applied

sciences
Article
Optimized Design of Thermoelectric Energy
Harvesting Systems for Waste Heat Recovery from
Exhaust Pipes
Marco Nesarajah * and Georg Frey
Chair of Automation and Energy Systems, Saarland University, Campus A5 1, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany;
Georg.Frey@aut.uni-saarland.de
* Correspondence: Marco.Nesarajah@aut.uni-saarland.de; Tel.: +49-681-3025-7566

Academic Editors: Min-Wook OH and Byung Jin Cho

Received: 1 June 2017; Accepted: 15 June 2017; Published: 19 June 2017

Abstract: With the increasing interest in energy efficiency and resource protection, waste heat recovery
processes have gained importance. Thereby, one possibility is the conversion of the heat energy into
electrical energy by thermoelectric generators. Here, a thermoelectric energy harvesting system is
developed to convert the waste heat from exhaust pipes, which are very often used to transport
the heat, e.g., in automobiles, in industrial facilities or in heating systems. That is why a mockup
of a heating is built-up, and the developed energy harvesting system is attached. To build-up this
system, a model-based development process is used. The setup of the developed energy harvesting
system is very flexible to test different variants and an optimized system can be found in order to
increase the energy yield for concrete application examples. A corresponding simulation model is
also presented, based on previously developed libraries in Modelica® /Dymola® . In the end, it can be
shown—with measurement and simulation results—that a thermoelectric energy harvesting system
on the exhaust pipe of a heating system delivers extra energy and thus delivers a contribution for
a more efficient usage of the inserted primary energy carrier.

Keywords: energy efficiency; energy harvesting system; exhaust pipe; heating mockup; Modelica;
thermoelectric generator; waste heat recovery

1. Introduction
Growing environmental awareness and the increasing shortage of fossil fuels lead rethinking
in politics and society. Today, a lot of effort and money are invested in environmentally friendly
energy production. In addition to completely replacing fossil fuels, which is currently still not possible,
a further focus is placed on the increase in efficiency of existing processes, which is a very important
point and essential for a successful energy transition. As demonstrated in [1], nearly 35% of the inserted
primary energy is already lost in the energy sector as waste heat or as transport losses. So, only 65%
of the inserted energy reaches the end-user, whereas in this paper, high energy losses, mainly in the
form of waste heat, are documented, e.g., in bulbs or in combustion engines of automobiles. Up to
this point, only 34% of the primary energy has been used reasonably. In addition to this, the effective
energy is not used meaningfully in all cases, e.g., the illumination of an empty room. In total, Ref. [1]
comes to the conclusion that only 20% of the originally inserted primary energy is used wisely. In all
of these three areas, namely in energy production, the energy conversion and the wise energy usage,
big potential for energy saving exists. Regarding the first two areas, thermoelectric energy harvesting
systems (EHSs) can be used, amongst others, to slightly increase the energy yield.
In general, energy harvesting is the transformation of ambient energy sources into small amounts
of electrical energy, which are mostly buffered in an accumulator or a supercapacitor [2,3]. The energy

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634; doi:10.3390/app7060634 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 2 of 12

sources include light, vibration, radio frequency, water flow or heat and a great advantage is the
fact that the energy sources used are normally free of charge and freely available. That is why EHSs
are often added to the sustainable energy sector depending on the used energy source, or at least
as a system which enhances the energy efficiency of existing processes. If the energy comes from a
non-exhaustible source, the EHS actually produces sustainable energy. However, if it is a manmade,
exhaustible energy source, the waste energy would normally be staying unused and consequently be
lost. So, it is definitely beneficial to use the waste energy with an EHS. A very common understanding
of EHS is that the complete system from the transformation of the ambient energy source to the supply
of an electrical device is taken into account [4]. Consequently, the EHS consists of an energy converter,
electrical energy storage and very often an energy management system as well as the electronics which
produce a regulated output voltage for the power supply of electrical devices.
A special case of EHSs are thermoelectric EHSs. They use a temperature difference to generate
electrical energy with thermoelectric generators (TEGs). The underlying physical effects are the
thermoelectric effects, whereby the Seebeck Effect is the key factor for the functionality of TEGs. So far
considerable efforts have been made toward enhancing the thermoelectric efficiency of various material
classes, including tellurides [5–7], half-Heuslers [8], and silicides [9]. The advantages of the TEGs are
that they are quiet, need neither working fluid and they do not have moving parts, are maintenance
free and do not pollute the environment. One application is to use the temperature of the exhaust
gas line in automobiles with TEG-based EHSs, see [10,11]. Another application is the more efficient
use of solar energy, in addition to using only the visible light; the authors in [12] use the invisible,
infrared light of the sun. As more than half of the energy coming from the sun is thermal energy,
this seems reasonable. Other researchers consider thermoelectric EHSs in combination with phase
change materials; see [13,14]. In [15] an experimental study of a thermoelectric generation system
for application in exhaust heat of kilns is developed. In addition to this small-scale thermoelectric
EHS (which produce only some watts of electrical energy), there are also large-scale thermoelectric
EHSs producing a few hundred watts of electrical energy. They are mostly based on radioisotope
thermoelectric generators and are applied in satellites, e.g., Apollo 14–17 (ca. 75 W), Galileo (287 W) or
Voyager 1 and 2 (ca. 160 W), [16].
Here, a thermoelectric EHS at the exhaust pipe of a heating system is considered. In almost every
German household, a heating system is installed; therefore, there is large potential for thermoelectric
EHS, considering that 86.8% of heating energy used in Germany (2015) comes from fossil sources [17],
and an estimated 71% of those heating systems (2013) have inadequate efficiencies [18]. That is why
this contribution, in addition to the many other waste heat processes, deals with those of heating
systems. The main idea is to generate electrical energy from the exhaust gas of the heating system.
The solution should consist of commercially available components and be integrated as easily as
possible into existing systems. In [19], a thermoelectric EHS at a heating system was also developed,
but in contrast to this work, the system was directly integrated into a furnace, which would mean a
major intervention in a real facility. The gained energy should be used as a primary goal for a variety
of direct current (DC) home applications, e.g., to load mobile phones or accumulators. Moreover,
as a secondary goal, it may supply the heating system, so it will be autarkical and operational during
a blackout as well. According to [20], there was in Germany in 2015 an average power failure per
customer (considering also force majeure) of 15.3 min; without force majeure of 11.9 min. This means
that over the winter period, enough energy has to be produced by the thermoelectric EHS to overlap
the time of blackouts. In the following, to investigate such an EHS, the mockup of a heating system is
built up and a thermoelectric EHS is developed and optimized.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 3 of 12

