EXPLORATION OF THE USE OF METAPHOR IN E F F E C T I V E COUNSELLING

by

SIMON YIU-CHUEN L E E

B.Sc, University o f M a n i t o b a , 1972

B.Ed., U n i v e r s i t y o f M a n i t o b a , 1974
M.Div., Regent C o l l e g e , 1980
Th.M., R e g e n t C o l l e g e , 1984

A t h e s i s submitted i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of
the requirements f o r the degree o f

Master of Arts

in

The Faculty of Graduate Studies

Department of Counselling Psychology

This t h e s i s i s a c c e p t e d as c o n f o r m i n g
-to t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d .

The University of B r i t i s h Columbia

V a n c o u v e r , B.C.

(C) Simon Y i u - C h u e n L e e , 1985

 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for an advance degree at the University of British

Columbia, I agree t h a t the Library shall make i t f r e e l y available

for reference and study. I further agree that permission for.

extensive copying of this t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be

granted by the Head of my Department or his representatives. It

is understood that copying or publishing of this thesis for

financial gain shall not be allowed without my written

permission.

^ i m \ ) r ^ i u - 4 # u e n ^Lee

Department of Counselling Psychology

The U n i v e r s i t y o f British Columbia

1956 M a i n M a l l
Vancouver. B.C.
V6T 1Y3
 i i

A b s t r a c t

T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o e x p l o r e t h e u s e o f m e t a p h o r i n

e f f e c t i v e c o u n s e l l i n g . A s i n g l e c a s e s t u d y a p p r o a c h w a s a d o p t e d

f o r t h e r e s e a r c h . T h e m a t e r i a l o f a f a m i l y i n t h e r a p y b y V i r g i n i a

S a t i r a s t h e r a p i s t w a s t r a n s c r i b e d v e r b a t i m f r o m t h e a u d i o t a p e s .

T h e m e t a p h o r s o f b o t h t h e t h e r a p i s t a n d t h e c l i e n t w e r e

i d e n t i f i e d f r o m t h e t r a n s c r i p t . T h e y w e r e t h e n c l a s s i f i e d

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r t y p e s a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d . N e x t t h e

p a t t e r n s o f m e t a p h o r i c u s a g e w e r e e x a m i n e d . T h e m o v e m e n t i n

c o u n s e l l i n g w a s m e a s u r e d u s i n g a s p e c i a l s c a l e . P o i n t s o f

s i g n i f i c a n t m o v e m e n t i n t h e c l i e n t w e r e i d e n t i f i e d . T h e

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f t h e u s e s o f t h e m e t a p h o r s a n d t h e c l i e n t ' s

p r o g r e s s w a s s t u d i e d . F o r t y - f i v e i n s t a n c e s o f t h e u s e o f

m e t a p h o r s b y t h e t h e r a p i s t w e r e r e p o r t e d . B u t m e t a p h o r s w e r e u s e d

b y t h e c l i e n t o n l y f i v e t i m e s . T h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t m e t a p h o r s

u s e d b y t h e t h e r a p i s t a l l o c c u r r e d a t p o i n t s w h e r e t h e r e w e r e a

l o t o f p r o g r e s s i n t h e c o u n s e l l i n g . T h e o v e r a l l a n a l y s i s

d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e c o n c e p t s o f m e t a p h o r s u s e d f o r

t h i s r e s e a r c h . I t a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d t h e f a c t t h a t m e t a p h o r s c a n b e

t h e d i r e c t v e h i c l e o f i n s i g h t s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o w a r d s e f f e c t i v e

c o u n s e l l i n g . I n s i g h t s f r o m t h e m e t a p h o r s w e r e n o t d e p e n d e n t o n

t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e c l i e n t t o r e c i p r o c a t e i n m e t a p h o r i c

e x p r e s s i o n . S o m e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e p r a c t i c e o f c o u n s e l l i n g

u s i n g m e t a p h o r s w e r e s u g g e s t e d a n d s o m e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r

f u t u r e r e s e a r c h w e r e o f f e r e d .
 iii

Table of Contents

Page

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION . . . . 1

Background o f the Problem 1

The Problem . 2

Some D e f i n i t i o n s 3

The Purpose o f the Study 4

Delimitations o f the Study 5

CHAPTER TWO

A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . 7

Overview 7

Metaphor i n P h i l o s o p h y and L i n g u i s t i c s 8

The E m e r g e n c e o f a Modern T h e o r y . 8

Support f o r Black's Theory . . 9

Debate over.Black's Theory 12

Recent Developments: Symposiums a n d A n t h o l o g i e s . . 14

Black's Further Development of H i s Theory . . . . 15

Continuing Debate Over Black's Theory 16

Metaphor i n P s y c h o l o g y and P s y c h o t h e r a p y 17

A Transition 17

Metaphor i n Psychology 18

(1) M e t a p h o r as a P s y c h o l o g i c a l Process . . . . 18

(2) M e t a p h o r as a C o g n i t i v e Process 20

(3) R e c e n t R e s e a r c h . 21

Metaphor i n Psychotherapy . 23

(1) E a r l y Analytical Views 24

 iv

(2) S h a r p e ' s E x t e n s i o n of the

P s y c h o a n a l y t i c View 25

(3) The Recent Trend 26

(4) Metaphor i n F a m i l y Therapy 32

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY 40

The Context 40

Preparing T r a n s c r i p t 40

Verifying Transcript 40

Dividing T r a n s c r i p t into Excerpts 41

T r a i n i n g Research A s s i s t a n t 41

C o n d u c t i n g a P i l o t Study 41

Identifying the Metaphors 42

Measuring the T h e r a p e u t i c P r o g r e s s 43

Identifying the P a t t e r n s of Metaphoric I n t e r a c t i o n . . 45

I n t e r v i e w w i t h the T h e r a p i s t , V i r g i n i a S a t i r . . . . 45 .

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 46

The p a t t e r n of Metaphoric I n t e r a c t i o n 56

Effective Uses of Metaphors 61

A Useful C l a s s i f i c a t i o n 61

A Helpful Categorization . 62

A V e h i c l e of I n s i g h t 63

A Freedom to Respond 64

From Accommodation to A s s i m i l a t i o n 64

A Non-threatening Climate 65

A Change i n P e r s p e c t i v e 66

An O f f e r i n g of A l t e r n a t i v e s 67
 V

A T o u c h o f Humour 67

A Matter of Pacing 68

Specific Comments b y t h e T h e r a p i s t , Virginia Satir. . 69

General Comments b y t h e T h e r a p i s t , Virginia Satir . . 72

CHAPTER F I V E

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 76

Summary 76

Background 76

Results 77

An Analysis . . . 77

Conclusions 78

Recommendations 79

Practical Implications . . . . 79

Future Research 80

References 82
 vi

List of Tables

Pacje

Table 1: Approach v s . Avoidance of S e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n . . . . 44

Table 2: Summary o f t h e A n a l y s i s of the Metaphors 49

Table 2: (Continued) 50-55

 vii

Acknowledgements

I would like t o thank Dr. John Banmen for kindling my

interest i n this thesis topic. H i s guidance and encouragement

b o t h t h r o u g h o u t my c l i n i c a l training and t h i s research project

have been p r o f e s s i o n a l l y and p e r s o n a l l y invaluable. I would also

like to thank him f o r so g e n e r o u s l y making available to me

Satir's work on tape. Next I would like t o thank Sheollagh

Fitzgerald, my research assistant, f o r helping me i n the initial

phase o f t h e r e s e a r c h . A s p e c i a l word of appreciation should be

given t o Dr. V i r g i n i a Satir f o rp e r s o n a l l y sharing her i n s i g h t s

on t h i s topic with me. I t was a t r e m e n d o u s privilege f o r me t o

get t o know h e r p e r s o n a l l y a n d t o w o r k w i t h her material. Last

but not least, I would like to express my g r a t i t u d e t o my wife

Lydia f o r her s e l f l e s s support and a b i d i n g faith i n me as I

pursued my graduate studies.

 1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Problem

The study of metaphors has b e e n done i n many d i v e r s e fields

s u c h as p h i l o s o p h y and linguistics f o r a long time. However i n

the field of psychology, the study of metaphors i s a relatively

new field. One researcher (Barlow J r . , 1973) in- a study on

'Metaphor and Insight i n Psychotherapy' summarizes the scanty

literature i n the field under three different categories: (1)

m e t a p h o r as a g e n e r a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l process; (2) m e t a p h o r as a

special cognitive process - the t h e o r i e s evolving from a group of

psychologists at Clark University; and (3) metaphor as a

heuristic i n problem solving. More r e c e n t l y , another researcher

(Gore, 1977) in a study on 'Psychological Functions of Metaphor'

c o n c l u d e s i n h i s r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t t h e r e i s a s y e t no

u n i f y i n g t h e o r y o f t h e f u n c t i o n s o f m e t a p h o r . One of the latest

s t u d i e s on m e t a p h o r and t h e r a p y has b e e n done by A m i r a (1982) who

extends the research to include figurative language and metaphor

in both successful and u n s u c c e s s f u l psychotherapy.

