Normal shock waves

In the previous topic, continuous flows were considered i.e. the flow
systems in which state changes take place gradually / continuously.
These processes can easily be identified and plotted.

In many flow situations, finite disturbances can be encountered. Even

though changes in fluid properties are large, the thickness of these
disturbances is extremely small.

Typical thicknesses are on the order of a few mean free molecular

paths and thus they appear as discontinuities in the flow and are called
shock waves.

A shock wave represents an abrupt change in fluid properties in which

finite variations occur in pressure, temperature and density in an
infinitesimal thickness region.

Shock wave is only of a compression type. It is instantaneous and

irreversible. Due to the irreversibility the kinetic energy after compression
is less than isentropic compression.

Shockwave occurs in supersonic flow since supersonic flow adjusts to the

presence of the body by means of shock process.

Subsonic flow can adjust by gradual changes in properties.

The simplest case is when the flow properties change in one direction
only. Such shocks are called normal shocks. If plane of discontinuity is
inclined to the flow direction then it is oblique shock.

Shock waves can be moving / propagating such as in case of explosions.

Consider a control volume (CV) that includes the shock region and an
some amount of fluid on each side of the shock.

The CV is extremely thin due to the fact that changes in properties occur
over an infinitesimal length (about 10−6 m) in the x-direction.

This permits the following simplifications to be made without

introducing error in the analysis:
1. The area on both sides of the shock may be considered to be the
same.
2. There is negligible surface in contact with the wall, and thus frictional
effects may be omitted.

Following are the other assumptions for applying the basic concepts of
continuity, energy, and momentum:

Steady, one-dimensional flow, adiabatic, no shaft work

Continuity
But since the area is constant

Energy

For adiabatic and no work, this becomes

Momentum
The x-component of the momentum equation for steady one-dimensional
flow is

With m˙ written as ρAV, the area from both sides can be cancelled. Now
the remaining ρV can be written as either ρ1V1 or ρ2V2
Typically the fluid / flow properties before the shock are known and the
conditions that exist after the shock need to be predicted.
The unknown parameters are four in number (ρ2, p2, h2, V2)

The four unknowns can be found through the use of the three governing
equations (from continuity, energy, and momentum concepts) if property
relations are known.
For the case of a perfect gas, equation of state is known. If specific heats
are assumed constant, working equations in terms of Mach numbers and
the specific heat ratio can be obtained.

For a perfect gas enthalpy is a function of temperature only. The energy

and momentum equations can be written as:

(1)

(2)

Using definition of Mach number, velocity of sound and equation of state,

the continuity equation for perfect gas is

(3)
Once the gas is identified, γ is known, and a state preceding the shock is
given in terms of p1, M1, and T1, equations 1-3 are sufficient to solve for
the unknowns after the shock: p2, M2, and T2.

The equation can be simplified as:

(4)

In the previous section, it was shown that

𝛾+1
𝑀∗ = 𝑀√
2 + (𝛾 − 1)𝑀 2

From above two equations we can obtain

𝑀1∗ 𝑀2∗ = 1

This relation is known as Prandtl’s relation. This can be written in terms of

velocities a*, V1 and V2.

𝑉1 𝑉2 ∗2
∗ ∗ = 1 or 𝑉1 𝑉2 = 𝑎 (5)
𝑎1 𝑎2

Since 𝑎1∗ = 𝑎2∗ . The proof is given below. The total temperature is

𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1 2
𝑇𝑡 = 𝑇 (1 + 𝑀 )=𝑇+ 𝑉
2 2𝛾𝑅

For the critical case the above equation becomes

 ∗ ∗
2𝛾
𝑉 =𝑎 =√ 𝑅(𝑇𝑡 − 𝑇 ∗ )
𝛾−1

Where 𝑎∗ = √𝛾𝑅𝑇 ∗ Eliminating T*

2𝛾
𝑎∗ = √ 𝑅𝑇
𝛾+1 𝑡

Since total temperature after shock does not change then 𝑎1∗ = 𝑎2∗ . This
proves equation (5)

𝑉1 𝑉2 = 𝑎∗2

By solving (4) and (1), (2) and eliminating M2 we get

(6)

(7)

From continuity equation and total pressure relation along with (4) gives

(8)

(9)
The end points 1 and 2 (before and after the shock) are well-defined
states, but the changes that occur within the shock do not follow an
equilibrium process in the usual thermodynamic sense.

For this reason the shock process is usually shown by a dashed or wiggly
line.

Note that when points 1 and 2 are located on the T–s diagram,
it can immediately be seen that an entropy change is involved in the
shock process i.e., s2 > s1.

The reason is that the flow through the shock is adiabatic but irreversible.

