A Selected Chronology of

ComputerArt: Exhibitions,
Publications, and Technology

By CopperGiloth and Lynn Pocock-Williams

he following time line presentsa his-
torical review of computer art from
1960 to 1990 with an encapsulatedsum-
maryof technological developmentsfrom
the preceding fifteen years. To provide a
contextin which to see computerart, each
year in the time line has been subdivided
into threecategories:exhibitions,publica-
tions, and technology.Following the time
line is a selected bibliographyof exhibition
catalogues, books, and articles, and a
glossary of common technical terms. Due
to limitationsof space, it is possible to list
only a selection of exhibitions and
publications.
The chronology of technical achieve-
ments is meant to give an overviewof the
most significant events. While dates are
given as specifically as possible for the
introductionof these technologies, many
are only approximate.There are several
reasonsfor this; many of the technologies
were borrowedfrom other fields and their
true origins are therefore somewhat ob-
scure. Another complication arises from
the fact that many of the ideas were "in-
vented" severaltimes for differentclasses
of problems;that is, a new idea was com-
monly tried first in a research environ-
ment, then modified for use by computer
professionals,and then changedagain be-
fore being made availableto artists.
Given currentconcerns with taking art
in context, it seems impossibleandunwise
to separateany artfromits economic, his-
torical, social, political, or ethniccontext;
likewise, it is inadvisableto try to separate
computerart from technologicaldevelop-
ment and the intellectualhistory it imple-
ments and influences. The time line is an
attemptto presentcomputerartas a partof
the interrelatedcycle of technological in-
novation-> applicationof technology ---
effect on culture-> technological oppor-
tunities for artists-> experimentation->
art theorizing-> education-> intellectual
evolutionof culture-> technologicalinno-
vation, and aroundagain. By placing this
informationin a time line we hope to reveal
connections between the entries and pro-
vide a startingpoint for furtherpersonal
investigation by the reader. Finally, the
time line is meantto promotecommunica-
tion about events happening in different
international cultures and within the
realmsof art, science, and technology.
Researchfor the technology portion of
the time line and the glossary was done by
Chris Dobbs; others who contributedin-
clude Jane Veeder, Justin P. West, Patric
Prince, Suzan Shutan, Tekla McInerey,
and TerryGips.

TimeLine
Note: An asteriskafteran exhibitionlisting meansthata cataloguewasproduced.Completecitationsforexhibitioncatalogues,articles,
and books appearin the bibliography.Additionalbooks and articlesare listed in the bibliographybut not mentionedin the time line.

V Technology 1950 mid-1950s

1945
ElectronicNumerical IntegratorAnd
Computer(ENIAC) is completed (devel-
oped by JohnW. Mauchlyand J. Presper
Eckert)-the first general-purposefully
electroniccomputer.
1946
Firstpoint plottersare developed by
ElectronicsAssociates, Inc.
Xerox model D, first commercialdry
copier, is marketed.
"Light Gun," precursorof the light pen,
is developedby the militaryfor the
Whirlwindproject.
RCA develops a version of color televi- Line drawingplottersare developedby
sion compatiblewith black-and-white Benson-Lehnerand ElectronicAssoci-
technology (to become NTSC). ates, Inc.
1951 1959
CRTsbegin to be used as outputdevices MassachusettsInstituteof Technology
for computers. (MIT) Lincoln Labs develops first light
pen for the TX-2 computer.
1952 late 1950s
Ben Laposky photographsan image from CaliforniaComputerProducts(CAL-
an analog screen. COMP)develops plottersusing stepping
motors and moving-paper/fixed-pen
1954 designs.
D. Ross creates "Scope InputProgram"
on Whirlwind,the firstexampleof free-
handdrawingwith a computer.

Fall 1990 283

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V Publications V Technology
Dennis Gabor, "Inventingthe Future." William Fettercoins the term "computer
graphics"to referto plotterdrawings.

V Technology I. Sutherlanddevelopshis "Sketchpad"

W. Clarkand C. Molnarof MIT design system, the firsttruly interactive
the LINC (LaboratoryInstrument computer-graphicssystem.
Computer)-the first work station.

V Technology ASCII (AmericanStandardCode for In-

L. Robertsdevelops the first practical formationInterchange)is establishedas a
hidden-lineremovalalgorithm. standard.

I'd

V Technology Rand Corporationdevelopsthe first posi-

JohnKemeny and ThomasKurtzdevelop
BASIC (Beginner'sAll-PurposeSym-
bolic InstructionCode) programming
language.
Douglas Engelbartinventsthe mouse.
tioning tablet.
KennethKnowltonwrites BEFLIX, the
first general-purposeprogramminglan-
guage for computeranimation.