A more d e t a i l e d review of the l i t e r a t u r e (CHAPTER I I ) will

readily show t h a t t h e r e i s room f o r more r e s e a r c h i n t h e whole

area of r e l a t i o n s h i p between metaphor and psychology, especially

in the f i e l d of psychotherapy and counselling. A l s o most o f the

psychological r e s e a r c h on the t o p i c of m e t a p h o r a r e done using

quantitative methodologies. However, because of the nature of

metaphor, i t seems t h a t d e s c r i p t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e approaches

would prove t o be v a l u a b l e t o o . One such approach i s the single

 2

case study method, the research methodology chosen for our study.

The goal is to explore the use of metaphor in e f f e c t i v e

counselling using material from one single case.

The Problem

In order to study metaphors from a systemic perspective, one

can integrate some o f the concepts of learning of Piaget (1952)

and concepts of Synectics of W.J.J. Gordon (1961). This approach

is t a k e n by Jacques Jimenez in an article entitled 'Piaget and

Synectics' (1976). Synectics deals with creative problem-solving

through the use of verbal analogy and metaphor. Gordon states

that the mind has two jobs to perform: 'Make the Strange

Familiar' and 'Make the Familiar Strange'. The former is the

incorporation of new facts, events, experiences, etc., into the

frameworks already established by previously appropriated facts,

events, experiences, etc. The latter is the freeing of something

already known from one's stereotypes and the altering of one's

angle of vision to meet new realities. The f i r s t (e.g. play)

which Gordon calls 'learning', Piaget calls 'assimilation'. The

second (e.g. imitation) which Gordon c a l l s 'innovation', Piaget

calls 'accommodation . 1
By putting Piaget and Synectics together,

Jimenez arrives at a three-word definition of intelligence: the

complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation, both

accomplished by means of metaphor (Jimenez, 1976, p.108).

Applying this to the human family system, a system is a metaphor

for patterns of actions and relationships.

With this understanding in mind, it is now possible to state

the problem in general term. The broader question that needs to

 3

be asked i n the area of psychotherapy w i t h r e g a r d to the system

as m e t a p h o r i s - how i s the q u a l i t y of metaphoric interaction

between the client and the therapist related to effective

psychotherapy?

Some Definitions

David MacDermott (1974) p o i n t s out that the word metaphor

translates literally from t h e G r e e k as 'a c a r r y i n g from one place

to another.' Noting this, B u n n y S. D u h l proposes the following

as a working definition of metaphor: A metaphor is the

t r a n s p o s i n g o f an i m a g e o r a s s o c i a t i o n from one state or arena of

meaning to another, h i g h l i g h t i n g similarities, differences and/or

ambiguities (Duhl, 1983, p.128). She further elaborates by

stating that metaphor i s the linkage of meaning - that which

connects any two events, ideas, characteristics, modes. Through

metaphors, an individual transforms experience from one mode to

another, from 'outside' self to 'inside' self. By 'metaphoring',

one is engaged in the process of making relationship, of

connecting. As humans, we t e n d t o make t h e Strange Familiar,

make t h e F a m i l i a r Strange, and t r y t o keep t h e F a m i l i a r Familiar.

Duhl g o e s on to explain the r e l a t e d concept of decentration:

In d e c e n t r a t i o n , o r a c h i e v i n g i n t e g r a t e d multicentricity,
i n the process of t r y i n g to understand another's world,
we n e e d modes o f t r a n s l a t i n g or transforming another's
words and b e h a v i o r s f r o m "outside s e l f " to "inside s e l f . "
We n e e d s modes o f m e t a p h o r i n g , o f t r y i n g on and experien-
c i n g a n o t h e r ' s m i c r o and macro w o r l d views and carrying
them f r o m a n o t h e r t o o n e s e l f , as a way o f b o t h d i f f e r e n t i -
a t i n g and i n t e g r a t i n g them. We need ways of p e r c e i v i n g
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e v e n t s as i f t h r o u g h another's eyes
( D u h l , 1983 , p.130) .

For Duhl, m e t a p h o r s a r e i n v e n t i o n s o f t h e human m i n d f o r c r e a t i n g

 4

order, integration, and coherence. ' Metaphoring i s the process

of inclusion and c o n n e c t i o n , implicitly, i n preverbal or

paraverbal awareness and c o n n e c t i o n making. Metaphors arethe

explicit expression of that connection of unity i n some symbolic,

humanly c r e a t e d form: spoken or written words, created objects,

expressions o r p a t t e r n s . ' says Duhl ( D u h l , 1983, p.131).

Within any g i v e n culture, there are various types of

metaphors. Metaphors of i d e n t i t y a r e t h e ways by w h i c h people

know who they a r e , over time. These metaphors are usually

related t o sex, r o l e , t a s k and s t a t u s , carrying meanings from t h e

outside i n . These meanings e v o l v e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e s of order

and succession of the said culture. Metaphors of approximation

a r e t h e ways one c a n b e s t i m a g i n e the internal world of another

person or communicate one's own to another. The m e t a p h o r s o f

identity c a n be u s e d as metaphors of approximation. The concept

of empathy is directly related to the a b i l i t y to approximate.

Both these two t y p e s o f metaphors are part o f and r e l a t e d to the

metaphors o f o r_g_a n_i z_a _t_i o_n , e x p r e s s i n g the structures and

hierarchies of the c u l t u r e , the o r d e r i n g of r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The

ordering i s expressed through rules concerning roles i n

prescribed relationships. A l l the three types o f metaphors a r e

interwoven with the metaphors of operation, exemplifying the

patterns of interpersonal relationship, which represent the

standardized practices, t h e r o u t i n e s and r i t u a l , the i n t e r a c t i o n s

among t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d r o l e s .

The Purpose o f the Study

The purpose of this study i s t o examine the metaphoring

 5

process of both the c l i e n t and t h e t h e r a p i s t by i d e n t i f y i n g t h e

types o f metaphors used; and t o look f o rp a t t e r n s o f metaphoric

interaction that parallel the therapeutic progress of the c l i e n t ,

as measured by Approach-Avoidance Scale to Self-exploration

developed by Gore (1977) d e s c r i b e d i n CHAPTER I I I . The m e t a p h o r s

of identity, approximation, organization and operation were

identified using the categories l i s t e d i n our d e f i n i t i o n section

above. Then t h e y were further classified as metaphors that 'Make

the Familiar Strange' (assimilation) o r metaphors that 'Make t h e

Strange Familiar' (accommodation). The u s e o f s u c h metaphors by

the client and t h e t h e r a p i s t was compared t o note the q u a l i t y of

matches and mismatches at critical points of the therapeutic

process. An attempt was made to describe q u a l i t a t i v e l y the

patterns of metaphoric interaction between the c l i e n t and t h e

therapist which typify the p o i n t s a t which the t h e r a p i s t i s most

effective.

Delimitations o f t h e Study

The approach adopted for this study was the single case

study method. A c a s e study i s a study o f a "bounded system" with

a conception of unity or t o t a l i t y . The f o c u s i n o u r s t u d y was t h e

use o f metaphor b y one t h e r a p i s t w i t h one f a m i l y in a particular

c a s e . The m e t h o d o l o g i e s c o u l d be a p p l i e d t o more t h a n one c a s e .

But because of the exploratory nature of this study, and also

because of the s p e c i f i c i t y and particularity of the use of

metaphor i n t h e r a p y and c o u n s e l l i n g , a single case study approach

was chosen. The intention was to uncover the systematic

c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e u s e o f m e t a p h o r b y one t h e r a p i s t , and t h e
observable behaviours of the family i n therapy. Naturalistic

generalization by the researcher concerning the use of metaphor

in effective counselling, idiosyncratic to the case, was

generated r a t h e r than scientific generalization.

The study was done u s i n g t h e transcript of a f a m i l y therapy

case study done by Virginia Satir i n 1982. The therapy was done

at the University of Chico, Chico, California. The first two of

the three natural segments of the taped s e s s i o n s were used for

our r e s e a r c h . The first s e g m e n t was the f a m i l y i n t e r v i e w w i t h the

parents, J a n e and G a r y , arid t h e son, K e n t . The second segment was

the family r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Kent's parents.

While i t might be desirable to examine the concept of

metaphor with more t h a n one therapist, this undertaking would

t a k e us b e y o n d t h e p e r i m e t e r o f o u r research. This limitation was

compensated by the fact that we were w o r k i n g with m a t e r i a l of

superb quality. Since the study was done using material

produced by an accomplished and well established family

therapist, we w e r e a b l e t o g a i n new insights to the process of

psychotherapy using a systemic view of metaphors. It i s further

hoped that the study will s t i m u l a t e more comprehensive study on

the subject i n the future.

