtse, where the troops
had been attacked about six weeks previously, and
severe fighting had ensued. The Tongsa Penlop
immediately took a fatherly interest in him, and gave
him some advice, saying that if he would take the
advice of an older man, he should avoid going in for
such fighting in the future, or, if he let anybody else da
the fighting, he should keep a good day's march behind
him ! He told the Tongsa Penlop that that was not
quite the British style of fighting, and that what he
was anxious for was that the Tongsa Penlop should
assist the British in coming into communication and
relationship with the Tibetans. There was not very-
much to be settled with the Tibetans, but the
difficulty was that it was impossible to com-
municate with them at all. The Tibetans would
not receive the British letters or the British agents.
He told the Tongsa Penlop exactly what the
British wanted, and he replied that it was a very
small matter, that he could get it settled in no
time, and that he would go to the Tibetans and
arrange things. That seemed a very pleasant and
easy way of getting the Tibetan Mission settled, and
he was, personally, only too thankful to adopt the
suggestion. But he warned the Tongsa Penlop that
he thought he would find it was not so easy a matter
as he anticipated. The Tongsa Penlop accordingly
went and saw the Tibetans, stayed with them three
hours, and on his return said that they were the most
pig-headed and long-headed set of men he had ever
come across, but that he would have another try on
the following day. Accordingly he paid them a
second visit, which, however, was equally unsuc-
cessful. By that time the Tongsa Penlop was sa
interested and excited in the whole operation that
he said he would accompany the British troops ta
Lhasa. He did so, and was exceedingly useful the
whole way up, and at Lhasa itself. All the way
through the negotiations he was the British go-
between. He made suggestions for tiding over little
difficulties, and he (Sir Francis) could say with con-
fidence that but for the Tongsa Penlop the British
would not have obtained such a satisfactory settle-
ment at Lhasa. At the conclusion of the Mission
the Government of India gave the Tongsa Penlop the
K.C.I.E., and, fortunately, they were able to send the
author, who had been a persona grata with him, into
Bhutan personally to invest him, on behalf of the
Sovereign, with the Knight Commandership. It
seemed, perhaps, a small matter, but it was really
one of very considerable delicacy, and it was due to
 592 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. May 6, 1910.
the author's great personal influence with, and life-
long experience of the people, and his diplomatic
ability, that he was able to bring the mission to a
successful conclusion. The author also paid other
visits to the country, as the result of which Bhutan
was now within the British sphere of influence, very
.greatly to the benefit both of the British and the
Bhutanese. Two days ago, on the very day he
(received the invitation from the Society to take
part in the discussion, he received a letter from
the Tongsa Penlop, saying that he considered
him his old friend, and that he was having "an
extremely very nice time" in Bhutan; and enclos-
ing a gold medal, on which was inscribed a picture of
his palace on the one side, and his own head on the
other ; in fact, it was an exact replica of the Tibet
medal, which had on one side the head of the British
sovereign, and on the other side a picture of the
Potala palace of Lhasa. The Maharaja of Bhutan
possessed a great individuality, and it was very
satisfactory that he was thoroughly attached to the
British Crown. Of all the people the author had de-
scribed in the paper, those that he took the greatest
interest in were the Lepchas. Many present would
remember that in Mr. Herbert Spencer's writings the
Lepchas were often referred to, and were held up as
t) pes which civilised people ought to imitate. Their
particular traits were their mildness and gentleness,
and at one time they were reputed as not telling lies.
It was perfectly true they were very mild and gentle,
and he believed they did not tell very many lies, but
he feared the chief reason for that was that they had
not the imagination to do so. One very useful charac-
teristic they possessed, which was of the greatest use
on the Tibet Mission, was that they were very fine
butterfly catchers, or, as the author stated, they were
great entomologists. The Lepchas were employed
in the catching of the butterflies in the collection
which the Expedition made, some of which were
now in the British Museum. The author not only
assisted politically in the Tibet Mission, but he was
also the photographer, and many of the beautiful
photographs which had been shown were taken
daring the Expedition.
