Tseng 1

Tseng, Vivian
81215349

The History of Concrete

Throughout history, different cement-like mixtures were used to build

structures. In 6500 BC, the Syrians used limestone to build permanent fire pits [1].

In 3400 BC, Mesopotamian houses were built using wet gypsum and crushed

bricks [2]. In 2600 BC, the Egyptians built the pyramids using lime and burnt

gypsum [1]. In 220 BC, China used a mixture of lime and sticky rice flour to begin

building the Great Wall of China [3].

But perhaps, the best-known historical use of concrete was by the

Romans. The Romans used cement that consisted of pozzolana volcanic ash

and water to build many of their

famous landmarks [4]. The

Romans also used admixtures. It

was found that adding organic

materials like milk, blood, and

animal fat would strengthen and

The Roman Colosseum
http://en.aiolusnews.com/science/ancient-roman-concrete-about- increase the workability of
revolution/

pozzolan cement. Researchers have dated the earliest use of this cementitious

mixture to the Porticus Aemelia in 193 BC [5]. All of their buildings were built out of

this pozzolan concrete, including the Aqueduct of Segovia, the Colosseum, and

the Pantheon. When the Roman Empire was overthrown around 400 AD, the use

of concrete was lost for more than a thousand years [6].

 Tseng 2

In 1756, John Smeaton created a hydraulic lime using powdered brick

and pebbles, used here as a course aggregate, to build the Eddystone

Lighthouse in Cornwall, England [7]. This is the first known modern use of

concrete. In 1779, Bryan Higgins created stucco to be used in building houses

and finishing walls [8]. Hydraulic lime was continuously changed and improved on,

but there was no significant developments made in concrete until the creation of

Portland cement.

Joseph Aspdin developed the

first Portland cement in 1824. This

cement was given the name because it

resembled limestone found in Portland,

England. In his patent, he stated that he

started with a limestone powder and

mixed it with water and clay. This Portland oolite limestone found in Portland, England
http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~imw/Portland-Isle-
Geological-Introduction.htm
mixture was then baked and crushed into a fine powder. Water could be added to

it in order to create a strong cement [9]. But in his patent, exact ratios and

methods were not mentioned. It wasn’t until 1887 the Henri Le Chatelier

established ratios of lime to make Portland cement. He named the components

of the cement Alite, Belite, and Celite and discovered that the hardness of the

cement was due to the formation of microscopic crystals in the reaction between

the lime and water [10].

The first known use of reinforce concrete was in flowerpots. In 1867,

gardener Joseph Monier wanted to create a flowerpot that was durable. He

 Tseng 3

decided that clay would break too easily and wood weathered badly, so these

materials were not usable. He began making cement pots but discovered that

when the soil expanded, the pots cracked easily. In order to strengthen the

containers, he put iron mesh into his pots and created the first reinforced

concrete, ferroconcrete. He advertised his invention widely at the 1867 Paris

World’s Fair, which led to a spread in the use of reinforced concrete in various

applications. In 1875, William Ward built the first structure made of reinforced

concrete [11].

The next significant development

was the use of iron rebars to create

reinforced concrete. In 1889, Ernest

Ransome built the Alvord Lake Bridge in

San Francisco, California. He twisted

square iron bars in create reinforcement

for the bridge, which is still standing today.

Soon, applications of this method began

Eric Ransome’s reinforced concrete
http://99percentinvisible.org/episode/episode-81-rebar-
and-the-alvord-lake-bridge/ showing up in many buildings [12].

In 1890, people began experimenting with additives to Portland cement

when it was discovered that adding gypsum to the cement delayed the setting

time [13].

In 1930, the first skyscraper was built using Ransome’s reinforced

concrete. At 15-stories high, the Ingalls Building was the first of its kind [14].
 Tseng 4

In the 1930s, admixtures were added to

concrete in order to retard or accelerate the

setting process. But it wasn’t until the 1950s that

a widespread-use of admixtures was seen. In

1979, the first corrosion-inhibiting admixture was

introduced in order to prolong the life of steel

reinforcement. In 1996, shrinkage-reducing

admixtures were created in order to decrease

cracking issues after curing [15].

In the 1970s, glass fibers were Ingalls Building

http://www.concretecontractor.com/concrete-
construction-projects/ingalls-building/
introduced to concrete to create the modern

concrete. It was discovered that these fibers were a lightweight reinforcement

that would strengthen the concrete even further because it was able to withstand

tensile forces in the concrete and help hold concrete together better [16].

In the last few years, a research company called TU Delft has

conceptualized and began developing a self-healing concrete. This concrete

utilizes calcite-precipitating bacteria meant to give concrete healing properties,

decreasing the chances of crack formation and corrosion of steel reinforcement,

and ultimately decreasing the costs of maintaining structures [17].

The creation of modern concrete has revolutionized the building of

structures, and ultimately changed civilization. It has allowed the construction of

the world’s tallest buildings. Throughout history, even though the formula for

concrete has varied over time, concrete has proved time and time again to be an
 Tseng 5

effective building material. Even in incredibly modern times, concrete mixtures

have changed an improved significantly since the first modern use of concrete in

John Smeaton’s Eddystone Lighthouse. Concrete is constantly changing to find

better and better combinations of materials to make stronger, longer lasting

concrete.

Sources Used

1. http://nabataea.net/cement.html
2. http://home.lu.lv/~harijs/Macibu%20materiali%20,teksti/Gramatas%20Seno%20Laiku%20Ves
ture%20%28%20Elektroniski%20%29/Ancient%20East/Mesopotamia/McIntosh.%20Ancient
%20Mesopotamia.%202005.pdf
3. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/7785842/Great-Wall-of-Chinas-
strength-comes-from-sticky-rice.html
4. http://www.nachi.org/history-of-concrete.htm
5. http://archive1.village.virginia.edu/spw4s/RomanForum/GoogleEarth/AK_GE/AK_HTML/PO-
004.html
6. http://www.ushistory.org/civ/6f.asp
7. https://targetstudy.com/knowledge/invention/118/concrete.html
8. https://books.google.com/books?id=v1JVu4iifnMC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=bryan+higgins+ce
ment&source=bl&ots=Yfs9W3V_wQ&sig=OjKlYVyaNLC_YPueuMFl-3oy-
jI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Pz4dVYDkAtKxyASqpYHoCQ&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=brya
n%20higgins%20cement&f=false
9. http://todayinsci.com/A/Aspdin_Joseph/AspdinJoseph-Cement.htm
10. http://www.auburn.edu/academic/architecture/bsc/classes/bsc314/timeline/timeline.htm
11. http://www.wired.com/2009/07/dayintech_0716/
12. http://99percentinvisible.org/episode/episode-81-rebar-and-the-alvord-lake-bridge/
13. http://www.cemexphilippines.com/CementBasics/HistoryCement.aspx
14. http://www.ejse.org/Archives/Fulltext/200101/01/20010101.htm
15. http://precast.org/2014/01/chemical-admixtures-concrete-whats-next/
16. http://www.concretenetwork.com/glass-fiber-reinforced-concrete/
17. http://www.citg.tudelft.nl/en/research/projects/self-healing-concrete/