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CHAPTER TWO

A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Overview

Mark Johnson (1981) in a book called "Philosophical

Perspectives on Metaphor 1
e d i t e d by him remarks t h a t we are in

the midst of a metaphoramania. There has been a tremendous

increase in interest i n the subject especially i n the last twenty

to t h i r t y years. H o w e v e r , a s we have noted i n our introduction,

the vast majority of the work has been done in the area of

philosophy, l i n g u i s t i c s :and the arts. Relatively few studies are

on the psychological aspect of this field. Nevertheless, in order

to have a f u l l e r p i c t u r e of the subject and to s e t the stage for

our present s t u d y , we need t o note not only the literature that

is directly r e l e v a n t , but a l s o some o f t h e more r e c e n t and more

significant discussions i n areas just beyond the focus of our

psychological quest. Warren Shibles (1971) h a s put together a

comprehensive annotated bibliography and history of metaphor.

This work includes sources from different fields in different

l a n g u a g e s and i s useful from a h i s t o r i c a l perspective. Its major

limitation i s that i t covers material up to the late 1960s, just

before the current increase in interest on metaphor. So our

review can be considered a little u p d a t e on this w o r k . We shall

divide our review in two broad categories:^ first, literature in

the fields of philosophy and linguistics; second, literature in

the fields of psychology and p s y c h o t h e r a p y . The review covers the

more representative work in the different fields and is not.

exhaustive.
 8

Metaphor i n Philosophy and Linguistics

The E m e r g e n c e o f a Modern Theory

It was two lectures of Richards (193 6) on metaphor t h a t were the

seeds t h a t l a t e r bore fruit i n t h e w o r k o f Max Black (1954-55),

the pioneer o£ the modern enquiries into the theoretical and

practical a s p e c t s of metaphors. R i c h a r d s saw our world structured

in p a r t by fundamental metaphoric processes of experience. To

him, a metaphor i n v o l v e s 'two thoughts of d i f f e r e n t things active

together and supported by a s i n g l e w o r d , o r p h r a s e , whose meaning

is a resultant of their interaction' ( R i c h a r d s , 1936, p.93). As

the interaction of the things may be based on dissimilarities as

well as similarities, t h e r e f o r e the meaning o f a metaphor cannot

be reduced to a l i t e r a l statement of similarity.

.Max Black (1954-55) f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d these notions i n his

'interactional' view of metaphor. He rejected both the

traditional 'substitution' and 'comparison' views. The first

view holds that metaphor merely replaces equivalent literal

expressions. The second holds that metaphor presents an analogy

or similarity between the t h i n g s compared. T h e s e v i e w s o n l y make

metaphors nothing more than stylistic variants. Black sees

metaphorical meaning as the result of a complex interaction

(filtering and screening) between systems of implications

associated with the metaphor. T h i s p r o c e s s can a c t u a l l y induce

similarities. Black developed this concept further in relation to

models (1962). His work has b e e n e x p o u n d e d by scholars like Henle

(1958) a n d has since formed the basis for much of the modern

discussion on metaphor.
 9

Support f o rBlack's Theory

When one a d o p t s an i n t e r a c t i o n a l v i e w o f metaphor, one h a s

to contend with the tension created by t h e two r e f e r e n t s i n any

metaphorical statement. Metaphors therefore create new reality

for us. Berggren (1962) p o i n t s to this use o f metaphor and a t t h e

-

same time t h e abuse o f metaphor. When a metaphor i s taken

literally, i t i s no l o n g e r regarded as a t e n s i o n between t h e two

referents but rather a myth. H e r e i n lies t h e abuse o f metaphor.

Wheelwright (1962) r e f e r s t o m e t a p h o r a s a k i n d of tensive

language i n v o l v i n g two k i n d s of activity. One k i n d o f a c t i v i t y he

calls 'epiphor' and t h i s involves the a p p l i c a t i o n o f a term with

a standard meaning to another object on t h e b a s i s of their

s i m i l a r i t i e s . The o t h e r kind of a c t i v i t y he c a l l s 'diaphor' and

this involves the juxtaposition of things t o p r o d u c e new i n s i g h t ,

regardless of the underlying similarity.

Similarly, Beardsley (1962) a r g u e s t h a t inherent tensions

within t h e metaphor r e s u l t i n a term having a central meaning by

its ordinary designation and a marginal meaning by i t s

connotation. Metaphor induces insight by calling up or

actualizing connotations that were p o t e n t i a l l y a v a i l a b l e b u t n o t

yet surfaced. He calls this 'the m e t a p h o r i c a l twist', the

yielding of metaphorical i n s i g h t as a r e s u l t of the inherent

tensions or verbal-oppositions within the metaphor. More

recently, Beardsley (1978) f u r t h e r develops this idea i n w h a t he

calls 'Metaphorical Senses'. He n o t e s that words possess certain

intentional meanings and a l s o a c o n s t e l l a t i o n of 'credence-

properties'. A 'credence-property' i s an a t t r i b u t e b e l i e v e d by
 10

the community o f speakers t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e word. Through

use, the 'credence-properties' as a p p l i e d t o t h e extensions o f

words become accepted as p a r t of the intentional meaning of the

words. There i s therefore both a 'literal' sense and a

'metaphorical' sense. He t h e r e f o r e allows for t h e emergence of a

'literal' sense o f metaphor. I n so doing he s t i l l questions the

adequacy o f 'constancy' t h e o r i e s o f metaphor (such as comparison

theories) which i n s i s t that expressions carry at least one o f

their standard meanings even when used metaphorically; and

adheres t o 'conversion' t h e o r i e s which hold t h a t a new s e n s e i s

acquired by t h e metaphorical use o f an e x p r e s s i o n .

Edie (1962-63) who sees language as phenomenological

expression, recognizes that metaphor plays an important role i n

the process b y w h i c h we a r e a b l e t o o r g a n i z e and understand our

experience as w e l l as t o communicate i t . Words a n d meaning are

distinct because while words may p o i n t t o meanings, they cannot

encapsulate the complete meaning which constantly changes.

M e t a p h o r s c a n be u s e d t o i n t e r p r e t our experience more adequately

because there i s no a s s u m p t i o n t h a t w o r d s a n d m e a n i n g s a r e l o c k e d

into each other. In using metaphors, words that describe certain

aspect of our experience are applied afresh to cover new

d i m e n s i o n o f meaning.

In trying to define metaphor and i t s p r o p e r t i e s , Isenberg

(1963) p o i n t s o u t t h r e e f a c t o r s t h a t we s h o u l d consider. First,

all metaphors are aesthetic objects directed toward the

imagination. Second, a l l metaphors are f u l l works of or strokes

of art. Third, metaphors will produce t h e judgment i n the

recipient as t o the relevance and t r u t h o f t h e metaphor.

 11

From a linguistic point of view, Bickerton (1969) c o n t e n d s

that we need a new theory, of metaphor that recognizes that

meaning e x i s t s n o t i n a vacuum b u t i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between

speaker, l a n g u a g e , and hearer. Metaphor involves an interaction

between marked s i g n s . For example 'hardness' i s an a t t r i b u t e o f

the marked sign 'iron'. Signs become marked by c o n v e n t i o n , and

this sets up a network of oppositions containing distinct

categories. In metaphor the boundary i s c r o s s e d by t h e u s e o f a

marked sign i n such a way that the sign gets a new meaning

without eliminating the tension created by t h e c a t e g o r y crossing.

This view is significant b e c a u s e i t p r o p o s e s a c o m p l e t e model of

c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f metaphor. However, Matthews

(1971) casts d o u b t on the usefulness of this 'performance' model

because of i t s i n a b i l i t y t o be u s e d i n s e p a r a t i n g metaphors from

non-metaphors. He proposes instead a 'competency' model where a

metaphor a c q u i r e s i t sforce from the c r e a t i v e l y deviant way i t

bends the rules o f grammar. M a t t h e w s ' v i e w i s further challenged

by Price (1974) who maintains that performance has to be

considered i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g m e t a p h o r s f r o m n o n s e n s e . He feels

that metaphors may be more a d e q u a t e l y explained by the attention

t h e y draw t o t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s o f grammar and t o t h e rule-changing

activities.

Turbayne (1970) r e c o g n i z e s that metaphor h a s b e e n one o f t h e

chief devices f o r c o m m u n i c a t i n g and e x p l a i n i n g facts, inducing

attitudes, and influencing behaviour. Metaphor involves the

pretense, i.e. the representing o f t h e f a c t s o f one sort as i f

they belonged to another sort, which i s useful for inducing

 12

insight. However he cautions against the error of its usage

without the awareness of its non-literal nature.