2. System Description
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 3 of 12

2. System
2.1. System Description
Analysis
As
2.1. described previously, a thermoelectric EHS for the exhaust pipe of a heating system is here
System Analysis
developed. That is why a normal heating system has to be analyzed. However, the exhaust pipe
As described previously, a thermoelectric EHS for the exhaust pipe of a heating system is here
of thedeveloped.
heating system can be
That is why representative
a normal for other
heating system possible
has to exhaust
be analyzed. pipes,the
However, e.g., in industry
exhaust pipe of or in
automobiles.
the heating Related
systemtest
canbenches on heatingforsystems
be representative are already
other possible described
exhaust in [21,22].
pipes, e.g., in industry or in
In general, the
automobiles. main test
Related electrical
benchesconsumers
on heatingin gas- orare
systems oil-fired
alreadyheating
describedsystems for space heating and
in [21,22].
domestic In hot water the
general, preparation are the
main electrical blower in
consumers of gas-
the boiler, the electronics
or oil-fired heating systems and for
thespace
different
heatingpumps.
andsystems,
In these domesticthere
hot water preparation
are generally twoare the pumps.
main blower of theto
One boiler,
supplythethe
electronics and thesystem
heat emission different
(in this
pumps. In these
case radiators), whichsystems, there are
is now called generally
‘space heatingtwo main pumps.
pump’, as well asOne thetopump
supplyfor the heat emission
charging a domestic
systemstorage,
hot water (in this called
case radiators),
‘domesticwhich
hot is now pump’.
water called ‘space heating pump’,
Additionally, as well and
for comfort as thetopump
ensure forwater
charging a domestic hot water storage, called ‘domestic hot water pump’. Additionally, for comfort
hygiene and legionella prophylaxis, in many systems an additional ‘hot water circulation pump’ is
and to ensure water hygiene and legionella prophylaxis, in many systems an additional ‘hot water
installed, which circulates the heated tapping water in the circulation circuit permanently or with
circulation pump’ is installed, which circulates the heated tapping water in the circulation circuit
defined control and
permanently e.g.,defined
or with night shut-off.
control and e.g., night shut-off.
Moreover,
Moreover, data hasbe
data has to collected
to be collected from
fromheating
heatingsystems
systems to to calculate
calculatepreviously,
previously, if if such
such an an
EHS EHS is
promising or not. or
is promising That
not.is That
why isa measurement
why a measurement systemsystem
was installed in oneinbuilding
was installed at ouratuniversity,
one building our
where an oil-fired
university, where heating system
an oil-fired is available.
heating To avoid
system is available. disturbing
To avoid the the
disturbing realreal
heating
heatingsystem,
system, only
only temperature
temperature sensors aresensors are attached
attached and theand the following
following temperatures
temperatures are measured:
are measured: roomroom and and
ambient
temperature, outside pipe temperature at the beginning and in the middle of the exhaust gasgas
ambient temperature, outside pipe temperature at the beginning and in the middle of the exhaust pipe as
pipe
well as as well
inside as inside
pipe pipe temperature
temperature (equal to(equal
medium to medium temperature)
temperature) at theatbeginning
the beginningandand in the
in the middle.
middle. The data are stored in a database and can be visualized via a web interface. An exemplary
The data are stored in a database and can be visualized via a web interface. An exemplary typical
typical curve progression is shown for the 15th of November 2016 between 08:42 and 10:22 o’clock
curveinprogression
Figure 1.
is shown for the 15th of November 2016 between 08:42 and 10:22 o’clock in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Measured temperatures at an oil-fired heating on the campus, visualized by the web interface.
Figure 1. Measured temperatures at an oil-fired heating on the campus, visualized by the web interface.
Visible are the aforementioned temperatures and an approx. 20/80 on/off behavior of the heating.
The outside
Visible temperatures
are the of the pipe
aforementioned have theirand
temperatures maximum at about
an approx. 74 °C,
20/80 whereas
on/off the inside
behavior of thepipe
heating.
temperatures
The outside reach a temperature
temperatures of the pipeofhave
163 °C. Formaximum
their the time being,
at about 74 ◦ C, whereas
the temperature levels the
seem to be pipe
inside
appropriate
temperatures to install
reach a TEG-basedofEHS.
a temperature 163 ◦ C. For the time being, the temperature levels seem to be
A second measurement system was installed in a private house. This building represents a
appropriate to install a TEG-based EHS.
normal one-family house and besides different temperatures, the energy consumptions of the pumps
A second measurement system was installed in a private house. This building represents a normal
as well as the temperatures of a cockle stove in the living room are measured. Figure 2 shows a typical
one-family house
behavior and
for the besides
23rd different
of January 2016temperatures,
between 00:00 the
andenergy consumptions
23:59 o’clock. of thedata
The measured pumps as well as
are again
the temperatures of a cockle stove in the living room are measured.
stored in a database and can be visualized by the web interface. Figure 2 shows a typical behavior
for the 23rd of January 2016 between 00:00 and 23:59 o’clock. The measured data are again stored in
a database and can be visualized by the web interface.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 4 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 4 of 12