V Exhibitions
"MaughanS. Mason, Bela Julesz and
Michael Noll," Las Vegas, Nev.: Fall
JointComputerConference.
"Nam June Paik:ElectronicArt," New
York:GaleriaBonino.*
"Georg Nees and FriederNake," Stutt-
gart:Niedlichs Galerie.
"WorldExhibitionof Computer
Graphics," New York:HowardWise
Gallery.
V Publications
Gyorgy Kepes, ed., Structurein Art and
Science.
KennethKnowlton, "Computer-Produced
Movies."
MarshallMcLuhan, Understanding
Media: TheExtensionsof Man.

V Technology
Sony releases Portapak,the first inexpen-
sive, nonbroadcast-quality,
portable
black-and-whitevideo camera.

FriederNake, Hommageto Paul Klee, 1965, silkscreenon paper,

20 x 20 inches. Privatecollection.

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V Exhibitions
"P. Hertwig, K. Alsleben, FriederNake
and Georg Nees," Frankfurtam Main,
Germany:Galerie d.
V Publications
Allon Schoener, "2066 and ALL That."
EATNews, newsletterof Experimentsin
Art and Technology,is founded.
V Technology
Experimentsin Art and Technology
(EAT) is foundedby RobertRauschen-
berg and Billy Kliiver(physicist in laser
researchat Bell Labs) to promotecollab-
orationsby artistsand scientists.
E Alterio and R. Dunlareyof Teletype
Corporationdevelop Inktronic,the first
ink-jetprinter.

V Publications V Technology
ExakteAsthetik, special issue on "Art Centerfor AdvancedVisual Studies
from the Computer." (CAVS) is establishedat MIT by Gyorgy
EdmundC. Berkeley, "ComputerArt: Kepes to providecollaborativeenviron-
TurningPoint." ment for artistsand scientists.
Michael Noll, "The Digital Computeras R. Mastersand H. Fretheimof Control
a CreativeMedium." Data Corporationdevelop first touch-
sensitive screen.

V Exhibitions
"CyberneticSerendipity:The Computer
and the Arts," London:Instituteof Con-
temporaryArt.*
"On the Pathto ComputerArt," Berlin:
the parallelgroup in conjunctionwith a
joint conferenceof MIT and the Techni-
cal University,Berlin.
"Some More Beginnings:An Exhibition
of SubmittedWorksInvolvingTechnical
Materialsand Processes," New York:
Brooklyn Museum.*
"The Machine, as Seen at the End of the
MechanicalAge," New York:Museum
of Moder Art.*

V Publications
JackBurnham,BeyondModernSculp-
ture: The Effects of Science and Technol-
ogy on the Sculptureof This Century.
KawanoHiroshi, "The Aesthetic for
ComputerArt."
Douglas Davis, "Artand Technology:
The New Combine."
Leonardobegins publication. (Numerous
articles on computerart have appearedin
this journal, which continuesto be
published.)
V Technology
Oki Electric IndustryCompanyof Japan
develops a dot-matrixprinterin orderto
produceOrientalcharacters.
Ilfordintroducesthe Cibachrome
process.
RobertMallarydevelops TRAN2, the
first programfor the computer-aidedde- RobertMallary,Quad III, 1968, laminatedwood veneer,
sign of sculpture. 86 x 16 x 16 inches. Privatecollection.
Firstattemptsat 2-D animationsoftware
take place.

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V Exhibitions
"Computerkunst-On the Eve of Tomor-
row," Hanover,Munich, Hamburg,Oslo,
Brussels, Rome, and Tokyo.
"Event One," London:ComputerArts
Society.
Galerie Franzius-a gallery specializing
in computer-graphicsart-is foundedin
Munich.
"Tendencija4," Zagreb:Museum of
Modem Art.
V Publications
WalterBenjamin, "The Workof Art in
the Age of MechanicalReproduction"
(1955) appearsin firstEnglish
translation.
RobertMallary,"ComputerSculpture:
Six Levels of Cybernetics."

V Exhibitions
"ComputerGraphicsExhibition," Mad-
rid: MathematicalInstituteof the Univer-
sity of Madrid.
"InteractiveSound and Visual Systems,"
Columbus:College of Arts, Ohio State
University.*
"Software,InformationTechnology:Its
New Meaningfor Art," New York:
Jewish Museum.*
Venice Biennale, includes computer-
graphicsworks by A. Lecci, Frieder
Nake, Georg Nees, H. Ph. Peterson,Her-
bert Franke,and the ComputerTechnique
Groupof Japan.
V Publications
John Canaday,"Less Art, More
Computer."
GuntherPfeiffer, "Artand Computer."
JasiaReichardt,The Computerin Art.
Gene Youngblood,ExpandedCinema.