Using Urban's theory of metaphor (Language and Reality,

1939) as a basis, Shibles (1971) reiterates the view that

metaphor should not be taken literally. As with Urban, Shibles

recognizes the intuitive and emotive character of metaphor. He

also believes that the metaphor itself interacts with and helps

to constitute the thought that we express. Thus metaphor may

serve to give us i n s i g h t s or ideas. However he feels that Urban's

notion of the 'unconscious' m e t a p h o r i c a l transfer of words is too

vague. In i t s place, he suggests that metaphor may be consciously

constructed granting that conscious and unconscious may overlap.

Shibles (1974) further developed his view in a paper, 'The

Metaphorical Method 1
in which he notes different forms of

metaphors including such forms as therapeutic (cathartic)

metaphors. He also supports the notion that metaphors are active

and indispensable agents in the tasks of observing, classifying,

and reporting human experience.

Debate over B l a c k ' s Theory

In s p i t e of a l l these studies, the debate over the nature of

metaphor i s a l l but over. Yoos (1971) p o i n t s out that the debate

continues because of a failure to recognise that metaphors

operate at the level of thought rather than at the level of

words. At stake i s Black's basic notion that a literal paraphrase

cannot be given for a metaphor without a loss of cognitive

c o n t e n t . On one hand there are those (e.g. S t e w a r t , 1971, 1973)

that feels that i t i s useless t o t r y and paraphrase metaphors,

and that metaphors should be regarded as the beginnings of a new

language that provides transient and subjective conception of

reality. On the other hand, scholars like Warner (1973) feels

that Black's mistake lies i n claiming that insights derived from

the use of m e t a p h o r c a n n o t be expressed literally. He suggests

t h a t we should not regard m e t a p h o r s as irreducible a s s e r t i o n s but

as illocutionary acts that help us see things in new ways.

Manns (1975) f e e l s t h a t Warner has misread Black and argues that

the e n t i r e d i s c u s s i o n of the e x t e n t m e t a p h o r s c a n be reduced to

literal paraphrases is misdirected. Paraphrases point us to the

metaphors and are not necessary clearer expressions.

Nevertheless, the scholars are i n agreement w i t h regard to the

fact t h a t the use of m e t a p h o r d o e s p r o d u c e new insight.

Charlton (1975) feels that Black's theory of metaphor is

erroneous because c o n t r a r y to Black's claim, i t can be shown that

t h e r e i s no shift i n meaning i n the use of metaphors. A 'living'

metaphor acquires i t s force from i t s alien context. It then

g r a d u a l l y becomes a c c e p t e d as semantically justified and thus

becomes a 'dead' m e t a p h o r i n common usage. He maintains that

meanings remain f a i r l y constant, although subject to extension

through metaphorical use. He further maintains that Black is

wrong i n c l a i m i n g t h a t a new meaning arises from the interaction

o f t h e t e r m s o f a m e t a p h o r , when i n f a c t i t i s an a e s t h e t i c p o w e r

t h a t emerges. Loewenberg (1973, 1975, 1978) disagrees with this

v i e w and f u r t h e r argues t h a t the i n t e r a c t i o n of a metaphor i s a

creative process. 'What t h e maker o f a novel metaphor creates is

a new view of a subject, existing i n the world after, but not

before, his metaphorical utterance' (Loewenberg, 1978, p.347).

 14

Metaphors help to express the continuous and d y n a m i c nature

of our experiences. Ortony (1975) explain that metaphors are

indispensable f o r t h r e e reasons. F i r s t , metaphors a r e compact and

allow lots of information to be compressed i n them. Second,

metaphors express the dynamic elements of r e a l i t y much better

than literal language. Third, metaphors are more vivid than

literal language. Despite this emphasis on metaphors, Haynes

(1975) c r i t i c i z e s Ortony for still assuming that metaphor is

comparative i n nature.

Recent Developments; Symposiums and Anthologies

The interest i n metaphors peaked at the end of the last

decade w i t h two major symposiums. One was held i n September 1977

at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. I t was a

multidisciplinary conference on m e t a p h o r s attended by leading

philosophers, psychologists, linguists, and educators. Papers

read at the conference were put together in a book called

'Metaphor and Thought' edited by Andrew Ortony (1979).

The other symposium was held i n F e b r u a r y , 1978, under the

auspices of the U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago Extension. Papers from that

symposium are compiled i n a book called 'On Metaphor,' edited by

Sheldon Sacks (1978).

Other anthologies on metaphor give added evidence to the

current interest. One s u c h work i s edited by Mark Johnson (1981)

called ' P h i l o s o p h i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e s on M e t a p h o r ' . A n o t h e r i s one

edited by D a v i d S. Miall (1982) c a l l e d 'Metaphor: Problems and

Perspectives.'
 15

Black.'s F u r t h e r Development of H i s Theory

First and foremost we should note the development of Black's

own theory. Black (1977) f o l l o w e d up his earlier article in a new

paper, 'More a b o u t Metaphor' i n w h i c h he shifts h i s concern from

the conceptual a n a l y s i s of metaphor to a functional analysis. He

h o l d s on t o t h e 'interactional t h e o r y ' and reiterates the claim

that metaphors produce a shift of meaning, but clarifies that i t

is only a shift i n the speaker's and the hearer's meaning. He

maintains t h a t the use of metaphors r e v e a l i n s i g h t s not otherwise

available. In h i s o p i n i o n , the truth and falsity of metaphorical

statements are irrelevant to the f u n c t i o n s of metaphors.

The new discussion of metaphor has been picked up by

scholars like John Searle (1979) a n d Paul Ricoeur (1977, 1978)

and has focused m o r e on t h e f u n c t i o n a l aspects. S e a r l e seeks to

show that 'metaphorical meaning i s always speaker's utterance

meaning' (p.77) and lays out three principles with which the

hearer seeks out the metaphorical interpretation. Alternately, in

an article, 'The Metaphorical Process as Cognition, Imagination,

and Feeling,' Ricoeur (1978) postulates that there are three

facets of the cognitive activity of the metaphorical process: the

schematizing of the s y n t h e t i c operation i n which d i s p a r a t e things

a r e s e e n as s i m i l a r ; the forming o f an image t o g i v e c o n t e n t to

the m e a n i n g ; and the suspending of ordinary reference to allow

the new description of reality to emerge. There are three

parallel analogous moments of feeling to these three moments of

imagination, Ricoeur claims. This shift has brought the

discussion closer to the affective domain.

Cohen (1978) draws attention beyond the cognitive and

 16

aesthetic dimensions to the relational aspect by f o c u s i n g on the

role metaphors play i n the cultivation of intimacy. He compares

metaphors to jokes where both depend on shared knowledge,

attitudes and intentions of the speaker and the hearer. The

appreciation of the metaphor causes the hearer t o draw c l o s e r to

the speaker.

C o n t i n u i n g Debate over Black's Theory

However t h e d e b a t e o v e r w h e t h e r m e t a p h o r i c a l insights can or

cannot be reduced to literal language continues. On the one hand

there are those that s t i l l feel t h a t the only meaning a metaphor

has is its literal meaning (Davidson, 1978). Others like Johnson

(1980) who accepts both the comparative level and the interactive

level of understanding metaphors maintains t h a t the metaphors at

the second level is not rule-governed and is therefore not

reducible to l i t e r a l concepts or language. To t r y and break the

deadlock, J o h n s o n and Erickson (1980) p r o p o s e s that that metaphor

can be considered i n the context of a theory of 'being' r a t h e r

than a theory of 'knowledge'. T h i s theory of being denies that

all being is objective. Metaphor i s seen as a process by which

beings are made o b j e c t i v e . The new formulation 'involves asking

how metaphors make b e i n g s meaningful in a manner t h a t allows

concepts to r e f l e c t this m e a n i n g ' (p. 296).

Lakoff and Johnson (1980a) argue that a l l our human

experience are s t r u c t u r e d by metaphors. In a f u l l length book,

'Metaphor We Live By' published i n the same y e a r , they elaborate

on this thesis. Our o r d i n a r y speech i s metaphorical i n nature. It

is generated by more fundamental metaphorical structures in our

 17

thought and experience. Therefore, according to Lakoff and

Johnson,,some o f o u r most b a s i c r e a l i t i e s i n our l i v e s a r enot

objectively given, but are defined by the metaphors of our

culture. Truth i s not absolute but i s always based on human

understanding which i s metaphorically structured. This view gives

us a new way o f c o n s t r u i n g a n d p e r c e i v i n g o u r r e a l i t i e s i n terms

of 'experiential gestalt, 1
i.e. structured meaningful wholes

within experience. Developing what H e s t e r (1966) c a l l e d 'metaphor

and aspect seeing,' Lakoff and Johnson p o s t u l a t e t h a t i n metaphor

we u n d e r s t a n d one k i n d o f t h i n g o r e x p e r i e n c e i n terms of another

of a different k i n d . The m e t a p h o r i c a l meaning i s based on t h e

projection o f o n e common gestalt s t r u c t u r e onto another. That

which emerges i s a new gestalt that restructures aspects of our

experience, thought, and language.