In In
thethe
upper
upperdiagram
diagramofofFigure Figure2,2,the
the temperatures
temperatures are are depicted
depictedandandininthe thelower
lower diagram
diagram thethe
power consumptions are depicted. The central gas-fired condensing boiler
power consumptions are depicted. The central gas-fired condensing boiler recovers the latent heat ofrecovers the latent heat
of vaporization,
vaporization,which whichisisreflected
reflectedininthe thelow
lowmaximum
maximumexhaust exhaust gas temperatures ◦
gas temperatures of of about
about 75 75
°C. C.
Therefore,
Therefore, a TEG-based
a TEG-based EHSEHS is is
notnot
suitable
suitableforfor
newnewcondensing
condensingboilers
boilersasasthe
theexhaust
exhausttemperatures
temperaturesare
tooare
low.
tooNevertheless, the on/off
low. Nevertheless, behavior
the on/off of the
behavior of boiler is also
the boiler recognizable
is also recognizable forfor
thisthis
heating
heatingsystem.
system.The
The power
power consumptions
consumptions of the of the pumps
pumps are,
are, on on average,
average, 45 W45forWthe
for domestic
the domestic hothot
waterwater pump
pump (runs
(runs only
onlytimes
a few a fewa day),
times 6a Wday),
for 6theWspace
for the space pump
heating heating(runs
pump all(runs all day)
day) and 2 Wand 2 Whot
for the forwater
the hot water
circulation
pumpcirculation pump (runs
(runs almost almost continuously
continuously between 5:30 between
and 5:30
23:30 and 23:30 o’clock).
o’clock). The consumption
The consumption of theof the
other
other components (like blower and the heating electronics) is about 23
components (like blower and the heating electronics) is about 23 W, which results from the overallW, which results from the
overall consumption
consumption minus theminuspumpthe pump consumptions.
consumptions. In addition
In addition to that,to
thethat,
gasthe gas consumption
consumption of the of the
heating
heating is also measured (diagram is not shown in Figure 2) and during the
is also measured (diagram is not shown in Figure 2) and during the on phase of the boiler, there is an on phase of the boiler,
there is an average gas consumption of about 30 kW (the gas volume consumed is measured and then
average gas consumption of about 30 kW (the gas volume consumed is measured and then multiplied
multiplied by the calorific value for natural gas, 10 kWh/m3 ). An investigation based on the German
by the calorific value for natural gas, 10 kWh/m3 ). An investigation based on the German BImSchV
BImSchV regulation has yielded an efficiency of 93.4%, after which 6.6% of the energy used is lost as
regulation has yielded an efficiency of 93.4%, after which 6.6% of the energy used is lost as waste heat.
waste heat. If the measured gas consumption is taken as the basis, the exhaust gas has a residual
If the measured gas consumption is taken as the basis, the exhaust gas has a residual energy of 1.98 kW.
energy of 1.98 kW.

(a)

(b)
Figure 2. Measurement in a private house: (a) Measured temperatures at the heating and the cockle
Figure 2. Measurement in a private house: (a) Measured temperatures at the heating and the cockle
stove; (b) Power consumptions of the pumps in the heating.
stove; (b) Power consumptions of the pumps in the heating.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 5 of 12

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 5 of 12

2.2. Heating Mockup

2.2. Heating Mockup
To avoid disturbing a real heating system, a heating mockup was planned and finally built-up in
To avoid disturbing a real heating system, a heating mockup was planned and finally built-up
our laboratory. As a heat source for the heating mockup, an industrial hot air blower is used, at which
in our laboratory. As a heat source for the heating mockup, an industrial hot air blower is used,
the temperature and the velocity of the air can be controlled. The dimensions of the exhaust gas pipe
at which the temperature and the velocity of the air can be controlled. The dimensions of the exhaust
correspond to reality. The
gas pipe correspond real heating
to reality. The realsystem
heatingon the campus
system is shown
on the campus in Figure
is shown 3a and3athe
in Figure heating
and the
mockup is shown in Figure 3b.
heating mockup is shown in Figure 3b.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 5 of 12

2.2. Heating Mockup

To avoid disturbing a real heating system, a heating mockup was planned and finally built-up
in our laboratory. As a heat source for the heating mockup, an industrial hot air blower is used,
at which the temperature and the velocity of the air can be controlled. The dimensions of the exhaust
gas pipe correspond to reality. The real heating system on the campus is shown in Figure 3a and the
heating mockup is shown in Figure 3b.