V Technology
Popularityof rasterdisplaysincreases;
vector displays decrease.
Color videotape recordersbecome
available.
Nam June Paik and ShuyaAbe develop
Paik/Abevideo synthesizer. Collette and CharlesBangert,Land Lines, 1970,
computerplotterand ink drawingon paper,
32 x 23 inches. Privatecollection.

V Exhibitions "Technicsand Creativity,"New York: V Technology

"Arteonica,"Sao Paulo.
"Artey Ciberetica," Buenos Aires:
Centrode Estudios de Arte y
Comunicacion.
"Eighth EuropeanSystems-Engineering
Symposium," Madrid:Palacio de
Oriente.*
"Exhibitionof ComputerArt," Kansas
City, Mo.: Nelson Galleryof Art.
"ManfredMohr:ComputerGraphics,"
Paris:Musee d'ArtModere.
Museumof Moder Art.* First microprocessoris developedby
Intel.
V Publications Michael Noll develops first random-
JackBurham, "Problemsof Criticism: access framebuffer.
Art and Technology." ThomasDefanti develops GRASS
HerbertW. Franke,ComputerGraphics, (GraphicsSymbiosis System), the first
ComputerArt. easy-to-programanimationlanguage.
JasiaReichardt,ed., Cybernetics,Art,
and Ideas.
JohnWhitney,"A ComputerArt for the
Video PictureWall."

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V Exhibitions
"Grenzgebieteder bildendenKunst,"
Stuttgart:Staatsgalerie.
"Multiple Interaction,"Chicago:
Museum of Science and Industry.*
V Publications V Technology
Sonia Landy Sheridan, "Generative Noland Bushnell invents PONG-the
Systems." first videogame;he founds Atari.
Dan Sandinbuilds the Image Processor
and distributesplans for this user-built
artist-orientedvideo synthesizer.

V Exhibitions "Interaction,Machine:Man: Society," V Technology

"Arty Computadoras,"Buenos Aires:
organizedby JorgeGlusbergas partof
the first InternationalConferenceon
Computingin the Humanities(ICCH)
(held also in 1975 and 1977).
"Artet l'ordinateur,"Bordeaux, France.
"The FirstInternationalFestivalof Com-
puterArt," New York:The Kitchen.
Edinburgh:ComputerArt Society. Videodiscs developed.
ThomasDeFantiand Dan Sandin estab-
V Publications lish the ElectronicVisualizationLab at
Douglas Davis, Art and the Future:A the Universityof Illinois at Chicago.
History/Prophecyof the Collaborationbe-
tweenScience, Technologyand Art.
William Newmanand RobertSproull,
Principlesof InteractiveComputer
Graphics.

V Exhibitions V Publications V Technology

"Aesthetikals Informationsverar-
beitung," Vienna and New York.
"Artet informatique,"Angers, France.
"Bat-Sheva-Seminaron the Interactionof
Art and Science," Jerusalem.
"InternationalExhibitionof Computer
Graphics," Montreal:Museum of Fine
Arts.*
StewartKranz,Science and Technology
in the Arts: A Tourthroughthe Realmof
Science/Art.
Bally introduces"Baseball" and "Gun-
fight," the first videogames with ani-
matedhumancharacters.
Sony introducesthe Mavica (Magnetic
Video Card)Video Card and Player-
precursorof Mavica Videodisc.
Firstattemptsat 3-D modeling and ani-
mation softwaretake place.

V Exhibitions
"B. Bek, V. Ziljak," Zagreb:Galerija
SuvremeneUmjetnosti.
"FirstElectronicVisualizationEvent,"
Chicago: Universityof Illinois at Chi-
cago Circle (interactivecomputerperfor-
mances are also held in 1976 and 1978).

V Publications
James Gips, Shape Grammarsand Their
Uses: ArtificialPerception,Shape Gener-
ation and ComputerAesthetics.
George Stiny,Pictorial and FormalAs-
pects of Shape and Shape Grammars.
V Technology
Betamax-first home half-inchvideo-
cassette recorder-is introduced.
Firsttruly personalcomputer,Altair
Microcomputer,becomes availablefor
$350.
Alvy Ray Smith (at New YorkInstituteof
Technology)develops PAINT,the proto- ManfredMohr,P-155 Cubic Limit, 1974-76, silkscreen
type of most moder paint programs. on paper,27/2 x 271/2inches. Privatecollection.
Benoit Mandelbrotbegins development
of the mathematicsof fractalgeometry.