It i s evident that 'metaphor' o c c u p i e s a central position i n

philosophical d i s c u s s i o n s t o d a y . L a k o f f a n d J o h n s o n go a s f a r a s

t o s a y , 'no a c c o u n t o f meaning and t r u t h c a n be a d e q u a t e unless

it recognizes and d e a l s with t h e way i n which conventional

metaphors s t r u c t u r e our conceptual system' (Lakoff and Johnson,

1980a, p.486).

Metaphor i n Psychology and Psychotherapy

A Transition

In o u r s t u d y o f metaphor, the t r a n s i t i o n from philosophy to

the p s y c h o l o g i c a l f i e l d s i s a logical o n e . A s we h a v e noted i n

our above d i s c u s s i o n s , metaphor and i n s i g h t are closely related.

It has been noted that metaphor allows one to look at his

behaviour i n various lights and t h a t i t s explanatory power lies

 18

in i t s paradoxical juxtaposition of different cases (Wisdom,

1957). A n o t h e r w r i t e r p o i n t s out that the use of metaphor i s an

intuitive s y m b o l i c way of knowing, y i e l d i n g universal insight,

one which helps unite psychology with other disciplines (Royce,

1967) .

Allers (1955) a r g u e s that modern p s y c h o l o g y needs to take

traditional philosophy into account. He points out that a l l

languages use metaphor to grasp the mental, idealistic,

extrasensory, and the external world. Metaphor i s almost always

ambiguous and the same v e r b a l metaphor can relate i n many ways.

He c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e u n c r i t i c a l expansion o f mere metaphors

into large systems such as Freud's psychology, pointing out that

such systems are o n l y models of r e a l i t y and n o t r e a l i t y itself.

Mehrabian (1968) i n a n a l y z i n g personality theories points

out that metaphors determine t h e o r y and g u i d e o b s e r v a t i o n . The

choice of metaphor i s our p e r c e p t i o n of r e a l i t y and not objective

fact itself. Thus the above considerations must be taken into

account i n any psychological studies of metaphor. However, most

of the literature i n the p s y c h o l o g i c a l fields seem to f a l l short

on one or both counts, namely, an inadequate grounding in

p h i l o s o p h y , and an u n c r i t i c a l build-up into models. T h i s can be

readily seen i n the following review. We shall look a t metaphor

in psychology and psychotherapy in turn.

Metaphor i n Psychology

(1)Metaphor as a P s y c h o l o g i c a l Process

In a theoretical paper on 'The Psychology of Metaphor,'

 19

Anderson (1964), after a survey of the literature on metaphor,

suggests that a metaphoric expression i s the outcome of one's

attempt to s t r u c t u r e the surrounding e n v i r o n m e n t and to reduce

emotional a r o u s a l . H o w e v e r no a c t u a l r e s e a r c h was conducted to

demonstrate h i s thesis.

One of the earliest p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s on metaphor was

done by Knapp (1960). A seven point scale preference gradation

test was devised to classify metaphors appropriate or

inappropriate to the concepts of time, conscience, death,

success, l o v e and s e l f - i m a g e . The r e s u l t was supposed to r e v e a l

the subject's deep-seated attitudes. Unfortunately the researcher

in drawing h i s c o n c l u s i o n s , assumes u n c r i t i c a l l y the Freudian

notions of a 'primary [dream g o v e r n i n g or depth] s t r u c t u r e ' and

'secondary [reality coping] process.' So the results of the study

go no f u r t h e r than his starting presupposition that metaphorical

expressions are related to unconscious processes and the coping

of reality.

The uncritical use of Freudian concepts will be reviewed in

the context of psychotherapy. Here we shall merely note the

cautions raised by Nash (1962, 1963). N a s h (1962) p o i n t s out that

in Freudian theory metaphor not only illustrates but also

constitutes the o b j e c t . Freud's metaphors are sometimes c l e a r but

often b l u r r e d and i n c o n s i s t e n t . In another paper (Nash, 1963), he

recognizes the role of metaphor in linking a familiar experience

with a novel one, and therefore metaphor is a l e g i t i m a t e method

of generating and guiding theory. He further recognizes that good

operational i d e a s o f t e n come f r o m h i g h l y p e r s o n a l metaphors which

are redefined operationally. However, he reminds us to be

 20

conscious of our metaphors and not confuse them with identity

( e . g . human b e h a v i o u r as like animal behaviour).

One of the e a r l i e r attempts t o s t u d y the metaphor phenomenon

scientifically was done by Kaiser (1967). He attempts to conduct

a statistical, experimental analysis and concludes that

metaphorical description d i d not evoke significantly greater

emotional response t h a n do literal forms of w r i t i n g , f o r those

who understand figurative language. This physiological study is

interesting but does little to enhance our understanding of the

functions of metaphor.

Chapman (1971) d i d r e s e a r c h on t h e p e r c e p t i o n and expression

of metaphor as a function of c o g n i t i v e style and intellectual

level. He examined the pattern of intercorrelations among

these variables. His results only supported the conclusion that

higher IQ scores predicted higher metaphor perception scores.

However this empirical research result merely confirms what we

would expect intuitively.

(2)Metaphor as a Cognitive Process

Research related to metaphor spearheaded by Heinz Werner

(1957) of Clark University was centred on the concept of

'physiognomic perception,' that i s , thinking based on symbolic

c o n s c i o u s n e s s . An example of t h e s e studies i s t h e work o f Bernard

Kaplan (1962) who was associated w i t h Werner and who suggested

that language evolution depends on two cognitive acts: aesthetic

activity and radical metaphorizing. The former i s the process of

giving significant form to that which i s f o r m l e s s . The latter is

an activity that serves to establish a relation between objects

 21

that have been d e s i g n a t e d by a e s t h e t i c activity. It is a special

act of intentionality which bring things into an order. A

demonstration of this i s a game i n which participants a r e asked

to p a i r each o f t h e words p i n g and pong w i t h either elephant or

m o u s e . He f o u n d that irresistibly ping i spaired w i t h mouse a n d

pong w i t h e l e p h a n t . However one f i n d s i t difficult t o s e e how

such demonstration serves t o prove the point of the researcher.

Rudolf Arnheim (1966) tries to provide a comprehensive

theory of metaphor based on t h e c o n c e p t of 'physiognomic

p e r c e p t i o n . ' He c l a i m s t h a t metaphoric activity i s an attempt to

connect two o r more s e g m e n t s of r e a l i t y through t h e medium o f

imagery. The p h y s i o g n o m i c qualities common to these segments

bring aboutan unique relationship. These are interesting and

highly abstract concepts. However, they are d i f f i c u l t to

demonstrate and o f f e r little b y way o f p r a c t i c a l application.

(3)Recent Research

The search f o r a more complete understanding of the

underlying psychological processes i n the use of metaphor

continues. Kortenkamp (1973) c o n c l u d e d from his literature review

that no o n e h a d e x p l i c i t l y attempted to, first, determine the

metaphoric dimensions associated with a particular subjective

experience, and then, t o use these dimensions to operationalize

and validly scale the subjective e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s he a t t e m p t e d to

do. To d e t e r m i n e the metaphoric dimensions associated with a

particular experiences, a dictionary and t h e s a u r u s were scanned.

Every word that seemed a label f o r a metaphoric (i.e., objective

or p h y s i c a l ) dimension was n o t e d . A M e t a p h o r C h e c k l i s t consisting

 22

of 199 bipolar dimensions was constructed. Subjects were then

asked to indicate t h e end of each dimension which d e s c r i b e d their

experience of depression, anxiety and anger, and to rate the

relevance of each dimension to d e s c r i b i n g those experiences.

Using the results of the Metaphoric Checklist, those dimensions

s h o w i n g h i g h e s t i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e a g r e e m e n t and r e l e v a n c y were used

t o c o n s t r u c t M e t a p h o r R a t i n g S c a l e s and psychophysical scaling

devices f o r each of the emotions. The researcher found that many

of h i s hypotheses were v a l i d a t e d . However this research fails to

consider the philosophical understanding of the nature of

m e t a p h o r and seems t o l i m i t the unique i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c subjective

experience in metaphoric expressions to a set of prescribed

variables and generalized checklist.

Another study was done by Gore (1977) focusing on the

psychological f u n c t i o n s of metaphor. Metaphoric expression is

considered as an important dimension of psychological

functioning, especially i n the process of e x p r e s s i n g feelings.