(a) (b)
Figure 3. Real system versus mockup: (a) Real oil-fired heating on the campus; (b) Heating mockup
Figure 3. Real system versus mockup: (a) Real oil-fired heating on the campus; (b) Heating mockup in
in the laboratory.
the laboratory.

Real heating data are measured for two different heating systems, as mentioned in the previous
Real heating (a) (b)as mentioned in the previous
subchapter, and data are measured
are stored for two
in a database. Withdifferent heatingLabVIEW
a self-written systems, program (Version 2015 SP1
subchapter, and
(32 bit), National are3.Instruments,
Figure stored
Real systemin versus
a database.
mockup:
Austin, TX, With
(a) a self-written
Real oil-fired
USA), it is heating on LabVIEW
now possiblethe campus; program
(b) Heating
to control (Version
themockup
heating 2015 SP1
mockup.
in the laboratory.
(32For
bit),
theNational
heat source,Instruments,
there are Austin,
two main TX, USA), to
options: it is now possible
control the airflow to (temperature
control the heating mockup.
and velocity)
Formanually
the heatorsource, there
automatically. are two
The main
automatic options:
mode isto control
again the
divided airflow
into (temperature
three
Real heating data are measured for two different heating systems, as mentioned in the previous options: to and velocity)
control the
heating mockup
manually subchapter, according
or automatically.and are storedto the live
The inautomatic data of
a database. mode the oil-fired heating
is again divided
With a self-written LabVIEWinto on the campus,
three
program to
options:
(Version give
2015toSP1a special
control the
time range
heating (32 for
mockupbit),the
National
stored
according Instruments,
data
to the theAustin,
in live data TX,
database, USA),
of thewhich it is now
will
oil-fired possible
then
heating to control
be reproduced
on theby
the campus, heating
the mockup.
toheating
give mockup,
a special time
or tofor
giveFor the heatas
a txt-file source, there are profile.
temperature two mainWithoptions:
this to control the
mockup, it isairflow (temperature
now possible andavelocity)
to heating
test thermoelectric
range the stored data in the database, which will then be reproduced
manually or automatically. The automatic mode is again divided into three options: to control the
by the mockup, or to
EHS at the
give a txt-file exhaust pipe
as temperature without
profile.interrupting a real system.
heating mockup according to theWith thisofmockup,
live data it is
the oil-fired now on
heating possible to test
the campus, a thermoelectric
to give a special EHS
at the exhaust pipefor
time range without
the storedinterrupting a real which
data in the database, system. will then be reproduced by the heating mockup,
3. Development
or to give aof the Energy
txt-file Harvesting
as temperature System
profile. With this mockup, it is now possible to test a thermoelectric
EHS at the exhaust
3. Development pipe without interrupting a real system.
To developofthetheEHS
Energy Harvesting
for the exhaust System
pipe of the heating, a development process, which has
already been presented
3. Development
To develop the EHS in
of the [23]
forEnergyis used. The
Harvesting
the exhaust modified
of thescheme
System
pipe heating, is ashown in Figure process,
development 4 and thewhich
EHS ishas
developed
already been Toaccording
presented to this
in EHS guideline.
[23]foris the
used. The steps
Thepipe
modifiedin the red
scheme frame can also be
is shown process, realized
in Figure 4 andwithin a
develop the exhaust of the heating, a development which has the EHS
multiphysics simulation.
already been presented in guideline.
[23] is used. The
is developed according to this Themodified
steps in scheme is shown
the red frame in Figure 4 and
can also bethe EHS is within a
realized
developed according to this guideline. The steps in the red frame can also be realized within a
multiphysics simulation.
multiphysics simulation.

Figure 4. Model-based development process for thermoelectric energy harvesting systems [23].
Figure
Figure 4.4.Model-based
Model-baseddevelopment
development process for
for thermoelectric
thermoelectricenergy
energyharvesting
harvestingsystems [23].
systems [23].
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 6 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 6 of 12