Fall 1990 287

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V Publications
Ruth Leavitt, ed., Artist and Computer.
RobertRussett and Cecile Starr,Experi-
mentalAnimation:Originsof a New Art.
V Technology
Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniakdevelop
the Apple I and found Apple Corporation.
V Exhibitions
"ComputerGenesis: A Vision of the
'70's," Syracuse,N.Y.: Joe and Emily
Lowe Art Gallery,SyracuseUniversity.*
"L'Ordinateuret les artsvisuels," Paris:
Swedish CulturalCenter.
V Exhibitions
"Artand the Computer,"Worcester,
Mass.: WorcesterArt Museum.
"Artisteet informatique,"Paris:Swedish
CulturalCenter.
"EnergizedArtscience," Chicago: Mu-
seum of Science and Industry.*
"The Vasulka's:Steina:Machine Vision;
Woody: Description," Buffalo, N.Y.:
Albright-KnoxArt Gallery.
V Exhibitions
"ArsElectronica,"Linz, Austria:Inter-
nationalBrucknerFestivalis initiatedand
continues as a yearlyevent.
"Artisteet ordinateur,"Paris:Swedish
CulturalCenter.
"CyberneticSymbiosis," Berkeley:Law-
rence Hall of Science.
V Publications
FrankJ. Malina, ed., VisualArt, Mathe-
matics and Computers:Selectionsfrom
the JournalLeonardo.
V Technology
Scitex Color System-allowing for elec-
tronic image color correction,text input,
and layoutdesign and manipulation-is
developed.
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JamesBlinn develops "bump-mapping"
algorithmfor mappingtextureonto vir-
tual surfaces.
Society of Motion Pictureand Television
Engineers(SMPTE)forms High-
DefinitionTelevision(HDTV) study
group.
V Publications
CharlesCsuri, "3-D Computer
Animation."
V Publications
ComputerGraphicsWorldbegins
publication.
V Technology
ThomasDeFantidevelopsZGRASS, a
programminglanguagefor artistsand
educators.
Magnavoxintroducesthe laser-videodisc
player.
LarryCuba, lwo Space, 1979, still frametrom hilm.
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
V Technology
Apple introducesthe Apple II.
Alan Kay and Adele Goldbergof Xerox
Palo Alto ResearchCenter(PARC)pub-
lish "PersonalDynamic Media," which
introducesthe idea of the "Dynabook"
and contains the original ideas embodied
in the Macintosh.
Victor CompanyintroducesVHS (Video
Home System) format.
Half-inchvideo cassettes emerge as the
consumerformatof choice.
"Space Invaders," "Asteroids,"and
"Pac Man" sparkthe videogame craze.
Aspen Movie Map Project-a videodisc-
based projectthat allows a user to drive
arounda databaseof Aspen, turncor-
ners, change seasons, and go into
buildings-is designed by Architecture
MachineGroupat MIT.
V Exhibitions
"ArtIn/ArtOut," Chicago: Ukrainian
Instituteof Modem Art.
"InternationalFestivalvoor Elek-
tronischeMuziek, Video en Computer
Art," Brussels.
"Video Art: The ElectronicMedium,"
Chicago: Museum of ContemporaryArt.
"Struycken:Structures-Elements
1969-1980," Rotterdam:Museum
Boymans-vanBeuningen.*
V Exhibitions
"ComputerCulture81," Toronto:On-
tario College of Art.
"High TechnologyArt: A Congressional
Exhibition," Washington,D.C.: Library
of Congress.
"SIGGRAPH'81 Art Show" is inaugu-
rated in Dallas. (Exhibitionsare now an-
nual events, sometimes with a special
focus. A catalogue and a slide set are
produced.)
Bill Viola, Hatu Yume(First Dream), 1981, still framefrom
video. CourtesyMuseumof Modem Art, New York.
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V Publications V Technology
David Topperand JohnH. Holloway, TurnerWhitteddevelops first ray tracer.
betweenVisual Arts,
"Interrelationships 3M offers Scan-A-Muralservice.
Science and Technology:A Quantelintroducesits first digital video-
Bibliography." effects device.
JohnWhitney,Digital Harmony:On the First "Symposiumon Small Computers
Complementarity of Music and Visual in the Arts" is held in Philadelphia.
Art.
V Publications
Symposiumon Small Computersin the
Arts (firstconferenceproceedings).
V Technology
IBM introducesthe PC.
Music Television(MTV), the first 24-
hour satellite-distributedcable-television
programbased on the visual interpreta-
tion of popularmusic ("rock videos"), is
introduced.
Darcy Gerbarg,May I, 1981, ceramic tiles, 100 x 50 inches.
Collection of the artist.
Fall 1990 289
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
V Exhibitions
"Artand the Computer,"New York:
HansenGallery.
"Artists/Computers/Art," London:Can-
ada House Gallery;Paris:CentreCulturel
Canadien.*
"L'Artet l'ordinateur,"Paris:Compag-
nie Internationalede Service en
Informatique.
"Nam June Paik," New York:Whitney
Museum of AmericanArt.*
V Publications
Donald Greenberg,AaronMarcus, Allan
H. Schmidt, and VernonGorter,The
ComputerImage.
YochiroKawaguchi,Digital Image.
V Technology
Ampex introducesthe ADO digital-
video-effects device, the first system able
to move two-dimensionalimages in three
dimensions.
The Sony Mavica-the first still-video
camerato be able to store images on a
magneticdisc-is invented.

