Explanation

Exocrine pancreas secretions:

Pancreas secretion is stimulated by acetylcholine, cholecystokinin, and secretin.

Protein breakdown: Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypepsidase

Carbohydrate breakdown: Amylase

Fat breakdown: Lipase, cholesterol esterase, and phospholipase

Explanation
Covalent bonds are forces that hold atoms together. These

are chemical bonds that involve the pairing of electrons and

atoms.

Triglycerides are fatty compounds that are esters formed

from one molecule of glycerol and three molecules of one or

more fatty acids.

Ether is an organic compound having an oxygen atom

attached to two carbon atoms.

Ester bonds are found in triglycerides.

Explanation
Vitamin C is needed for the hydroxylation of proline and

lysine. Failure to do this results in scurvy.

Which of the following is NOT a glycosaminoglycan?

●

Chondroitin sulfate

Dermatan sulfate

Hyaluronate

Ceramide

Heparin

Explanation

A glycosaminoglycan is a group of high molecular weight

linear polysaccharides with various disaccharide repeating

units. They are a part of proteoglycans.

Examples include the chondroitin sulfates, dermatan sulfates,

heparan sulfate, heparin, keratin sulfates, and hyaluronic

acid.
Ceramides are the basic unit of the sphingolipids, consisting

of sphingosine or a related base attached via its amino group

to a long-chain fatty acid anion.

Which of the following is an allosteric effector of an enzymatic

reaction?
✘

A substance that affects enzyme activity by binding to non-active sites

✘

A substance that binds to the substrate

Competitive inhibitor

A substance that affects the enzyme activity by binding to the active site

Noncompetitive inhibitor

Explanation

Allosteric regulation describes the controlling of a process by

the binding an effector molecule at the protein's allosteric site

to change the activity of the protein/enzyme.

The allosteric site is a site on a protein that is different than

the protein’s active site.

Active sites are the small port of an enzyme where substrate

molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction.

Allosteric sites allow effectors to bind to the protein/enzyme

and results in conformational change in the enzyme,

changing its activity.

Effectors that enhance the protein's activity - allosteric

activators, whereas those decrease the protein's activity-

allosteric inhibitors.

Competitive inhibitors compete with the substrate molecules

for binding to the active site of the enzyme. At high substrate

concentration, the effect of a competitive inhibitor can be

overcome.
Irreversible inhibitors bind tightly (often covalently) to amino

acid residues at the active site of the enzyme, permanently

inactivating the enzyme.

Explanation
Carbonic anhydrase is a type of metalloenzyme and contains

zinc ion as a prosthetic group in its active site.

Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the interconversion of

bicarbonate and protons to carbon dioxide and water. This is

done to maintain acid/base balance in the blood (an

important concept in physiology).

This conversion is one of the fastest and needs zinc in its

active site. Three histidine side-chains and a water molecule

coordinate the zinc ion in the center of the enzyme.

Intrinsic factor is secreted by parietal cells and facilitates the

absorption of vitamin B12 across the intestinal lining. A

deficiency in intrinsic factor may lead to a vitamin B12

deficiency. Pernicious anemia is a disorder that arises due to

B12 deficiency.

Vitamin B12, a member of the cobalamin family, serves as a

cofactor in two reactions:

As methylcobalamin, it is a cofactor for methionine

synthetase in the conversion of homocysteine to methionine.

As adenosylcobalamin, it is a cofactor for the conversion of

methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA after being ingested.

Explanation
Lysosomes create non-specific acid hydrolase enzymes used

to break down waste materials and debris.

Lysosomes break down excess and worn-out organelles and

food particles while also engulfing and destroying viruses or

bacteria.

Lysosomes function by fusing with vacuoles to dispense

enzymes that digest the contents of the vacuoles.

Explanation
Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA and RNA.

Composed of:

-Nitrogenous base (Purine, Pyrimidine)

-Five-carbon sugar (Deoxyribose, Ribose)

-Phosphate group(s)
The cell cycle has 5 components:

G0—Resting phase where the cell is not in technically even

in the cell cycle. No dividing.