Regarding the development process, the selection of the heat source and the settings of the
objectives have already
Regarding been done inprocess,
the development the previous section. The
the selection other
of the heatsteps can be
source andsummarized
the settingstooffivethe
main steps, have
objectives whichalready
are thebeen
‘Thermal
done Design’, the ‘Selection
in the previous section.ofTheThermoelectric
other steps can Device’, the ‘Mechanical
be summarized to five
Design’, the ‘Electrical
main steps, which are Design’ and ‘Control
the ‘Thermal Design’,Concepts’.
the ‘Selection of Thermoelectric Device’, the ‘Mechanical
Concerning
Design’, the thermal
the ‘Electrical design,
Design’ a segment
and ‘Control cooling aggregate, [24], which is originally designed
Concepts’.
to coolConcerning
down a flowing medium,
the thermal is installed
design, a segmentin the exhaust
cooling gas pipe.[24],
aggregate, It iswhich
built up of coolingdesigned
is originally elements,to
which penetrate
cool down into the
a flowing medium,
medium, collect the
is installed heat
in the and transport
exhaust gas pipe.itIt to the outer
is built up ofside of the
cooling pipe,
elements,
see Figure
which 5a. There,
penetrate intothe
theTEGs
medium,and collect
the corresponding
the heat andcooling units
transport canthe
it to beouter
easilyside
attached.
of the This
pipe,
component is used to collect as much heat as possible from the exhaust pipe
see Figure 5a. There, the TEGs and the corresponding cooling units can be easily attached. This (the heat of the medium).
This is, of course,
component anto
is used intervention in theheat
collect as much realasprocess
possibleand thatthe
from is exhaust
why a heating mockup
pipe (the heat ofwas
the planned
medium).
and
Thisfinally built-upan
is, of course, inintervention
our laboratory. Consequently,
in the real process allandfollowing results
that is why are valid
a heating for a was
mockup hot flowing
planned
medium in a pipe, but cannot be transferred directly to a real system, e.g., a real heating,
and finally built-up in our laboratory. Consequently, all following results are valid for a hot flowing before doing
more
medium studies
in a on thebut
pipe, influence
cannot befor the real process.
transferred First
directly to measurements
a real system, e.g., aon theheating,
real mockup withdoing
before the
installed cleanonsegment
more studies cooling
the influence aggregate
for the and aFirst
real process. realmeasurements
heating behavior on theare shown
mockup in the
with Figure 5b.
installed
The temperatures for each section of the segment cooling aggregate—in
clean segment cooling aggregate and a real heating behavior are shown in Figure 5b. The temperatures total there are four
sections—are
for each section measured.
of the segment cooling aggregate—in total there are four sections—are measured.

160
140
temperature [°C]

120
Temp1
100
Temp2
80 Temp3
60 Temp4
40
20
0
15:26 15:36 15:46 15:56 16:06 16:16 16:26
5th of February, 2016
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure5.5. Thermal design to
Thermal design tocollect
collectthe
the heat:
heat: (a)(a) segment
segment cooling
cooling aggregate
aggregate to extract
to extract heatflowing
heat from from
flowing medium; (b) Temperature measurement of each section of the segment cooling aggregate
medium; (b) Temperature measurement of each section of the segment cooling aggregate for a 20/80 for
a heating
20/80 heating
load. load.

At each section, four thermoelectric devices can be attached, which are consequently under the
At each section, four thermoelectric devices can be attached, which are consequently under the
same temperature conditions. In [25], it was shown that in some cases expensive TEGs can be replaced
same temperature conditions. In [25], it was shown that in some cases expensive TEGs can be replaced
by cheap thermoelectric coolers (TEC, Peltier element). According to [25], for the first two sections,
by cheap thermoelectric coolers (TEC, Peltier element). According to [25], for the first two sections,
TEGs are used and TECs are used for the third and fourth sections.
TEGs are used and TECs are used for the third and fourth sections.
The next step of the development process, the heat transfer of the waste heat, will be done with
The next step of the development process, the heat transfer of the waste heat, will be done with
controlled air forced cooling elements. These are more suitable for real heating with an on/off scenario
controlled air forced cooling elements. These are more suitable for real heating with an on/off scenario
of 20/80 than liquid cooling elements, as described in [26]. Due to the lack of space, special small
of 20/80 than liquid cooling elements, as described in [26]. Due to the lack of space, special small
central processing unit (CPU) cooling elements are attached and the fans of the cooling elements are
central processing unit (CPU) cooling elements are attached and the fans of the cooling elements are
only mounted at the outside on the first and the fourth section. The fans on the first section blow air
only mounted at the outside on the first and the fourth section. The fans on the first section blow air
through the heat sinks and the fans on the last section pull the air from the heat sinks. So, there is
through the heat sinks and the fans on the last section pull the air from the heat sinks. So, there is
airflow from the first section to the fourth. The mechanical setup of the heating mockup is shown in
airflow from the first section to the fourth. The mechanical setup of the heating mockup is shown in
Figure 6. There, the four sections and the temperature sensors are visible for these sections; the inside
Figure 6. There, the four sections and the temperature sensors are visible for these sections; the inside
pipe temperature sensor at the beginning, the cooling elements and the fans for Sections 1 and 4 are
pipe temperature sensor at the beginning, the cooling elements and the fans for sections 1 and 4 are
also visible. The blue arrow in Figure 6b shows the air flow direction through the cooling elements.
also visible. The blue arrow in Figure 6b shows the air flow direction through the cooling elements.
Regarding the last hardware point of the development process, the electrical design, the prospective
Regarding the last hardware point of the development process, the electrical design, the prospective
was to be very flexible. That is why a switch cabinet with a front panel was built up (see Figure 7a).
was to be very flexible. That is why a switch cabinet with a front panel was built up (see Figure 7a).
As the thermoelectric devices of one section have the same temperature differences, they are
As the thermoelectric devices of one section have the same temperature differences, they are connected
connected in parallel. The individual blocks can then be individually interconnected (see front panel
in parallel. The individual blocks can then be individually interconnected (see front panel in Figure 7b).
in Figure 7b). There are different connection possibilities, e.g., TEG blocks in series or in parallel or a
There are different connection possibilities, e.g., TEG blocks in series or in parallel or a mixture of both,
mixture of both, connecting them to one or two MPPTs, connecting some TEG blocks with the fans
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 7 of 12

