(COMMENTARY — MECHANICAL It is the purpose of this Commentary to amplify, supplement and explain the basis and application of portions of this Report not covered elsewhere. ‘The ‘comments herein are not part of the Report but are added ‘a8 supplementary information, Numerals in parentheses, refer to the Section number in the text of the Report ALLOWABLE STRESSES (8.1) Progressive fatigue failures represent the most common mode of failure in steel milllerane machinery. The design criteria in Section 3.1 are, therefore, directed mainly to the prevention of cumulative damage to the material of mechanical crane components. Material strength properties have been treated on the ‘basis of ultimate strength because of the good relationship of the ultimate strength to the fatigue strength. Because every component, of a crane is subjected to dynamic loading (stress fluctuations), a material's fatigue strongth is of prime importance. Itshould be noted that the xyield strength of alloy materials can increase drastically at higher hardnesses, but the fatigue strength will be 60% or less of the ultimate strength. When alloy materials are ‘used, these properties should be cortified, INFINITE LIFE (3.1.1) Individual consideration shall be given only to the fatigue effects indieated in Section 3.1, Variation in material properties and manufacturing processes have been given consideration in the magnitude of the maximum allowable stress values. ‘Toachieye economical and light-weight crane components while maintaining a high degree of reliability relative to progressive fatigue failure, it is necessary that all detrimental effects on the fatigue strength be reduced to a practical minimum. This may be accomplished by allowing ‘maximuro possible fillet radii at all changes of sections, by avoiding abrupt changes of stress flow, improvement of surface finish, ete Hf conventional design and manufacturing methods cannot sufficiently improve an existing critical fatigue condition, special methods of improvement such as izinding and polishing, cross Gnishing, ease or induction hardening of critieal component surfaces, shaft shoulder reliefs, ompound or elliptical fillet radii may be applied Nondestructive testing of the raw material or finished componente mnay further decrease the probability of failure ‘The following ie a summary of conditions which will affect the fatigue strength of machinery component (1) Hardness or ultimate strength of material (2) Notch sensitivity and noteh ductility of material (8) Material composition (4) Material size (6) Process used for making raw material for component (cast, forged, hot rolled, cold rolled, ete.) 56 AISE (6) Dixection of material grain Mow relative to direction of principal stress flow (1) Type of heat treatment of material (8) Local material imperfections (9) Material temperature during operation (10) Surface conditions (ground, machined, hot rotled, cold rolled, forged, cast, welded, etc.) (11) Surface treatment (coating, plating, surface hardening, ete) (12) Direction of surface finish relative to direction of stress flow (19) Surface damage prior to cyclic stressing (24) Type and magnitude of stress concentration (For stress concentration factors other than those shown in the Report refer to R. B. Peterson “Stress Concentration Factors,” John Wiley & Sons, Ine., (1974), or other published documents) (25) Type and magnitude of residual stresses (16) Stress distribution within component. (Q7) Stress spectrum (resulting from all stross eycles during component life including stresses caused by impacts, unintended overloads, as well as natural and resonant vibrations during operation of the crane) (18) Stress fluctuation (19) Stress combination (20) Surface damage simultaneous with eyclic stressing (Gretting corrosion wear, ete.) Frotting corrosion is caused by repeated relative ‘movement (rubbing) of mating component surfaces under pressure, It has, generally, a very damaging effect on the fatigue strength of machinery components and must be given consideration by selecting proper material cotbinations and application of stress concentration factors. Frelting corrosion exists usually at press fits of tack wheels, gears, spacers, antifrietion bearings, ete, and ‘at component surfaces where bearing pressures are applied. Relative motions as small as 10° in, combined with moderate pressures will reduce the fatigue strength of the machinery component, Where heavy fretting actions exist, an increase of material strength usually does not improve the fatigue strength of the component. FINITELIFE (8.1.2) The total spectrum of stresses which crane component might experience during its expected life should be carefully evaluated to insure maxinum reliability. In many cases, unintended overloads and impact forces do exceed the rated load and produce « number of stress cycles exceeding the number of cycles which define the endurance limit of the material used. Adequate cerviee factors, must, therefore, be applied to ‘account for these unintentional overload condition Service faclors may be increased in areas where larger safety margins are desired, for example, in critical areas of hot metal ladle cranes,{ » WORKING STRI 5) The basie stress formulae have been listed to achieve uniformity in the recording and combining of design stresses throughout the industry, Where applicable, formulae and symbols used in design calculations shall conform as far as possible to the methods used in Section 9.1.5, HOOK SHANK (3.2.9) The value of 0.33 ayp is a rounded off value