For isentropic flow, the area at which Mach number is unity is defined as
A*, which is used as a reference. Since shock is non-isentropic, areas
downstream of the shock cannot be referenced to the area upstream of
the shock i.e. 𝐴1∗ ≠ 𝐴∗2 .
For steady flow however mass flow rates are equal. m1 = m2

In was shown in previous chapter

𝑚̇1 √𝑇𝑡1 𝑚̇2 √𝑇𝑡2

or =
𝑝𝑡1 𝐴∗1 𝑝𝑡2 𝐴∗2

Since flow is adiabatic across a shock wave 𝑇𝑡1 = 𝑇𝑡2

𝑝𝑡1 𝐴1∗ = 𝑝𝑡2 𝐴∗2

For entropy changes some important relations that come from

combinations of the first and second laws can be used.

(10)

Differentiating the enthalpy h = u + pv

(11)

Combining equations (10) and (11) we get

(12)

Although the assumption of a reversible process is made to derive

equations (10) and (12), the results are equations that contain only
properties and thus are valid relations to use between any end states,
whether reached reversibly or not.
For ideal gas h = CpT and v = RT/P. We get
Using following relations

𝑅 = (𝛾 − 1)𝐶𝑝 ⁄𝛾

𝑇2 ⁄𝑇1
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝐶𝑝 ln ( )
(𝑃2 ⁄𝑃1 )(𝛾−1)⁄𝛾

(𝑇2 ⁄𝑇2𝑡 )(𝑇2𝑡 ⁄𝑇1𝑡 )(𝑇1𝑡 ⁄𝑇1 )

𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝐶𝑝 ln ( )
[(𝑃2 ⁄𝑃2𝑡 )(𝑃2𝑡 ⁄𝑃1𝑡 )(𝑃1𝑡 ⁄𝑃1 )](𝛾−1)⁄𝛾

But 𝑇2 ⁄𝑇2𝑡 = (𝑃2 ⁄𝑃2𝑡 )(𝛾−1)⁄𝛾 and 𝑇1 ⁄𝑇1𝑡 = (𝑃1 ⁄𝑃1𝑡 )(𝛾−1)⁄𝛾

After simplifications

(13)

The changes in various properties due to shock as given in equations (4),

(6-9), and (13) are shown in graphical form.

The conservation of mass and energy relations can be combined into a

single equation and plotted on an h-s diagram, using property relations.

The resultant curve is called the Fanno line, and it is the locus of states
that have the same value of stagnation enthalpy and mass flux (mass
flow per unit flow area).

Likewise, combining the conservation of mass and momentum equations

into a single equation and plotting it on the h-s diagram yield a curve
called the Rayleigh line.
Both these lines are shown on the h-s diagram in Figure. As will be
proved later, the points of maximum entropy on these lines (points a and
b) correspond to M = 1.

The state on the upper part of each curve is subsonic and on the lower
part supersonic.

The Fanno and Rayleigh lines intersect at two points (points 1 and 2),
which represent the two states at which all three conservation equations
are satisfied.

One of these (state 1) corresponds to the state before the shock,

and the other (state 2) corresponds to the state after the shock.

Note that the flow is supersonic before the shock and subsonic afterward.
Therefore the flow must change from supersonic to subsonic if a shock is
to occur.

The larger the Mach number before the shock, the stronger the shock will
be. From equation (9) and (13)
 ∆𝑠 𝑠2 − 𝑠1
=
𝑅 𝑅
𝛾 2 𝛾−1
= ln ( + )
𝛾−1 (𝛾 + 1)𝑀12 𝛾 + 1
1 2𝛾 𝛾−1
+ ln ( 𝑀12 − ) (14)
𝛾−1 𝛾+1 𝛾+1

The above equation shows that for 1 > 𝛾 >1.66, the entropy change is
always positive when M1 > 1. Therefore for a perfect gas, shock proceeds
from supersonic to subsonic.

Rankine-Hugoniot relation

The equation relating the pressure and density ratios (for the normal
shock) is called Rankine-Hugoniot relation.

Hugoniot equation provides a relation in terms of thermodynamic

quantities across the shock without inclusion of velocity / Mach number.

From equation (7) and (8), eliminating M1 we get

 𝑝2 [(𝛾 + 1)⁄(𝛾 − 1)] 𝜌2 ⁄𝜌1 − 1
= (15)
𝑝1 [(𝛾 + 1)⁄(𝛾 − 1)] − 𝜌2 ⁄𝜌1

The isentropic relation between pressure and density is

𝑝2 𝜌2 𝛾
=( ) (16)
𝑝1 𝜌1

Figure shows the pressure-density variation for isentropic process (Eq.

16) and for normal shock (Eq. 15).

The figure shows that

(i) for a given change in specific volume / density, a shock wave

results in higher pressure than an isentropic compression
(ii) weak shocks are nearly isentropic.

The shock wave, however increases entropy and consequent total

pressure loss, i.e., the shock compression is less efficient than the
isentropic compression
Operation of supersonic diffusers

When the flow at the entrance to a converging and diverging duct is

supersonic, the fluid may be slowed down to Mach number of unity or
greater at the throat.

If sonic conditions are achieved, the fluid may either expand again to
supersonic speed or can be compressed at subsonic speeds. In the latter
case the device is called supersonic diffuser.

It is used in supersonic wind tunnels and in engine intake.

A simple supersonic wind tunnel can be constructed using a converging

diverging nozzle and a test section. If back pressure is sufficiently
reduced the flow will be supersonic in the test section.