Sir George Birdwood, K.C.I.E., said all present
must have been deeply impressed by the photographs
shown, particularly those illustrating the architecture
of Nepal, Sikhim, and Bhutan ; and as Mr. Buckland
had, while reading Mr. Claude White's paper, drawn
attention to some of the structural features of this
architecture, and to the ornamentation of it, as also
of the sacred utensils, and arms and armour, and
household furniture, and vestments and jewelry, in use
among the peoples of those remotely secluded Hima-
layan States, one was naturally incited to search out
any clues that might be found in their history to the
origins of a building and decorative style, at once
so general and so special in form, so artistic and so
symbolical in expression, and so catholic and so sec-
tarian in its appeal, whether we regard art as but a
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servitor of semeiography, or the most revered hiero-
glyphs as no more than accidents of art. The tradi-
tions of the Yellow, or Turanian races of Central
Asia and China point to the West as the place
of their genesis, as those of the White or Aryan
races of Europe, and Persia, and India point
to the East ; the common centre whence all these
races took their exodus Eastward and Westward
being some vague where round about the Caspian
and the Black Seas, and extending, it might be,
up to the White Sea. Anyhow, when the Hamites
who founded the Chaldean or Early Babylonian
Empire, and the Semites who founded the Assyrian
Empire, and the Babylonian or Later Chaldean Em-
pire, first entered Mesopotamia, they found an earlier
civilisation already established there by a Turanian
race known as the Akkadians or Highlanders, and
Sumirians or Lowlanders [cf : Accad and Shinar of
Genesis x. 10] ; and from the deepest abysses of the
past this Turanian race would seem to have been in
communication with Egypt ; as their Hametic and
Semitic successors in the valley of the Tigris and
Euphrates continued to be for about two mil-
leniums after them. The researches of Terrien de la
Couperie would seem to establish beyond doubt that
the Chinese, and all the Chineses [Tibetans, and the
rest] were one with the Akkadians ; and that they
began to move eastwards about the thirtieth century
B.c., the date about which the European Aryas
began to move westward, and the Iranian and
Indian Aryas south-eastward to the plateau of
Persia, and the plains of Hindustan. The Chinese
apparently rested for some centuries in Tibet before
advancing to the Yellow River, their traditions naming
Tibet as the cradle of their race, their " Fairy Land,"
their ''Land of Long Ago," their Eden, their
Elysium, and their worshipful "Holy Land." The
elements of Chinese art, beyond those of autoch-
thonous derivation, were Akkadian ; and as com-
mercial intercourse by caravans was carried on right
across Asia, from the Mediterranean to the Yellow
Sea, continuously from the remotest antiquity
to the times of the Saracens, Tartars, and Seljukian,
and Ottoman Turks, the influences of Akkadian
art - [as modified in succession by Hamitic and
Semitic art, and even by Greek art, and later on
by the Christian art of the Nestorians] - were con-
tinuously operative on Cathayan art, however dis-
criminatively selected, and deceptively assimilated
to the idiosyncrasy of Chinese art. The influ-
ence of Egyptian art is to be traced throughout the
whole area of Turanian Asia, even to the inmost
recesses of the Eastern Himalayas. Naturally the
Grseco-Buddhistic art of post-Vedic India had a
direct effect on the Turanian art of Central Asia ;
and, when Buddhism was introduced into China and
Japan, on that of Farther Asia. But already the
influence of Christian Art in its Nestorian form, had
penetrated throughout Central Asia, and into the
heart of China, and was exercised there with ever in-
creasing force down to the date of the cataclysmic
 May 6, 1910. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. 593
conquests of the Saracens, and Tartars, and Turks.
Therefore, broadly speaking, the art of China, and
the locally modified reflections of it in Tibet, and
Nepal, and Sikhim, and Bhutan, is, as found to-
day, largely based on the ecclesiastical art of the
Nestorians, modified by the ritualistic, and indeed
ecclesiastical art of Buddhistic India: - for unlike
paganism, and like Christianity, Buddhism has its
"ecclesia" as well as " ritus. " The white robe of
the lady in one of Mr. Claude White's photographs,
to which Mr. Buckland had referred, is the Nestorian
surplice. The pectorals, and other amulets, and the
rosaries shewn, Avere Nestorian, and before that Baby-
lonian and Assyrian, and Akkadian, and Egyptian ;
similarly the weapons were all Persian, Assyrian,
Babylonian, Akkadian, and Egyptian ; and " the star
and crescent," on the shield, to which Mr. Buckland
pointed, was Persian and Babylonian, and the Biblical
text [Psalm lxxii., 5] : - "As long as Sun and Moon
endure," refers directly to this immemorial pagan
symbol ; as does the Biblical text [Malachi ix., 2] : -
" The Sun of Righteousness with healing in His
Wings," to the cognate Egyptian, Mesopotamian,
and Persian symbol of the feroher or " Winged
Sun." The windows in one of Mr. Claude White's
photographs, with their sides sloping inwards to their
tops, were typically Egyptian ; as were also the walls
sloped on their outer face from their foundations to
their tops, as seen in every one of Mr. Claude White's
photographs of the more substantial buildings. Their
inner faces were not so sloped. Taken with the sloped
windows, there can be no gainsaying the touch of the
yet living hand of Egypt on these brick and stone
strongholds, and royal residences, and religious
houses of the Turanian States of the Eastern
Himalayas.