Metaphors are viewed as a compromise formation which

simultaneously conceals and reveals significant underlying

feelings and impulses. Gore took 45 client-therapist pairs during

the first three hours of psychotherapy. Lists of a l l metaphors

used i n these hours were p r e p a r e d and s c o r e d . The four areas of

possible relevance t o metaphor usage s t u d i e d were: defensiveness,

interpersonal interactions, c r e a t i v i t y , and content

meaningfulness. The basic hypothesis was that high quality of

metaphor (i.e. o r i g i n a l i t y ) would positively correlate with

strong approach tendencies. It was expected that original

 23

m e t a p h o r s w o u l d be a v e r b a l sign of other creative potentials,

and that t h e meanings underlying the particular metaphors could

be comprehended through v a r i o u s approaches. Finally, i t was

expected that t h e metaphor usage of therapists and c l i e n t s would

have facilitative and non-faci1itative effects on the

therapeutic relationship. Both quantitative and qualitative

approaches t o data analysis were undertaken.

Gore concluded from his findings that metaphor has some

impact as a psychotherapy process variable. In the opinion of the

present researcher, this i s by f a r t h e most satisfying and

illuminating p i e c e o f r e s e a r c h on metaphor done t o date. The

basic h y p o t h e s i s was supported t o a reasonable degree. Among t h e

most i n t e r e s t i n g findings i s t h a t empathic therapists may respond

to clients who use a l o tof c l i c h e s by e m p l o y i n g more cliches

themselves. Case studies suggested other e f f e c t s , i n c l u d i n g the

possibility that creative metaphors serve as or reflect a

successful s u b l i m a t i o n o f i m p u l s e s . Gore feels that metaphor has

some i m p a c t as a p s y c h o t h e r a p y process variable a n d s h o u l d be

further studied.

Metaphor i n Psychotherapy

The study o f t h e p r o c e s s and t h e f u n c t i o n s of metaphor i n

psychotherapy has been dominated by p s y c h o a n a l y t i c v i e w s i n the

past decades. These views have gone through t h r e e phases. (1) I n

the e a r l y days of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s m e t a p h o r was l o o k e d upon a s an

'elaborated symbolic disguise 1

which reduced anxiety associated

with libidinal urges. (2) T h e second trend was pioneered by

Sharpe (1940) who e x p a n d e d t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t t o i n c l u d e further

 24

analysis of metaphoric expressions. (3) The r e c e n t t r e n d i s much

less unified and seem t o move t o a much broader approach. We

shall review and c r i t i q u e m a j o r w o r k s done i n t h e s e t h r e e phases.

We shall review the scanty literature on t h e n o n - p s y c h o a n a l y t i c

use o f metaphor i n f a m i l y therapy i n a fourth section.

(1) E a r l y Analytical Views

Freud uses metaphors to analyze dreams and deep mental

(primary) processes, e.g. ' p o i n t * may refer to breast withdrawal

in i n f a n c y and i n n e r c o n f l i c t . Although Freud does n o t s a y so

metaphor may b e t h o u g h t o f as a d e f e n s e mechanism. Freud also

uses many b o l d m e t a p h o r s b y m e a n s o f w h i c h h e p r e s e n t s h i s own

theory, e.g. m e n t a l events a r e d e s c r i b e d as t h e f l o w of fluid

(flooding, pressure, dams, etc.), 'depth' processes and other

spatial metaphors.

Following Freud, Downey (1919) sees metaphor able of

revealing latent unconscious thoughts, subtle states o f mind and

emotions. For him, metaphor i s also involved i n perceptual

shifts. Muncie (1937) s t u d i e d t h e u s e o f m e t a p h o r s b y psychopaths

and focuses on the idea that metaphor i s a 'displacement,'

transference of psychical from the latent to manifest content.

The psychopath shows m e t a p h o r d i s o r d e r a n d u s e s i t as escape from

reality and as a u t i s t i c g r a t i f i c a t i o n . An e x a m p l e g i v e n i s o f a

patient who wanted t o be an a i r p l a n e pilot i n order to get the

proper p e r s p e c t i v e on t h e w o r l d . Another well-known Freudian,

Karl Abraham (1949), contends that metaphors tend to express

behaviour which is based on s a d i s t i c impulses. He b e l i e v e s t h a t

these metaphors c a n be t r a c e d b a c k t o a n a l - e r o t i c instincts.

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5

We can see that this psychoanalytic approach i s often based

on a psycho-sexual view of man. While i t cannot be denied that

man has sexual instincts and drives, this i s but one side of

humanity. The use of just one dimension of human nature in

building a complete system of psychotherapy i s overly simplistic

and inadequate. The application of such an approach to the

psychotherapeutic process is not only unproductive but also

prone to a l l sort of errors.

(2) Sharpe's Extension of the Psychoanalytic View

Sharpe (1940) claims that metaphor conceals ideas and

e m o t i o n s . She regards i t as a t r a n s f e r from the p h y s i c a l to the

psychical etymologically, and therefore seeks to look for the

problem of a patient i n the physical origin of his metaphor. One

or more o f t h e following s i x assumptions can be used in looking

for the source of the patient's problem:

(a) Metaphors develop as second order derivatives of the

e m o t i o n s w h i c h accompany libidinal discharge.

(b) Some metaphors are epitome (summary) of a forgotten

experience.

(c) S i n c e the earliest of a l l verbal images (preconscious)

are the sounds of words, the patient's phonetic associations can

be used as clues to h i s problems.

(d) Most patients' metaphors center on pre-genital and

Oedipal experiences.

(e) Metaphor gives information concerning instinctual

tension.

(f) The type of image d e r i v e d from the patient's metaphors

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is highly informative.

Sharpe's i n t e r p r e t a t i v e use of m e t a p h o r s has been a major

influence a m o n g many p s y c h o a n a l y s t s . The search for clues to a

patient's problems i n h i s use of m e t a p h o r s i s an important method

in psychotherapy. However the method is only as good as the

underlying presuppositions. While Sharpe contends that metaphor

conceals ideas and emotions, i t is entirely possible that the

exact opposite can be equally true, that i s , metaphor reveals

ideas and emotions otherwise difficult to express. Furthermore,

Sharpe's assumptions are highly speculative and will lend

themselves to subjective interpretations.

(3) The Recent Trend

More r e c e n t l y , the amount o f literature on metaphor based on

a psychoanalytic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n has greatly increased. Here we

can only review some o f the more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ones.

Rohovit (1960) further elucidates Freud's view by using

clinical tests to show how psychotic patients' metaphors can

reveal their p r o b l e m s by revealing l a t e n t c o n t e n t . He assumes the

Freudian concept that i n metaphor one term may be unconscious

latent content (vehicle), the other, conscious manifest content

(tenor). Examples of the mechanisms of metaphor are displacement

and condensation. It remains for us to decide whether such an

approach i s too s i m p l i s t i c . How can i t be demonstrated that a l l

of the root problems of a patient lie in the unconscious?

Furthermore, how can one be sure that the conscious manifest

content does i n f a c t correspond to the unconscious?

From an examination of the role of metaphor in creative

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thinking and invention, Mawardi (1961) c o n c l u d e s that metaphor is

a w o r d m e a n i n g one t h i n g and used to i n d i c a t e something e l s e on

the basis of similarity. She further believes that i t stimulates

and l i b e r a t e s the ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' t o be c r e a t i v e . Here we will have

to note that this Freudian approach does not take into account

the w h o l e p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s c u s s i o n on the nature of metaphor, and

especially does not grapple with the i n t e r a c t i o n a l view of

metaphor.

Aleksandrowicz (1962) a d o p t s a Freudian approach but goes

beyond i t , giving us practical clinical insight. He regards

metaphor as a method of communicating with the patient, getting

at the source of his problem and a method of correcting i t .

Metaphors serve as a defense which allows anxiety-laden conflicts

to be expressed in a displaced but yet intense form. Putting the

psychoanalytic interpretation aside, the concept of allowing

metaphor to put distance between the patient and his problem so

as to enable him to v e r b a l i z e his problem i s a s o u n d one. This

also suggests t o us the possibility for a therapist to change the

m e t a p h o r w i t h t h e p a t i e n t a s a way of h e l p i n g him.

Using a technique called 'interpretation within the

metaphor, 1
Cain and Maupin (1961) h a v e sought to use metaphor to

help c h i l d r e n w i t h p s y c h i a t r i c p r o b l e m s . They r e p o r t a case where

a child i n great panic because the red paint on his canvas began

to run was gently s u b d u e d by the t h e r a p i s t who, interpreting with

the metaphor of the red b e i n g f i r e , q u i c k l y drew a f i r e e n g i n e on

the canvas and reassured the child that the fire would be put

out. However they point out that therapists often overestimates

or give a subjective i n t e r p r e t a t i o n or overvalue e v e r y word. They

caution that care should be taken to prevent s e r i o u s mental harm.

Furthermore, they suggest that interpretation of metaphor should

begin sympathetically with the patient's intentions in mind.

These a d v i c e s need t o be heeded.