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 7 of 12

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 7 of 12
connecting them to one or two MPPTs, connecting some TEG blocks with the fans or supplying the
or supplying the fans over a 12 V power supply. Beneath the front panel, the switch cabinet also
fans over a 12 V power
or supplying
supply.
the fansPC over
Beneath
a 12 V the
the front
power
panel,
supply.setup
the the
Beneath
switch cabinet also includes an industrial
includes an industrial to control hardware via the front panel,program,
LabVIEW the switch ancabinet also
accumulator,
PC toincludes
control an
theindustrial
hardware setup via the
theLabVIEW program, anLabVIEW
accumulator, the two MPPTs, the 12 V
the two MPPTs, the 12 PC to control
V power supply, hardware setup
some relays via system
(for the program,
reconfiguration an accumulator,
during operation
power thesupply,
mode; two some
MPPTs,
condition: relays
the
all 12 V
TEG (for
power
blocks system reconfiguration
insupply,
series some
and relays (for
between during
the system operation
relays), a vehicle mode;
reconfiguration
plug to condition:
during all TEG
operation
connect different
blocks in
mode;
loads series and
as condition: between the relays),
all TEG measurement
well as different a vehicle
blocks in seriesdevices. plug
and between to connect
the measurement
All the different
relays), a vehicle loads
plugare
data as
to also well
connect as different
different
written in the
loads
measurement as well as
devices.different
All the measurement
measurement devices.
data areAll the
also measurement
written in the data are
database also
and
database and can be visualized by the previously mentioned web interface. The following measurements written
can be in the
visualized
by aredatabase
the and can
previously be visualized
mentioned web byinterface.
the previously
The mentioned
following web interface. The are
measurements following
carriedmeasurements
out:
carried out:
are carried out:
• • Temperatures:
Temperatures: atat
first/second/third/fourth section,inside
first/second/third/fourth section, inside pipe
pipe beginning,
beginning, inside
inside pipepipe
endend
• Temperatures: at first/second/third/fourth section, inside pipe beginning, inside pipe end
• • Voltages:
Voltages: Input
Input MPPT1/MPPT2, Output
MPPT1/MPPT2, Output MPPTs (equal
(equal totoaccumulator
accumulatorvoltage),
voltage),hot
hotairair
blower
blower
• Voltages: Input MPPT1/MPPT2, Output MPPTs (equal to accumulator voltage), hot air blower
• • Current:
•
Current: Input
Input MPPT1/MPPT2, Output
MPPT1/MPPT2, Output MPPTs,
MPPTs, hot
hot air
air
Current: Input MPPT1/MPPT2, Output MPPTs, hot air blower
blower
blower

Figure 6. Heating mockup with attached thermoelectric energy harvesting systems (EHS); (a) shows
Figure 6. Heating mockup with attached thermoelectric energy harvesting systems (EHS); (a) shows
Figure 6. Heating
the complete mockup
setup; with an
(b) shows attached thermoelectric
enlargement energy
of a partial harvesting
excerpt systems
of a; (c) shows (EHS); (a) shows
an enlargement of
the complete setup; (b) shows an enlargement of a partial excerpt of (a); (c) shows an enlargement of
thea complete setup;
partial excerpt of (b)
b. shows an enlargement of a partial excerpt of a; (c) shows an enlargement of
a partial excerpt of (b).
a partial excerpt of b.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Switch cabinet of the Heating Mockup: (a) complete switch cabinet; (b) Enlargement of the
(a) (b)
front panel to realize different wiring structures.
Figure 7. Switch cabinet of the Heating Mockup: (a) complete switch cabinet; (b) Enlargement of the
Figure 7. Switch cabinet of the Heating Mockup: (a) complete switch cabinet; (b) Enlargement of the
front panel to realize different wiring structures.
front panel to realize different wiring structures.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 8 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 8 of 12

4.Simulation
4. SimulationModel
Model
To simulate
To simulate thermoelectric
thermoelectric EHSs,
EHSs, aa Modelica
Modelica library
librarycalled
calledEHSTEG
EHSTEG(Energy
(EnergyHarvesting
HarvestingSystems
Systems
based on Thermoelectric Generators) was developed and applied; more
based on Thermoelectric Generators) was developed and applied; more information about the modeling information about the
modeling
of TEGs can ofbeTEGs
foundcaninbe[27,28].
foundWith
in [27,28]. With this
this library, library, asystem
a complete complete
can system can be reproduced
be reproduced and this is
and this is also done for the heating mockup with the attached
also done for the heating mockup with the attached EHS (see Figure 8). The advantage EHS (see Figure 8). The
withadvantage
Modelica
with
is thatModelica
graphically, is that graphically,
it looks it looks
very similar to thevery
real similar
system,to the real
which system,
makes which
it easily makes
usable it easily
and ensures
usable
that and ensures
different physicalthat differentcan
principals physical principals
be simulated can simulation
in one be simulated in one simulation
environment environment
(electrical, thermal,
(electrical, thermal, and so on). Visible in Figure 8 is the heating mockup consisting
and so on). Visible in Figure 8 is the heating mockup consisting of the hot air blower, the exhaust of the hotgas
air
blower, the exhaust gas pipe and the segment cooling aggregate components.
pipe and the segment cooling aggregate components. The EHS is presented in the simulation model The EHS is presented
in heat
by the simulation
transfer paste model
(greybycomponents),
heat transferairpaste
gaps(grey
(palecomponents), air gaps
blue components), the (pale blue components),
TEGs/TECs represented
the TEGs/TECs represented by the yellow/green components
by the yellow/green components as well as the cooling elements with and without as well as the cooling elements withblue
fans. The and
without fans.
connection Thepresent
lines blue connection lines present
the electrical wiringthe electrical
between wiring
the between thedevices,
thermoelectric thermoelectric
which devices,
can be
which can be adapted to the real wiring at the front panel. In the simulation
adapted to the real wiring at the front panel. In the simulation model, the measured hot medium model, the measured hot
medium temperatures of the real heater, which are stored in the database,
temperatures of the real heater, which are stored in the database, act as simulation input. act as simulation input.