The close resemblance between the Buddhistic art
of the Eastern Himalayas, and the art of Southern
India must have struck every Anglo-Indian present.
The explanation of it, although to be found well
within the historic period of India, is intricate, and
involved, but may be thus given in brief : - The pre-
historic Indo - Aryan art of Hindustan, on the
triumph of Buddhism, was driven into the lofty
valleys of the Western Himalayas [Cashmere, &c.],
and the more inaccessible hilly districts of the Dakhan.
When, centuries later, the reaction of Hinduism
against Buddhism had gathered overwhelming
volume, it swept the whole of Hindustan, and the
Dakhan of the denationalised, caste-breaking and
atheistical Buddhists, who, with their Gneco- Budd-
histic arts, were driven, as their last refuges, back into
the fastnesses of the North-Eastern Himalayas, and,
across the straits of Menaar, to the island of Ceylon.
At that time a more or less Indo- Aryan and Graeco-
Buddhistic art had flourished over all India. Then fol-
lowed the Afghan and Mongol conquest of Hindustan
or India north of the Nerbudda, leaving the Hindus
still in possession of the greater and securer parts of
the Dakhan, or India south of the Nerbudda. In
Hindustan the pre- existent arts of India were
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widely and deeply modified, being transformed
into Indo-Saracenic art of several well-marked
local varieties ; but in the Dakhan, especially
in the Tamil and Telegu, and Canarese districts, the
mixed Indo-Aryan and Graeco-Buddhistic, or Hindu-
Buddhist art of mediaeval India, that is, India of the
Puranic period, held its own ground, and has survived
there to the present day as unmodified as in Bhutan,
and Sikhim, and Nepal, save where its inspirations
'have been infected, and its exemplars vitiated by the
teachings of our English Schools of Art in India.
In conclusion, some expression must be added of
the unqualified admiration with which every one in
the room had been filled by the views afforded
them in Mr. Claude White's delightful photo-
graphs of the architecture, and its dependent
arts, of these Buddhistic States of the Eastern
Himalayas. There was the perfect adaptation
of the fortresses, and palaces, and monasteries,
although suggested by Assyrian and Egyptian
originals, to the romantic character of these seques-
tered Alpine countries, and the material and moral con-
ditions of their inhabitants. The sense of proportion,
the master-canon of all good architecture, was every-
where in evidence, and in every instance justified
by the subtle harmonies of its results, as in the relation
of the height to the length and breadth of the buildings;
of the doors to the size and purpose of the buildings ;
and of the windows to the spaces between them. [The
observance of this last rule of proportion is the salva-
tion of the old Admiralty, as seen from St. James's
Park, and its breach the damnation of the new one,
a contemptible counterfeit of Greenwich Hospital !}
Could anything be more pleasing, and altogether
felicitous, than the rare mastery with which these
interfenestral spaces are treated in some of the
more homely buildings photographed by a com-
bination, in an idiomatic form, of wood and plaster
construction, giving an unobtrusive dignity to the
simplest private houses ? Notable also was the stead-
fast reticence with which the ornamentation was re-
stricted to giving emphasis to the leading lineaments
of construction, and the breadth of treatment in
the general distribution of the decorative details,
thus securing great spaciousness and reposefulness of
effect, - as in the "Imperial Institute" designed by
Mr. Thomas Collcutt. The rarest artistic sensibility
was also evinced in the accent of added ascent giving
to the buildings hanging on hill sides, and of appro-
priate platitude to those stretched out along their
base, or beside the banks of rivers, or over level plains.
The highest architectonic skill as well as artistry was
shown in fixing these hanging palaces, and fortresses
and monasteries to the precipitous sites they climb so
erectly, and with such an appearance of sure-footedness
and stability ; obtained by giving their walls the slope
on their outer face already mentioned. This is an
architectural "prestige" or sleight, too often neglected
in our country, and in Europe generally ; and the
instinct for its suggestion and use is the true rationale
of the unfailing artistic merit of all the minor arts of
 594 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS. May 6, i9zo.