Even though the construction of such type of unit is simple but power
consumption will be high due to large pressure variation.

For this reason supersonic diffuser is used to decelerate the fluid to

subsonic speed.

The air is drawn from a large reservoir where the stagnation temperature
and pressure are Tt and Pt.

The wind tunnel discharges into another reservoir where the back
pressure is pb. The back pressure is controllable by means of a fan.
Several pressure distributions are possible as the wind tunnel is started
and back pressure is reduced.

(1) No flow condition (Pb = Pti) e.g. when the fan is not operating
(2) Subsonic flow in test sections and both converging-diverging ducts.
Fluid accelerates in converging sections and decelerates in diverging
sections.
(3) Choking - This occurs when fan speed is further increased. The flow
becomes choked in the duct which has smaller diameter throat.
If second throat is smaller then flow is choked in second one and the flow
is subsonic in test section.
(4) To obtain supersonic flow in test section, the first throat should be
smaller. When back pressure is reduced further, normal shock occurs
in the diverging portion of the first nozzle
(5-7) Unfavorable condition, the shock occurs in the test section
(beginning i.e. 5 or end i.e. 7) at the highest possible Mach number
and thus the losses are greatest

(8-10) With further decrease of back pressure, shock location proceeds to

second converging diverging duct which now acts like a supersonic
diffuser.

Shock stabilizes in the diverging section diffuser. Flow pattern 10 is

most favorable which is obtained by increasing the back pressure to
adjust the location of shock slightly downstream of the throat.
Moving Normal Shock

In many situations a normal shock wave is moving. When an explosion

occurs, shock wave propagates through the atmosphere from the point of
explosion.

Consider a normal shock wave moving in a stationary gas at a constant

velocity Vs with respect to a fixed observer. The conditions before and
after shock are ‘b’ and ‘a’ respectively.

Va is the velocity of gas behind the shock wave with respect to fixed
observer.

Now suppose the observer is moving with shock wave velocity. Now the
shock will be stationary with respect to observer.
Static properties are defined as those measured by a device which is
moving with absolute flow velocity. Therefore static properties are
independent of observer velocity. This means

px = pb, py = pa

Tx = Tb, Ty = Ta (A)

Velocity and Mach number before and after the normal shock will be

Vx = Vs and Vy = Vs - Va

𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑠
𝑀𝑥 = =
√𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑥 √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑏

𝑉𝑦 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑎
𝑀𝑦 = =
√𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑦 √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑎
Stagnation properties are measured by bringing the flow to rest with
respect to observer.

These properties thus depend on observer velocity. The stagnation

temperature of fluid can change across a moving normal shock wave.
The difference is:

𝑉𝑎2 𝑉𝑏2
𝑇0𝑎 − 𝑇0𝑏 = 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏 + −
2𝐶𝑝 2𝐶𝑝

But Vb = 0

𝑉𝑎2
𝑇0𝑎 − 𝑇0𝑏 = 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏 + (𝐵)
2𝐶𝑝

For stationary normal shock (which is obtained by moving the observer),

stagnation temperature will be same.

𝑉𝑥2 𝑉𝑦2
𝑇0𝑥 = 𝑇0𝑦 = 𝑇𝑥 + = 𝑇𝑦 +
2𝐶𝑝 2𝐶𝑝

𝑉𝑠2 (𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑎 )2
𝑇𝑦 − 𝑇𝑥 = − (𝐶)
2𝐶𝑝 2𝐶𝑝

Solving (A), (B) and (C)

𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑎
𝑇0𝑎 − 𝑇0𝑏 =
𝐶𝑝

Supersonic Pitot tube

Pitot tube is used to determine fluid velocity with the help of static and
stagnation pressure.
Experiments show that when flow is supersonic, a curved wave is created
before Pitot tube and flow becomes subsonic.

For supersonic flows therefore appropriate corrections are required for

finding the velocity.

Mach number / velocity of undisturbed flow can be found by following

assumptions:

The curved shock wave is normal to stagnation streamline i.e. Pitot tube
is parallel to uniform flow.

The fluid particles after shock are brought isentropically to rest. The
pressure ratios across shock and stagnation to static pressure ratio (after
shock) are predicted using following relations

𝑝𝑦 2𝛾 𝛾−1
= 𝑀𝑥2 −
𝑝𝑥 𝛾 + 1 𝛾+1

𝑝0𝑦 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾⁄(𝛾−1)
= (1 + 𝑀𝑦 )
𝑝𝑦 2
 𝑀𝑥2 + 2⁄(𝛾 − 1)
𝑀𝑦2 =
[2𝛾⁄(𝛾 − 1)]𝑀𝑥2 − 1

After solving the above equations:

𝑝0𝑦 𝛾 + 1 𝛾⁄(𝛾−1) 2𝛾 2
𝛾 − 1 1⁄(𝛾−1)
=( ) ⁄( 𝑀 − )
𝑝𝑥 2 𝛾+1 𝑥 𝛾+1

This relation is called Rayleigh Pitot tube equation.