V Exhibitions
"The Computerand Its Influenceon Art
and Design," Lincoln, Nebr.: Sheldon
MemorialArt Gallery.*
"DIGICON'83"- InternationalConfer-
ence of ComputerArts, Vancouver.
"Electra:L'Electriciteet l'6lectronique
dans l'art au XXe siecle," Paris:Musee
d'ArtModere de la Ville de Paris.*
"Exhibitionof ComputerGraphicsin
Collaborationwith SIGGRAPH'83 Ex-
hibition of ComputerArt," Tokyo:Isetan
Museum and Hakuhodo,Inc.*
"Expositiond'art photo/electrique,"La
Chartreuse,Villeneuve-les-Avignon,
France:ComputerCulture.*

V Publications
Jean Baudrillard,Simulations.
Hal Foster,ed., TheAnti-Aesthetic:
Essays on PostmodernCulture.
LucindaFurlong, "Notes towarda His-
tory of Image-ProcessedVideo: Eric
Siegel, Stephen Beck, Dan Sandin, Steve
Rutt, Bill and Louise Etra."
GraceGlueck, "Portraitof an Artist as a
YoungComputer."
Myron Krueger,ArtificialReality.
RobertScott Root-Bernstein,"Paradigms Alyce Kaprow,Fazes, 1983, photograph,16 x 20 inches. Privatecollection.
and Revolutionsin Science and Art:The
Challengeof Interpretation."
Gene Youngblood, "ComputerArt as a
Wayof Life."
V Technology
Apple introducesLISA (Local Integrated
SoftwareArchitecture)and Apple IIe.

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V Exhibitions
"Artistas a YoungMachine," Toronto:
OntarioScience Center.
"CADRE '84," San Jose, Calif.: San
Jose State UniversityArt Department.*
"Immaginida Computer,Mostradi
ComputerGrafica,"Prato, Italy.*
V Publications
Stan Augarten,Bit by Bit: An Illustrated
History of Computers.
HerbertW. Franke,Computergrafik-
Galerie; Bilder nach Programm:Kunst
im elektronischenZeitalter.
Hiroshi Inose and JohnPeirce,Informa-
tion Technologyand Civilization.
Judy E. Sachter,"The Basic Conceptsof
Three-DimensionalComputerGraphics
for Artists."
Lee Silverman, "Inside the Loop: Com-
puterGraphicswithin the Technological
Highway."
Brian Wallis, ed., Art after Modernism:
RethinkingRepresentation.
Thomas Defanti, "The Mass Impactof
VideogameTechnology."
V Technology
Apple introducesthe Macintoshwith a
commercialthat emphasizes its total-
itariancontrol of information.This 60-
second spot airs only once but is replayed
as a news item.
Canonintroducesthe first consumer-
grade laser-printengine.
IBM develops a one-million-bitRAM
(random-accessmemory).
Mitsubishivideo printeris introduced;it
printsblack-and-whiteimages from
video signals.
WavefrontTechnologiesintroducesfirst
comprehensive,commerciallyavailable
softwaresystem incorporatingmodeling,
motion choreography,and rendering.
(All 3-D animationsoftwarehad been
availableonly in researchareasof indus-
try and academia.)

I,3_
V Exhibitions
"The Artist and the ComputerII,"
Louisville, Ky.: Louisville Art Gallery.*
"EmergingExpressions," New York:
Bronx Museum of the Arts.
"SIGGRAPHTravelingArt Show 1985,"
Tokyo:Hakuhodo,Inc.*
V Publications
Roy Ascott, "ConcerningNets and
Spurs."
KatherineDieckmann, "ElectraMyths:
Video, Modernism,Postmodernism."
FrankDietrich, "Visual Intelligence:The
FirstDecade of ComputerArt
(1965-1975)."
LucindaFurlong, "TrackingVideo Art:
'Image Processing' as a Genre."
CopperGiloth and JaneVeeder, "The
PaintProblem."
JoanL. Kirsch, "WhenWill Computer
Art Be TakenSeriously?"
BarbaraLondon, "Video: A Selected
Chronology,1963-1983."
JoachimSchmid, "The ElectronicPho-
tographeris Coming."
Visual Computerbegins publication.

V Technology JaneVeeder,Vizgame,1985, video screen image interactiveinstallation.Collection of

Amiga PC is introducedand used by the artist.
many artistsand educatorsas a personal
instrument.