Figure
Figure8.8.Simulation
Simulationmodel
modelof
ofthe
thethermoelectric
thermoelectricEHS
EHSat
atthe
theheating
heatingmockup.
mockup.

5.
5. Results
Resultsand
andDiscussion
Discussion
To
To test
test the
the prospective
prospective EHS EHS forfor aa real
real heating
heating scenario,
scenario, thethe real
real heating
heating datadata for
for the
the oil-fired
oil-fired
heating on the campus of the 15 November 2016 between 08:42 o’clock
heating on the campus of the 15 November 2016 between 08:42 o’clock and 10:22 o’clock are given and 10:22 o’clock are given to
the Heating Mockup, cf. Figure 1. Thereby, the following was selected
to the Heating Mockup, cf. Figure 1. Thereby, the following was selected as the connection variant, as the connection variant,
because
because ititgives
gives the
thebest
bestresult:
result: TEG TEGblock
block11andand22are areconnected
connectedin inseries
seriesand
andthen
thentotoMPPT1,
MPPT1,whereas
whereas
TEC block 3 and 4 are also connected in series and supply the fans of Section 1.
TEC block 3 and 4 are also connected in series and supply the fans of Section 1. Thus, in this scenario, Thus, in this scenario,
aa fan
fan control
control over
over the
the duty
duty cycle
cycle isis not
not necessary,
necessary, as as the
the fan
fan velocity
velocity will
will bebe self-controlled
self-controlled byby the
the
energy
energy supported from TEC block 3 and 4. Consequently, the power delivered from TEG block 11and
supported from TEC block 3 and 4. Consequently, the power delivered from TEG block and2
2can
can bebe completely
completely considered
considered gainedgained
power power
of the of the system.
system. The measurements
The measurements as well asasthewell as the
simulation
simulation results are shown in Figure 9, where the upper diagram shows
results are shown in Figure 9, where the upper diagram shows the measured temperatures as well as the measured temperatures
as
thewell as the set temperature
set temperature inside the inside
pipe and thethe
pipe and diagram
lower the lowershowsdiagram shows the gained
the measured measured gained
power and
power
energy as well as the simulated ones. As there are no additional consumers connected and the fansand
and energy as well as the simulated ones. As there are no additional consumers connected are
the fans supplied
directly are directly supplied
by TEC blockby TEC
3 and 4, block
there is 3 no
anddirect
4, there
poweris no direct power
consumption. In consumption.
the upper diagramIn the of
upper diagram of Figure 9, it is visible that the reproduced inside pipe temperature
Figure 9, it is visible that the reproduced inside pipe temperature of the medium fits very well with the of the medium
fits
set very well with
temperature ofthe
theset temperature
medium (whichofisthealsomedium
the real (which
measured is also the real measured
temperature) temperature)
for temperatures over
for temperatures over 80 °C. However, for lower temperatures there
80 ◦ C. However, for lower temperatures there are some overshoots, which are related to the are some overshoots, which are
setting
related
optionsto of the
the setting options of can
hot air blower—it the only
hot air blower—it
be adjusted forcan only be adjusted
temperatures over 80 for temperatures
◦ C and due to thatover
fact,
80 °C and due to that fact, it turns on briefly and then off again to control lower temperatures.
Moreover, it is obvious that the temperatures of the single sections (now, with the attached EHS) are
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 9 of 12

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 9 of 12

it turns on briefly and then off again to control lower temperatures. Moreover, it is obvious that the
temperatures of the ◦ C, and for the last
all under 90 °C, andsingle
for thesections (now,
last section thewith the attached
temperatures are EHS) are all under
approximately 90Consequently,
50 °C. the
section the temperatures are approximately 50 ◦ C. Consequently, the produced power is very low; this
produced power is very low; this is visible in the lower diagram of Figure 9. The maximum gained
ispower
visibleisin the lower
around 2 W, diagram
which alsoofmatches
Figure 9. Thethe
with maximum
simulationgained
result.power is around
Since the oil-fired2heating
W, which also
starts
matches with the simulation result. Since the oil-fired heating starts about 39
about 39 times a day, the daily energy output is approx. 36.4 kJ, which is about 10 Wh a day.times a day, the daily
energy outputthat
Concerning is approx. 36.4 of
the number kJ,heating
which is about
days for10 Wh
this a day.is Concerning
region that the
on average about 263number of heating
days according
days for
to [29]; this region is on average about
will be 2.63 kWh per year. 263 days according to [29]; this will be 2.63 kWh per year.

set inside pipe first section second section

180 inside pipe third section fourth section
160
temperature [°C]

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
power produced power produced sim
energy produced energy produced sim
2.5 3

2.0

energy [kJ]
power [W]

2
1.5

1.0
1
0.5

0.0 0
02:13 PM 02:33 PM 02:53 PM 03:13 PM 03:33 PM 03:53 PM
time, December 21st, 2016