G1—Cell increases in size and makes sure everything is

ready for DNA synthesis

S—DNA replication stage

G2—A checkpoint to make sure everything is ready for

mitosis. The cell continues to grow to prepare.

M—Cell growth stops and cell focuses on division of the two

daughter cells. Mitosis occurs.

Explanation
RNA is made up of the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and

uracil. DNA is made up of the bases adenine, guanine,

cytosine, and thymine. Uracil is a naturally occurring

pyrimidine derivative.

In RNA, the uracil binds to adenine via two hydrogen bonds,

forming a base-pair. It replaces thymine during DNA

transcription.
Explanation
Autolysis is the destruction of a cell through the action of its

own enzymes. It is done by the lysosome which also breaks

down debris and cellular waste.

Other organelle functions:

Ribosomes: Site of amino acid construction and protein

synthesis.

Mitochondria: Powerplant of the cell. Remember it has a

two-layered membrane

Golgi apparatus: Packages proteins before they are sent off.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum: Covered in ribosomes, it is

involved in protein synthesis.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: Lipid synthesis and

detoxification of drugs.

Nucleus: Contains DNA and gives commands to the cell.

Organelle functions:
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: Lipid synthesis and

detoxification of drugs.

Ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis.

Mitochondria: Powerplant of the cell. Remember it has a

two-layered membrane.

Golgi apparatus: Packages proteins before they are sent off.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum: Covered in ribosomes, it is

involved in protein synthesis.

Nucleus: Contains DNA and gives commands to the cell.

Lysosome: contain acid hydrolase enzymes that break down

waste materials and cellular debris, heavily involved in

autolysis.

Explanation
Base pairs are pairs of nucleotides connecting the

complementary strands of a molecule of DNA or of an RNA

molecule that has two strands. These are held together by

hydrogen bonds.
Base pairs in DNA:

adenine-thymine

• guanine-cytosine

Base pairs in RNA:

adenine-uracil

guanine-cytosine
An anticodon is a triplet of nucleotide bases in transfer
RNA (tRNA) that binds to a complementary codon in
messenger RNA (mRNA) during protein synthesis.

If the anticodon on tRNA is 5' ACG 3', then the corresponding

codon on mRNA would be 5' CGU 3'.
Correct orientation makes a difference. Remember to verify it

on the exam.
Incorrect Correct

5'->3' 5'->3'

5'->3' 3'<-5'
Explanation
Genes play a role in the growth and proliferation of normal

cells, but when there is exposure of cancer-causing agents

such as carcinogenic chemicals or an oncogenic virus, the

cells may transform into malignant cells.

An oncogene is a gene that could potentially cause cancer.

Thymidylate is a nucleotide which is used as a monomer in

DNA. It is also known as thymidine monophosphate (TMP)

and is an ester of phosphoric acid with nucleoside thymidine.

It consists of a phosphate group, pentose deoxyribose and

nucleobase thymine.

Urate is the salt of uric acid.

Uracil is the nucleobase in RNA.

Ribose is a monosaccharide.

Adenosine is a purine nucleoside consisting of adenine

attached to ribose.
Explanation
Point mutations substitute one base with another. Types

include:

Missense mutation: results in a changed amino acid

sequence

Nonsense mutation: results in a stop codon, which

terminates further translation

Transverse mutation: a pyrimidine is switched with a purine

or vice-versa

Transition mutation: a pyrimidine is switched with another

pyrimidine (or purine with another purine)

Frameshift mutations delete or insert one or two base pairs.

Repeat mutations amplify the sequence of three nucleotides.

Explanation
The atoms of purines are directly derived from amino acids.

Purines are synthesized biologically as nucleosides. It has a

crucial role in DNA and RNA formation and is also a significant

component of other important biomolecules like guanosine

triphosphate (GTP), cyclic adenosine monophosphate (AMP),

adenosine triphosphate (ATP), coenzyme A and nicotinamide

adenine dinucleotide (NADH).