Caruth and Ekstein (1966) t a k e the 'interpretation within

the m e t a p h o r ' a s t e p f u r t h e r by suggesting t h a t a metaphor may

e v e n be a c t e d o u t by t h e p a t i e n t . T h i s i s b a s e d on S h a r p e ' s work

and a s s e r t s t h a t metaphor may be used to establish communication

with schizophrenic patients since i t retains the needed distance

f r o m f a c i n g t h e r e a l p r o b l e m . An e x a m p l e g i v e n i s s e t t i n g f i r e to

s o m e t h i n g as a metaphoric expression of sexual feelings. Again

we recognise that the method, as in the use of metaphor by

Aleksandrowicz, is basically an useful one. The physical

expression is especially helpful to those who have difficulty

with verbal expression. However the ultimate value of the method

lies i n the interpretation one put on these expressions.

Approaching the i s s u e from the opposite direction, Sarbin

(1964) h a s called into question the tradition view of anxiety and

calls anxiety the reification (treating as concrete something

that is abstract) of a metaphor. Traditionally, anxiety is

regarded as an internal s t a t e or s t a t e of mind. However Sarbin

regards anxiety as originating from certain historical mistakes

occasioned by literal interpretations of metaphors. Also, he

suggests t h a t the therapist should focus on the d i f f i c u l t i e s of a

patient i n coming to term with his world. I t i s not f o r us to

debate here whether a n x i e t y should be regarded as a psychological

c o n s t r u c t . However can we accept the e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t the literal

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interpretations of metaphors are the reasons for anxieties? Since

metaphors are used t o e x p r e s s an i n n e r r e a l i t y within a person,

it is possible that they can be misinterpreted. If these

metaphors are given a status and an identity separate and

independent to the r e a l i t y to which they r e l a t e , i t is possible

that t h e y c a n become new problems i n themselves. However this is

not the same as saying that a l l anxieties originate from the

literal interpretations of metaphors. Real anxieties can come

from a variety of r e a l life situations and exist quite apart from

t h e mediums b y which they are expressed.

Lenrow (1966) d i s c u s s e s t h e use of metaphor in facilitating

constructive behaviour c h a n g e i n many w a y s . Some o f them are:

(1) Metaphors used by a therapist act as a model for a

patient t o use new ways t o look a t behaviour.

(2) M e t a p h o r s c a n b e u s e d to h i g h l i g h t c e r t a i n elements of

events.

(3) M e t a p h o r s h a v e a h a l f playful, half serious quality that

allows the therapist to talk about the patient without appearing

intrusive.

These f u n c t i o n s of metaphors are u s e f u l ones to remember.

M e t a p h o r s c a n be u s e d n o t o n l y f o r g e t t i n g at the source of the

problem, but also as i n therapeutic interventions.

Other f u n c t i o n s f o r metaphor i n psychotherapy have been

suggested by Fine, Pollio and Simpkinson (1972). Here we will

mention just two. First, a shift to a metaphorical level of

communication i n a therapy interview enables a patient t o draw

upon e m o t i o n s currently out of c o n s c i o u s n e s s . Second, metaphoric

interactions provide a non-threatening context within which a

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severely disturbed individual can communicate terrifying

thoughts. These authors also examined other poetic functions of

metaphor in psychotherapy. The above functions have been

described by others i n d i f f e r e n t w o r d s . The need t o t r y and bring

out that which i s temporary out of consciousness and the need to

provide a non-threatening atmosphere can be satisfied by the

correct use of metaphor.

Pollio and Barlow (1973) did a behavioral analysis of

figurative language in psychotherapy using one session in a

single case study. They a r r i v e d a t several conclusions concerning

metaphors. F i r s t , the production of creative metaphors in therapy

appears to be more or less independent of the number of words

that patients and therapist produce. This seems t o indicate that

novel metaphors serve an independent function. Second, the

patient and therapist 'cue i n t o ' each others' creative metaphors

as in learning a language. T h i r d , the therapist's response can

either f a c i l i t a t e or inhibit the patient's production of novel

metaphors. Fourth, creative metaphors occur episodically in the

course of therapy. F i f t h , these 'bursts' of metaphors delineate

coherent segments of interview material. Sixth, thematic content

of metaphoric expressions seems to clarify the presenting

symptoms. Seventh, the change in metaphoric themes signals a

c h a n g e by either the patient or the therapist i n the direction of

the therapy. These c o n c l u s i o n s are tremendously h e l p f u l guides in

our own study of the use of metaphor i n psychotherapy.

Following up this i n i t i a l study in his doctoral

dissertation, Barlow (1973) focused on the relationship between

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m e t a p h o r and insight i n p s y c h o t h e r a p y . He used f i v e interviews

from a complete and 'successful' psychoanalytic psychotherapy and

did a t h r e e - f o l d a n a l y s i s . The first analysis deals with the

statistical and thematic features of novel figurative

expressions. The second analysis deals with areas called 'regions

of insight.' The third deals with the closeness of the

relationship between metaphor and insight. We focus here on his

findings concerning the nature of metaphors. From his

quantitative a n a l y s i s , Barlow concludes t h a t the p a t i e n t ' s use of

novel f i g u r e s tends t o i n c r e a s e and interphase with the use of

similar f i g u r e s by the t h e r a p i s t as therapy progresses. From the

qualitative demonstrations, he finds that the metaphoric themes

u s e d by t h e p a t i e n t and t h e t h e r a p i s t a r e l i m i t e d and a r e carried

throughout the whole therapy in different f o r m s . He also finds

that the most frequent and dominant themes a r e introduced by the

patient which are then picked up by the t h e r a p i s t . From the

standpoint of the use of metaphor i n therapy, this is a valuable

study. However t h e f i n d i n g s are entirely surprising. Furthermore,

t h e r e s u l t may be i n f l u e n c e d by t h e f a c t t h e p a t i e n t a p p e a r t o be

q u i t e v e r b a l and e x p r e s s i v e , and by other factors introduced by

the patient or the therapist. Nevertheless, this and other

similar studies m u s t be noted (refer to the review by Pollio,

B a r l o w , F i n e , and Pollio, 1977). The general conclusion is that

metaphor functions as a model of awareness within psychotherapy

to enable the explicating of the implicit or insight. These

researchers ( P o l l i o , B a r l o w , F i n e , and Pollio, 1977) are of the

opinion that the therapeutic process is one that moves from

metaphorization to literalization, the production of insight. The

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question we have to ask here i s whether insight is necessarily

literal. It is entirely possible that metaphor is a better

vehicle of insight. If this be so, then the final goal of therapy

does not h a v e t o be the literalization of metaphors.

Amira (1982) e x t e n d s these single successful case studies to

a study which includes more t h a t one dyad i n both successful and

unsuccessful therapy. Attention is also given to the metaphoric

interaction between the therapist and the patient. His findings

do not the support the conclusions arrived at by the group of

researchers headed by Pollio. Amira concludes that his findings

militate against any simple r e l a t i o n s h i p between high novel

figurative frequency and positive therapeutic outcome. Are we

t h e n to d i s c a r d the use o f m e t a p h o r a s a t o o l i n t h e r a p y ? We feel

t h a t the a n s w e r i s 'no.' However i n the use o f m e t a p h o r , we need

to return to the fundamental questions of the nature of metaphor,

and the aim of the therapeutic process.

(4) Metaphor i n Family Therapy

Our literature review thus far has revealed that the main

focus of the study on the use of metaphor i n therapy has been on

the dyadic i n t e r a c t i o n between the therapist and the client

(patient). Furthermore most of the work t h a t has b e e n done is of

a psychoanalytical n a t u r e . One finds that there i s not too much

significant research done on the use of metaphor in therapy

within the family context.

However the lack of research does not necessarily mean that

family therapists are not aware of the value of symbolism and

figurative language i n therapy. What is lacking perhaps may be

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the d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e usages and s t u d y on t h e s u b j e c t a t t h e

academic level. On t h e s u b j e c t of symbolism, one c a s e that has

been documented i s that of the M i l l e r family. With this single

case study, Hurvitz (1975) i l l u s t r a t e s the symbolic

interactionist approach to family t h e r a p y . Here a g o a l concerning

specific interactions and s i t u a t i o n s i s agreed upon by t h e

members of the family i n the f i r s t session. In subsequent

sessions, the counselor acts as t h e r a p i s t , consultant, and

intermediary a s t h e members o f t h e f a m i l y b r i n g o u t t h e i r diverse

interpretations of the symbolism involved. This programmatic

approach i s however atypical i n family therapy. M o s t do n o t h a v e

a d e f i n i t e agenda a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of therapy.