Figure9.9.Measurement
Figure Measurement and
and simulation
simulation data
data for
for the
theheating
heatingmockup:
mockup:heating
heatingscenario of of
scenario thethe
oil-fired
oil-fired
heating on campus on 15 November 2016 between 8:42 a.m. and 10:22 a.m., executed on
heating on campus on 15 November 2016 between 8:42 a.m. and 10:22 a.m., executed on 21 December21 December
2016atatthe
2016 theHeating
HeatingMockup.
Mockup. Above:
Above: temperature
temperaturecurves
curvesofofeach
eachsection asas
section well asas
well thethe
setset
and real
and real
inside pipe temperature at the beginning; below: produced power and energy of the EHS and the
inside pipe temperature at the beginning; below: produced power and energy of the EHS and the
corresponding simulation results.
corresponding simulation results.

To calculate the efficiency of the EHS, Figure 10 represents the system consideration relating to
the To calculate
heat theThe
flow rates. efficiency
energyof the EHS,
balance Figure
is given by 10 represents the system consideration relating to
the heat flow rates. The energy balance is given by
0= − − use − lost , (1)
. . . .
where is the inflow heat rate, 0 =the − Q2 −heat
Q1outflow Quserate,− Qlostuse, the useful heat rate and lost the(1)
lost heat
. rate. With the assumption . of no heat losses, the useful . heat rate can be calculated .by
where Q1 is the inflow heat rate, Q2 the outflow heat rate, Quse the useful heat rate and Qlost the lost
=
use heat − = ⋅ ⋅ − , (2)
heat rate. With the assumption of no losses, the useful heat rate can be calculated by
The temperatures and . as well. as the. mass flow rate are measured or calculated values,
.
whereas the specific heat capacityQ use = Q − Q =
of 1the medium
2 m · c
can · ( T −
p be1 taken T ,
2 ) from the simulation. Thus, the(2)
useful heat rate here is approx. 560 W at the peaks, cf. Figure . 9. The produced power is 2 W and so
The
thetemperatures T1 and
efficiency is about T2 as according
0.36%, well as thetomass m are measured or calculated values, whereas
flow rate equation:
the following
the specific heat capacity c p of the medium can be taken el
from the simulation. Thus, the useful heat
rate here is approx. 560 W at the peaks, cf. Figure TEG =9. The , produced power is 2 W and so the efficiency (3)
use

is about 0.36%, according to the following equation:

where TEG is the efficiency of the TEG-based EHS and el the produced electrical power.
Pel
ηTEG = . , (3)
Quse

where ηTEG is the efficiency of the TEG-based EHS and Pel the produced electrical power.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 10 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 634 10 of 12

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Schematic
Schematicsystem
systemconsideration
consideration of
of the
the heat
heat flow
flow rates
rates for
for the
the EHS
EHS at
at the
the heating
heating mockup.
mockup.

To conclude, it can be said that the presented EHS can harvest electrical energy from the exhaust
To conclude, it can be said that the presented EHS can harvest electrical energy from the exhaust
gas of a heating system and thus it delivers a contribution for a more efficient usage of the inserted
gas of a heating system and thus it delivers a contribution for a more efficient usage of the inserted
primary energy carrier. The efficiency of the entire system is currently not very high; however, since
primary energy carrier. The efficiency of the entire system is currently not very high; however, since the
the waste heat is normally unused, such systems can be worthwhile. The energy amount is high
waste heat is normally unused, such systems can be worthwhile. The energy amount is high enough
enough to supply small DC applications, e.g., to charge a mobile phone. Also, it is possible to supply
to supply small DC applications, e.g., to charge a mobile phone. Also, it is possible to supply the
the heating and their components during a short blackout, but for this purpose, an accumulator is
heating and their components during a short blackout, but for this purpose, an accumulator is needed
needed to store the electrical energy over the year—which, it has to be admitted, could also be loaded
to store the electrical energy over the year—which, it has to be admitted, could also be loaded by the
by the electrical grid.
electrical grid.
To improve the EHS and to increase the efficiency of the heating, the water to be heated could
To improve the EHS and to increase the efficiency of the heating, the water to be heated could be
be used as a cooling medium and thus, the water will be preheated (less energy input of the heating
used as a cooling medium and thus, the water will be preheated (less energy input of the heating is
is necessary) and the thermoelectric devices will produce more electrical power.
necessary) and the thermoelectric devices will produce more electrical power.
It can be summarized that especially if there is a need for a robust, maintenance free and reliable
It can be summarized that especially if there is a need for a robust, maintenance free and reliable
power supply and the investment costs do not matter, thermoelectric EHS are highly recommended,
power supply and the investment costs do not matter, thermoelectric EHS are highly recommended,
e.g. for usage in space applications. To increase the energy yield, the number of TEGs or the
e.g., for usage in space applications. To increase the energy yield, the number of TEGs or the
temperature difference applied over the thermoelectric devices has to be enhanced.
temperature difference applied over the thermoelectric devices has to be enhanced.
Author Contributions: Marco Nesarajah conceived, designed and performed the experiments, analyzed the data
Author Contributions:
and wrote Marco
the paper. Georg Nesarajah
Frey conceived,
supported the work designed
throughand performedknowledge,
its expertise, the experiments, analyzed
feedback the data
and input.
and wrote the paper. Georg Frey supported the work through its expertise, knowledge, feedback and input.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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