Nepal, Sikhim and Bhutan,- so unfailing true is it
of all times and climes that the people who seek first
good architecture have all other good things, in the
way of artistic industries, added unto them, and in
ever added super-excellency of art. One solecism only
was observable, the occasional obtrusion of a monstrous
idol from out of the superb sculptured work enshrining
it ; and simply because of its being a survival from for-
gotten savage dispensations, and therefore reverenced
as having in it something of divineness. But only in
a consummate artistic expression can even the most
sacied graphic signals truly connote Divinity, and far
lej-s, of themselves, approach divineness. The appa-
ritions of all this enchanting architecture, set amidst
an Alpine flora of lovely hydrangeas, laureolas,
skimmias, symplocoses, and gorgeous rhododendrons,
and wrapped at one moment in vagrant vapours,
and in another glittering under the summer sky like
the face of heaven itself, must have been the origin of
the Hindu fabled Vishmapana, i.eš " the Astounding,"
the aerial city of the Ghandarvas [t% Glendoveers " of
Southey's " Ciarse of Kehama "], sons of the sun-
shire, and the beloved of the loving Apsaras, or per-
sonified mountain mists, figuied as the fairest of fair
women to the waist, and below it as serpents, - after
the fashioning of our own marsh minny, Melusine,
on the gingerbread cakes at the fairs held over
the whole countryside about the castle of Lusignan
in Poictiers ; and, again, of the "Sirene" in the
peasant, talismanic jewelry of Naples. To the
rise and fall of far off melodies, it alternately
floats into sight, and then away again before you
can possibly photograph it ; just as St. Paul's
Cathedral is to be seen, and magnificently seen
from the tower of the National Liberal Club, to
appear and disappear at intervals in the light, fleeting
London fogs of October and April.
The Chairman, in proposing a hearty vote of
thanks to the author for his excellent paper, and to
Mr. Euckland for so kindly reading it and explaining
the photograph?, said he desired to correct one little
mistake Mr. Buckland had made in his description of
the photographs. A photograph had been shown of
a Tibetan with a thigh-bone up to his mouth. That
thigh-bone was a musical instrument. When he first
went up to those parts, being an unusually tall
man, he was particularly warned against dying there
and being buried in the country, because the people
dug up the bodies of tall men and cut off the thigh-
bone, the longer the thigh-bone the better being the
musical instrument. Personally, he was exceedingly
obliged to Sir George Birdwood for his interesting
remarks cn the ethnology of the subject, and the
history of the ornamentation. He was sure everyone
would admit that the photographs of the Tibetan and
Bhutan architecture were most enlightening. He
had seen something of the same kind of architecture
in Sikhim and on the borders, but he had no idea
of the admirable buildings and the beautiful decora-
tions which existed on them as shown to-night.
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Sir Evan James, K.C.I.E., C.S.I., seconded the
resolution of thanks, which was unanimously carried,
and Mr. Buckland having briefly acknowledged the
compliment, the meeting terminated.
SEVENTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING.
(i Continued .)
INDUSTRIAL ENGLAND IN 1754.*
By Sir Henry Trueman Wood, M.A.,
Secretary of the Society.
PART III.
Shipbuilding and Shipping.
Shipbuilding was one of the staple industries
of England in 1754. It was prosecuted on a
small scale at most of the seaports, and its
chief seats were situated on the Thames,
the Tyne, and the Humber. Measured by pre-
sent standards the largest ships of that period
were of very small size ; warships considerably
exceeded merchant ships in dimensions and
tonnage, whereas now the relative positions are
reversed and the largest vessels afloat belong
to the mercantile marine. In 1745, the official
" Establishment" for ships of the Royal Navy
was reconsidered and revised, chiefly because
of general complaints that English ships were
inferior in armament to French and Spanish
ships, carried their guns at too small a height
above water, were " crank" under sail, and
were structurally weak. About that time it
was not uncommon to copy ships captured
from the French, which fact is, in itself, an
open acknowledgment of the inferiority of
English designs and designers of warships. In
1747, for example, a 74 gun ship was captured
from the French, and about ten years later two
English ships were built on her lines and proved
very successful. The French and Spaniards
were then content with two-decked line of-
battle ships, while the Royal Navy favoured
three-deckers. The first three-decker built
under the Establishment of 1745 was the Royal
George , laid down in 1746, and not launched
until ten years later. Rapid construction was
not the rule at that time. Wood was the chief
shipbuilding material and after ships had been
put into " frame " they were often left for long
periods in order that the timbers might be
ť 4 seasoned" before the planking was put on
* Read on April 20th. Parts I. and II. were printed in the
Journals of April 22nd and 29th. The remaining portions
will be published in subsequent numbers.