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V Exhibitions
"artware:Kunst und Elektronik,"Han-
over:Messe AG and Siemens AG (first
exhibition;others in 1987, 1988, 1989,
1990).*
"The Computeras an Art Tool," Green-
wich, Conn.: HurlbuttGallery.
"Images Digital: ComputerArtistsin
Germany,"Munich:Galerie der
Kuenstler.*
V Exhibitions
"ComputerAssisted: The Computerin
ContemporaryArt," Reading, Pa.:
FreedmanGallery,AlbrightCollege.*
"Computersand Art," Syracuse:Ever-
son Museumof Art.
"The InteractiveImage," Chicago:Mu-
seum of Science and Industry.
"The Second EmergingExpressionBien-
nial: The Artist and Computer,"New
York:Bronx Museumof the Arts.*
V Publications
CynthiaGoodman,Digital Visions.
Hal Foster,ed., Discussions in Contem-
porary Culture:NumberOne.
CatherineRichards, "VirtualWorlds,
Digital Images."
V Exhibitions
"Computersand Art," New York:IBM
Galleryof Science and Art.
"Digital Photography:CapturedImages,
Volatile Memory,and New Montage,"
San Francisco:SF Camerawork.*
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V Publications V Technology
Rene Berger and Lloyd Eby, eds., Art Megaprint,a laser-scanningcomputer-
and Technology. airbrushsystem, producesbillboard-scale
Nancy Burson, RichardCarling, and prints.
David Kramlich,Composites:Computer-
GeneratedPortraits.
Isaac VictorKerlowand JudsonRose-
bush, ComputerGraphicsfor Designers
and Artists.
R. Lucas, "EvolvingAesthetic Criteria
for Computer-Generated Art."
V Technology
Apple introducesthe Mac II.
Scannersfor PCs become available.
AT&Tshows the Pixel Machineat SIG-
GRAPH, demonstratingits capabilityto
manipulateray-tracedobjects in real
time.
Hypercard-a personal-computerimple-
mentationof hypermediaconcepts-is
releasedby Apple.
SMPTEWorkingGroupon High-
DefinitionElectronicProductiongives
unanimousendorsementto the 1125/60
HDTV productionstandard.
The Fine Art, Science, and Technology
(F.A.S.T.) ElectronicBulletin Board is
foundedby Ray Laau7zana at the Univer-
sity of Massachusettsat Amherst.
V Publications V Technology
TimothyBinkley, "CameraFantasia." FAX machines are mass marketed.
ChristopherBurnett, "Computersand
Art in the Age of the WorldPicture."
TimothyDruckrey,"User Friendly?"
David Ross, TheArt of David Em: 100
ComputerPaintings.
Wim Van Der Plas, ed., ElectronicArt.
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
V Exhibitions
"Computersand Photography,"Roches-
ter, N.Y.: PyramidArts Center.
"Jenny Holzer," New York:Solomon R.
GuggenheimMuseum.*
"ImageWorld,"New York:WhitneyMu-
seum of AmericanArt.*
"The Techno/LogicalImagination:Ma-
chines in the Gardenof Art," Min-
neapolis: IntermediaArts Minnesotaand
the MinneapolisCollege of Art and
Design. *
"Micro-Macro:The Workof Art in the
Age of the Microcomputer,"New York:
Bertha and Karl LeubsdorfArt Gallery at
HunterCollege.
V Publications
EdwardBarrett,The Society of Text:Hy-
pertext, Hypermedia,and the Social
Constructionof Information.
AndrewS. Glassner,3D Computer
Graphics:A User's Guidefor Artists and
Designers.
JohnLansdownand Rae A. Earshaw,
eds., Computersin Art, Design, and
Animation.
MargotLovejoy,PostmodernCurrents:
Art and Artists in the Age of Electronic
Media.
MarthaRosier, "Image Simulations,
ComputerManipulations:Some
Considerations."
Leonardobegins publicationof F.A.S.T.
ElectronicBulletin Board.
V Technology
Intel introducesthe 80860 micro-
processorchip-equivalent power of a
Cray1 supercomputer.
Mass marketingof still video cameras
begins.

MarkWilson, 30J89, 1989, acrylic on canvas, 36 x 48 KarlHauser,wall-o-fish, 1989, computer-animatedneon,

inches. Collection of the artist. 60 x 84 inches. Collection of the artist.

V Exhibitions
"Computersand the CreativeProcess,"
Eugene: Universityof OregonMuseum
of Art.
Venice Biennale, United States
Pavilion-Jenny Holzer.
V Publications
TerryGips, "CriticalQuestionsfor Com-
puterArtists of the 1990's."
Renee LeWinterand CynthiaBaron,
"ArtisticChallenge."
FredRitchin, In Our Own Image: The
ComingRevolutionin Photography.
Dorothy Spencer, "ComputerArt-An
Oxymoron?Views from the
Mainstream."