obtained by establishing the enduranee limit S, for the material and then by using this value to plot a fatigue diagram to establish the mean allowable stress. For this application, the allowable stress is 2 times the mean allowable stress. Se Ky Ki KeKyKeKySi¢ (P4930) endurance limit of mechanieal element endurance limit of rotating beam specimen surface factor size factor reliability factor temperature factor ‘modifying factor for stress concentration miscellaneous effeets factor S, is established for materials of 65,000 psi Gyr and 100,000 psi Gyr Values used are: 0.5 x Our 0.80 for 65,000 psi dy material and 0.73 for 100,000 psi oy material 0.95 for > 2 in. diameter K, = 0.814 (99% reliability) Ky = 10 K, is omitted at this stage, but must be included in the final stress caleulation Ky = 10 S, = 0.80 x 0.75 x 0.814 x 1.00.5 x our = 0.2442 op for 65,000 psi oyy-material ‘and S, = 018 x 0.15 x 0814 x 10 x 0.5 x our 0.2228 ci for 100,000 psi dy material ‘The fatigue diagram shows that the enduranee limit in normal fluctuating stress is: 2 x 0.1963 8926 dur oF 65,000 psi dur material ‘and 2x 0,1622 = 0.8644 oyy for 100,000 psi oypmaterial ‘The value 0.33 Oy for all steals is adopted as suitable for the majority of erane applications. Unusual hook applications will merit special consideration. Applications may arise where lower stresses, ‘would be appropriate to ensure compatibility with other hoist components, to reduce wear, or to provide an increased margin of safety. + Mechanical Engineering Design by Joseph E.Shiley, Third Eaton HOOK BODY (3.2.4), theendurance limitis established in the same manner as for the hook: shank where: Sy = KaBy KeKakKpS (Eq 3.82) S¢=0.80 x 0.75 x O814 x 1.00.5 x oy = 0.2442 oyp Where K, = Surface finish factor for machined or cold drawn stesl of 65,000 psi Sun. Surface finish factors for machined or cold drawn steel have been adopted, This allows for a roughness of 250u in, ‘As hook bodies, at the point of maximum stress are usually cleaned up by rough grinding, this is considered to be in ‘good agreement with manufacturing practice. ‘Note that the stress calculated by curved beam theary is, the maximum at what is, in effect, an inherent stress concentration, Thus further geometric stress concentration factors are unnecessary. ‘The extentof possible readjustment of stress due toplastie, strain is lese in the square or rectangular than in the cireular section: hence a lower nominal stress is appropriate, When designing components of lifting gear having square or rectangular cross-sections, therefore, the design stresses appropriate to the cireular or trapezoidal ‘erass-seetions should be reduced by 10.* + Ret: Edtora! notes, “Britsh Standard Handbook No. 4", 1959 Een: iting Tackle, Part2 TESTING (3.2.5) This clause permits the use of commercially marketed hooks. ‘The factor of safety from one manufacturer is 4: Lon alloy steel hooks, and 4.5: 10n carbon steel hooks Failure is reported to be by opening of the hook body. Fatigue testing has been carried aut. ‘A factor of safety of 5.0 for all steels is adopted for this stondard, It is anticipated that hooks selected on this basis will be more highly stressed than hooks designed to a maximum stress of 0.88 Gy METHOD OF ANALYSIS FOR A HOOK OF APPROXIMATE TRAPEZOIDAL SHAPE (3.2.4) The analytical method described in this section is intended to apply to hooks with cross-sections having a shape as indicated by the solid line in Fig. 3.12. This shape does not deviate significantly from a trapezoidal form, and is seen in many crane-hook sections (Fig. 9.18). This method, while approximate, is faster than the numerical integration method, and in comparative applications, it has been in close agreement. Essentially the analytical method assumes an equivalent trapezoidal section having an area equal to that of the actual section. The stress thus computed is then corrected for the stress increase in the neutral seetion (the fibers: nesrest the center of curvature are farther from the neutral axis than in the case of the equivalent trapezoidal section). AISE 57Itis assumed that the resultant load on the hools passes :hrough the center of curvature of the eurved part and that critical section is at 90 degrees to the resultant load. in Fig. 9.12, the solid lines represent the actual hock section, and the broken lines represent the equivalent trapezoidal section, The equivalent section is so chosen that, the shaded area A, is equal to the areas A, + Ay, Likewise, Ay is equal to Ay’ +Ay’. In Fig. 3.14, the distribution of stress over the section due to bending alone is indicated. Ib should be noted that the stress S, calculated from Eq. 3.33, yields the bending stress at point A at the inside of the ‘equivalent trapezoid. Because of its greater distance from the neutral axis the bending stress at point B in the actual hook will be appreciably larger than at point A by an amount S, as shown. IfL; is the distance between points B and A, the stress augment S, will be given approximately by: Equiv dation Actual Section A,’ Fig. 3.12 Typical hook cross section. | Late Ot required oF provides) Fig, 3.19 Fish hook configuration. 58 S,= hy) (@). (93.39) (ds (@). ihe vb at point Fig 9:10 fh eratin th sn rpc Stace on th etal eal Fro he equa of carer thoy, te dete (gy ay by sland andy cubation in B 399, bonnes Where: 8 Ka Ly “ (® where Kis given by Bq. 9.42 "The stress due to direct Lension is: 2 SF (Bq 3.35) where /,, = depth of equivalent trapezoid (Fig, 9.12). Stress distribution Neutral axis Fig. 8.14 Equivalent section. AISE