G1, S, and G2 stages are considered interphase. M (mitosis) is

cell division.

The cell cycle has five components:

G0: Resting phase where the cell is not technically even in

the cell cycle. No dividing.

G1: Cell increases in size and makes sure it is ready for DNA

synthesis.

S: DNA replication stage

G2: A checkpoint to make sure everything is ready for

mitosis. The cell continually grows to prepare.

M: Cell growth stops and cell focuses on division of the two

daughter cells. Mitosis occurs.

Cytosine and thymine belong to the pyrimidine family.
Adenine and guanine belong to the purine family.
Adenine links with Thymine with two hydrogen bonds.
Guanine links with Cytosine with three hydrogen bonds.

This is the central dogma in genetics: DNA --transcription-->

RNA --translation--> Protein

Transcription is the process of taking a DNA molecule and

creating a complementary RNA strand. Transcription results
in uracil instead of thymine.

Translation is the process of creating amino acids from the

messenger-RNA (mRNA) strands.

Transduction is when a bacteria transfers a portion of its

genes to another bacteria via a bacteriophage.

Covalent bond: Strong molecular interactions mediated by

shared electrons

Ionic bonds: Mediated by opposite electrostatic charges

Hydrogen bonds: Mediated by shared hydrogen atom

Van der Waals bonds: A nonspecific attraction between close
atoms

Explanation
Three major kinds of RNA are :

Messenger RNAs (mRNAs) encode the amino acid sequence

of one or more polypeptides specified by a gene or set of

genes.

Transfer RNAs have a region within the three-dimensional

structure. These three nucleotide sequences are called the

anticodon, which matches the genetic code of the mRNA

codon by the standard nucleotide base-pairing rules. The role

of tRNA is to recognize a specific codon and to deliver the

corresponding amino acid (the codon to anti-codon matching

pattern). tRNA carries amino acids from the cytosol to

ribosomes where protein synthesis occurs.

Ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) are constituents of ribosomes, the

intricate cellular machines that synthesize proteins.

Explanation
Base pairing for DNA:

Purines bind together with pyrimidines by hydrogen bonds.

Adenine and guanine are purines.

Thymine/uracil and cytosine are pyrimidines.

Adenine and thymine/uracil are held by two hydrogen

bonds.

Guanine and cytosine are held by three hydrogen bonds

(stronger).

Explanation
Cells that cannot undergo mitosis:

Cells in the lens of the eye

Skeletal and cardiac muscle cells

Nerve cells

Sex cells

Red blood cells undergo mitosis in the bone marrow before

they mature. When they mature, the nucleus is replaced by

hemoglobin, at which point they can no longer undergo

mitosis.
Explanation
Steroid-producing cells are comparatively abundant in the

smooth endoplasmic reticulum as compared with other cell

organelles.

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is involved with several

metabolic processes, including:

The synthesis of lipids and steroids

Carbohydrate and steroid metabolism

Regulation of calcium concentration within the cell

Receptor attachment on cell membrane proteins

Explanation
Missense substitution: When a single incorrect base replaces

a correct base, causing a single wrong amino acid in the

amino acid sequence (not a completely incorrect amino acid).

Point mutation: When one incorrect nucleotide is placed. Can

be nonsense, msisense, or silent based on its effect on the

amino acid chain formed.

Transverse point mutation: A single purine is replaced with a

pyrimidine, or vice versa.

Transition point mutation: A purine is replaced by an

incorrect purine or a pyrimidine is replaced by an incorrect

pyrimidine.

Nonsense substitution: When a stop codon is placed in an

incorrect spot, thus causing early termination of the amino

acid chain synthesis..

Silent substitution (synonymous subsitution): A mutation that

does not result in a change to the amino acid sequence of the

protein they code for or result in the insertion of an

alternative amino acid with similar properties to that of the

original amino acid.