Jenny Holzer, sign installationat the Solomon R. Guggenheim

Museum, New York, 1989-90, electroniclightboards.Courtesy
BarbaraGladstoneGallery,New York.

Fall 1990 293

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Glossary
Algorithm
A set of well-defined instructionsfor the
solution of a problem.
Analog
A scale of measurethatis continuous,like
the volume control on a stereo, or a ther-
mometer.The term refers also to signals
that have not been sampled.
Artificial intelligence
The scientific field concernedwith creat-
ing computer systems that can achieve
"human"intellectualfacultiessuch as the
abilitiesto perceive,reason, and learn.
Computer animation
Use of the computerto make images with
the illusion of movement.
CRT
Cathode ray tube. The picture tube of a
television set, video monitor,or computer
display.
Cursor
A small graphicsymbol used as a pointer
to indicate position on a display screen.
The movementof the cursor is controlled
by a keyboard,mouse, light pen, or tablet
stylus.
DataGlove
A glove containing sensors, worn on the
hand to detect the motion and position of
the hand and feed that informationto a
computer. It is useful for virtual-reality
applications.
DataSuit
The extension of the DataGlove for the
whole body.
Digital
Using discretenumbersto representinfor-
mation. On computers,these numbersare
combinationsof 0 and 1.
296 Art Journal
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Judy E. Sachter, "The Basic Concepts
of Three-Dimensional Computer
Graphics for Artists," thesis, Ohio
State University, 1984 (includes
videotape).
JoachimSchmid, "TheElectronicPhotog-
rapherIs Coming," trans. JohnS. We-
ber, EuropeanPhotography22 (April/
May/June1985).
Allon Schoener, "2066 and ALL That,"
Art in America54 (March-April1966).
Sonia Landy Sheridan, "GenerativeSys-
tems," Afterimage,April 1972.
Lee Silverman, "Inside the Loop: Com-
puter Graphicswithin the Technologi-
cal Highway," Views, Summer 1984,
6-9.
Dorothy Spencer, "Computer Art-An
Digital processing
The task of takingdigital informationand
changing("processing")it throughthe use
of an algorithm.
Digitizer
An input device used to transform a
graphicrepresentationinto a digitalrepre-
sentationso that it can be processedby a
computer.Types include video digitizers,
laser scanners, and tablets.
Display
An outputdevice that containsa CRTand
interpretsdatafromthe computer,showing
it as text andimages. A computerscreenis
a display.
Dot-matrix printer
A printerthat uses tiny hammersto strike
an inked ribbonto producedots on paper.
Many dots togethermake up an image.
Film recorder
An output device that records data onto
photographicfilm or paper.
Fractals
A term, coined by Benoit Mandelbrot,for
a type of mathematicsvery useful for un-
derstandingand defining certain natural
shapes and phenomena.
Frame buffer
A special type of computermemory that
stores the image data requiredfor a raster
display.
Graftal
A type of modelingthatcreatesplantsand
trees by describingthem in mathematical
terms. Alvy Ray Smith developed these
algorithmsbased on the earlier work of
Aristid Lindenmayer.
Hardware
The physical components or equipment
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Oxymoron? Views from the Main-
stream," SIGGRAPH'89 Panel Pro-
ceedings (New York: ACM SIG-
GRAPH, 1990).
David Topperand JohnH. Holloway,"In-
terrelationshipsbetween Visual Arts,
Science and Technology:A Bibliogra-
phy,"Leonardo13, no. 1 (Winter1980):
29-33.
Wim Van Der Plas, ed., ElectronicArt,
supplementalissue of Leonardo (Ox-
ford and New York:PergamonPress,
1988).
John Whitney, "A ComputerArt for the
Video PictureWall," Art International
15, no. 7 (September1971):35-38.
Gene Youngblood, "ComputerArt as a
Way of Life," Send, no. 8 (Fall 1983).
that make up a computersystem, such as
scanners,printers,and displays.
HDTV
High-definition television. A proposed
television system with significantlybetter
picture quality than that of the current
broadcaststandard.
Hypermedia
An extension of the idea of hypertextto
includeotherkindsof information,such as
video images and sound.
Hypertext
A term coined by Ted Nelson (based on a
1945 articleby VanavarBush) for an envi-
ronmentwhere informationcan be linked
freely across conventionalsubjectbound-
aries. An essential concept is that of "au-
thoring," the abilityof each user to easily
reorganizethe informationinto a custom-
ized body.
Ink-jet printer
A printingdevice thatcreatesan image by
sprayinga thin streamof ink onto paper.
Coloredink can be used, resultingin color
images.
Interactive
As appliedto computerart, any computer,
device, program,or artworkthat relies on
active communication with a human
being.
Laser printer
A printingdevice thatuses a laserbeam to
place images on a rotatingdrum.The drum
picks up a toner powder on the laser-
exposed areas,which arethenpressedand
fused into paper,formingthe image.
Laser scanner
A digitizer that uses a laser beam for the
conversion of an image into digital
information.
Light pen
An inputdevice, much like a writingpen,
that is used to drawand manipulateinfor-
mationon a computerdisplayby touching
the tip of the pen to the display.
Microprocessor
The arithmetic, logic, and control ele-
mentsrequiredforprocessinginformation,
usuallycontainedon one integrated-circuit
chip. Microprocessors are used inside
most personal computers and in a wide
varietyof specializedapplications,such as
computer-controlledlight signs.
Mouse
A device, connected to a computerby a
cable, for moving a cursoror other object
aroundon the displayscreen.As the mouse
moves, the cursormoves correspondingly
on the screen.
Network
A system of interconnectedcomputersand
otherhardwarethatallow for the exchange
of information. Networks can link com-
putersin the same room or in variousparts
of the world.
NTSC
NationalTelevisionStandardsCommittee.
The standardfor broadcastcolor television
used primarily in North, Central, and
South America, and Japan.
Pixel
An acronym for "picture element." The
smallestunit on the displayscreenthatcan
be stored, displayed, or addressed.Pixels
are the tiny dots that are seen when an
image displayedon a computerscreen is
examinedclosely.
Plotter
An outputdevice thatdrawslines or points
on paperunderthe controlof a computer.It
was used extensively for early computer
art.
Printer
An outputdevice for the productionof text
and images that works much like a type-
writerbutis given instructionsfroma com-
puter.Dot-matrix, ink-jet, laser, and ther-
mal are the majortypes of printers.
Program
A set of instructions,writtenin a program-
ming language,used to instructa computer
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to carry out specific activities or tasks
(algorithms).
Programming language
A scheme of formalnotationused to spell
out instructions for the computer. Pro-
gramminglanguagesincludeBASIC, Pas-
cal, and C.
Raster display
A displaydevice thatstoresanddisplaysan
image (data)as a two-dimensionalgrid of
pixels.
Ray tracer
A computerprogramthatproducesrealis-
tic images from geometric models of ob-
jects. The surroundingsappearin the sur-
faces of the reflective objects, enhancing
the realism of the scene.
Scan-a-Mural
A service (offeredfor severalyearsby 3M
Corporationand now offeredby Computer
Image Systems) whereby a computerim-
age can be transferredto a large-scale
canvas.
Scientific visualization
Use of computergraphics and animation
techniquesto give visual formto complex
numericaldata.
Software
Anothername for programs.
Still-video camera
A camera that does not require film but
rather makes an electronic record of an
image and stores it on a small magnetic
disk. The image can thenbe displayedon a
video monitoror put into a computer.
Tablet
A digitizer, normally consisting of a flat
tablet, on which a patternis traced over
with a penlike stylus or other cursor
device. The patternstracedby the opera-
tor are automatically entered into the
computer's memory for subsequent
processing.
Thermal printer
A printer that produces output on heat-
sensitive paper. It uses heat to melt wire
particles that contain ink, which are then
transferredto paper.
Three-dimensional modeling
The use of a computersystem to create a
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
three-dimensionalobject by defining its
shape, dimensions, color, and surface
texture.
Touch-sensitivescreen
A display screen on which the user can
enter commands by pressing designated
areas with a finger or other object. The
screen can detect the position where it is
touched, and the computerthen performs
the function indicated.
Vector display
A display in which images are drawnon
the screen of a CRT by a beam that con-
structsa series of lines, or "vectors," of
any length and at any angle.
Video digitizer
A digitizer consisting of a video camera
with specialized hardwareand software
that enables the conversion of an image
into digital information.
Virtual reality
A computer-generated interactiveenviron-
ment featuring stereoscopic 3-D graphic
scenes. One or moreplayersareimmersed
in this environmentby headgearpresent-
ing a video monitorto each eye and block-
ing out the natural world. Interactionis
providedby means of a DataGlove,which
conveys gestural informationto the com-
puter.Currentapplicationsincludetelepre-
sent operatorsin remote or dangerousen-
vironments, e.g., space and research in
cognition and human interaction. Also
called virtualenvironment.
Virtual surface
The surfaceof an imaginaryobjectdefined
within a computer.
Work station
A relativelysmall but powerfulconfigura-
tion of computerequipmentdesignedto be
used by one person.
CopperGiloth is an associate professor
of art at the Universityof Massachusetts
at Amherst,where she teaches computer
animation, electronicstill photography,
and design.
Lynn Pocock-Williamsis a visiting
professorof art at the Universityof
Vermontin Burlington,where she teaches
computergraphicsand design.
Fall 1990 297