On a different level, Bagarozzi and Anderson (1982)

explores, among other factors, the role o f metaphor i nthe

development o f f a m i l y mythological systems. Here f a m i l y myths a r e

defined as b e l i e f s s h a r e d by t h e f a m i l y members t h a t prescribe

complementary r o l e s and r e f l e c t t h e way t h e f a m i l y i s seen by i t s

members. F o r e x a m p l e , the author reports about a woman f r o m a

closely knit patriarchal family who m a r r i e d a man whom h e r f a t h e r

and brothers disliked. After her divorce, she turned to her

family of origin f o r emotional support. She r e f e r r e d toher

periodic visits to her family of o r i g i n as "appearing before the

knights o f t h e Round Table." T h e "Round Table" was t h e p h r a s e

used by t h e e x t e n d e d family members t o d e s c r i b e important family

meetings. Such m e t a p h o r i c a l phrases give the therapist cluesto

the family myth. P e t names and nicknames are also important

clues.
 34

Bagarozzi and Anderson go on to describe another type of

metaphor they have observed in their work where family members

discuss significant aspects of their relationship in a

metaphorical way. H e r e p r o j e c t i o n and symbolism p l a y an important

r o l e . As an e x a m p l e , t h e a u t h o r s describe a f a m i l y i n which the

parents found i t extremely hard to discuss problems in their

relationship. In this family, the various realms of their

interpersonal conflicts were addressed through a variety of

metaphors which surfaced periodically as repetitive family

themes. The husband in this f a m i l y bought an antique car and

stored i t f o r seven years and never got round to r e s t o r i n g i t .

For this f a m i l y , the antique car was a metaphor f o r the parents'

deteriorating relationship. The husband gave very l i t t l e

attention t o h i s f a m i l y and his wife, and spent most of his time

at h i s work. The c a r was the f o c u s o f many a r g u m e n t s . T h e wife

complained t h a t her husband r a r e l y "touched" the car and "paid no

attention to it." She said she d i d not understand why he "bought

it i n the f i r s t p l a c e " i f he d i d n o t i n t e n d t o " e n j o y " i t .

Another metaphor, the repair of the family car, serves as

the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of this couple's sexual relationship. The

h u s b a n d and wife dealt with their sex life by a r g u i n g a b o u t the

need to r e p a i r the f a m i l y car. Although the husband " s e r v i c e d "

and r e p a i r e d the car several times, i t never "performed" well

enough t o "satisfy" the wife.

The present researcher feels t h a t the above d o c u m e n t a t i o n of

the use of metaphor i s very interesting. What remains unclear

from t h e p a p e r h o w e v e r i s w h e t h e r t h e f a m i l y members use these

metaphors to describe the state of the family relationships

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subconsciously. Is i t possible that the cars and the family

relationships are unrelated? If that is the case, are the

problems with the cars merely used by the family members

intentionally to i l l u s t r a t e the family conflicts? But whether the

metaphors are used subconsciously or i n t e n t i o n a l l y , they are

important keys to understanding the family conflicts. They can

certainly be used by the therapists to give a picture of the

problemmatic f a m i l y dynamics to the family members and to suggest

possible solutions.

Other family therapists are seeing the value of metaphor in

therapy. For example, Brink (1982) d e s c r i b e s the use of metaphors

within family therapy to provide indirect i n s i g h t and suggestions

to the f a m i l y . He presents a model to d e t e r m i n e the dynamics of

individual c h a n g e and to provide a strategy to create suggestions

to facilitate future changes.

Brink finds that often a client resists the insight offered

by a t h e r a p i s t because of the f e a r of a n e e d t o c h a n g e and fear

of the unknown t h a t l i e s beyond the change. With f a m i l y therapy

s u c h f e a r i s much s t r o n g e r , since i t i s r e i n f o r c e d by the games

and mutual expectations of the family. To initiate change, Brink

sometimes compared f o l k t a l e s of the European American and the

Native American. The family's f e a r and resistance to change i s

recognized as a feature of European American society. This is

clarified by examining three contrasting features of the European

American f o l k t a l e s and Native American folk tales. First, the

former provide magical ways, f o r gaining power and prestige

whereas the latter teach that wisdom is gained by listening.

 .36

Second, the former presents g o o d and evil as absolute whereas the

latter presents good as the process of seeking the truth. Third,

the former uses magic to avoid suffering whereas the latter

teaches that facing evil and living through fear and pain a

person learns and g r o w s . The therapist in relating these tales

can construct metaphors to help the family overcome the

resistance to change. A c l i e n t does not need to d e f e n d against

s t o r i e s . These t a l e s p r o v i d e a r e s e r v o i r of i n f o r m a t i o n for the

family when i t i s r e a d y to face the unknown o f change.

In a way similar to the metaphoric stories of Milton

Erickson (Zeig, 1980), B r i n k u s e s animals instead of humans as

characters of his tales. This l i m i t s the number of

characteristics or expectations held by the family concerning the

characters, and thus the message h e l d within the m e t a p h o r i s more

easily c o n t r o l l e d . I f humans a r e used, the family may quickly

relate the story to people they know and add to the story some

expectations that the therapist may not recognize or have

control over. Also c e r t a i n connectors, that i s , features of a

story that directly or indirectly t i e the story to the family,

are used. These can be the background s t r u c t u r e of the metaphor

or names: a n d words used by the family.

One example of a story given by the author is centred on

wolves.This story was told to a couple where the perfectionistic

h u s b a n d was h o s p i t a l i z e d for depression as a r e s u l t of his second

wife's d i s t r u s t t o w a r d s him. The s t o r y was as follows:

I ' v e b e e n d o i n g some r e a d i n g a b o u t w o l v e s . T h e y seem t o

be t h e most m i s u n d e r s t o o d a n i m a l . You know, t h e y r e a l l y
a r e n o t v i c i o u s and l e c h e r o u s as most p e o p l e t h i n k o f
them. B e y o n d t h e S t . L a w r e n c e t h i s one f a m i l y o f w o l v e s
was s t u d i e d f o r a number o f y e a r s . The h u s b a n d w o u l d go
 37

o u t h u n t i n g e a c h day and r e t u r n w i t h f o o d t o f e e d h i s
w i f e and c h i l d r e n . E a c h y e a r more c h i l d r e n were b o r n and
the c h i l d r e n from the p r e v i o u s y e a r would b e g i n t o ven-
t u r e o f f on t h e i r own t o f i n d a mate and e s t a b l i s h t h e i r
own home. B u t e v e r y s o o f t e n t h e s e c h i l d r e n w o u l d r e t u r n
w i t h t h e i r mate t o v i s i t t h e i r p a r e n t s and t h e p a r e n t s
would r e t u r n t h e i r v i s i t . These r e l a t i o n s h i p s were f a i t h -
f u l and l a s t e d f o r y e a r s and a r e p r o b a b l y s t i l l lasting.
I f i n d t h e f a i t h f u l n e s s o f w o l v e s b e a u t i f u l and f e e l
s o r r y f o r how m i s u n d e r s t o o d t h e y a r e . ( B r i n k , 1982,
p. 262)

The above story illustrates very well how metaphors and stories

can be used in offering insight to a c l i e n t o r a f a m i l y . The wolf

metaphor quite directly suggests to the wife that her fears are

u n f o u n d e d . The husband in this case was d i s c h a r g e d as improved

after o n l y one week i n h o s p i t a l and one therapy s e s s i o n .

Brink also watches for parental control techniques of

shaming, threats, ridicule, and rejection i n the families. These

offer insight i n t o the dynamics of f a m i l y problems. They a l s o can

be used to determine the c o n t e n t of h i s metaphors.

Hoffman (1983) in an article, 'Imagery and metaphor in

couples therapy,' reviews r e s e a r c h t h a t p o i n t to the potency of

private and shared imagery in personal development and

psychotherapy. He then applies these techniques to couples

t h e r a p y . The most impressive effect of these interventions i s the

reduction of dysfunctional, defensive postures to which each

partner has become accustomed.

An example of the use of metaphor in Family therapy is

documented for us by Rule (1983) in his use of the 'pie

metaphor.' The 'pie metaphor' i s u s e f u l i n communicating family

concepts such as: p a r t s c o n t r i b u t i n g to the whole; the 'pie' i s

nourishing; v a r y i n g the 'ingredients' affect the outcome; v a r y i n g

the 'cooking' (process) affects the outcome; the 'crust* can hide
 38

what i s beneath the surface; t h e ' p i e ' must be p r e s e r v e d or i t

will p e r i s h ; a n d t h e r e c i p e s c a n b e p a s s e d on f o r g e n e r a t i o n s .

Such an a p p r o a c h t o t h e u s e o f metaphor i s adopted by David

Gordon (1978) i n h i s book 'Therapeutic Metaphors' which i s a

practical handbook for practitioner i n the helping professions.

In t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n , Gordon refers to a l l stories presented with

the intention of instructing or advising the listener, or

perceived by t h e l i s t e n e r i n this manner, a s m e t a p h o r s . He q u o t e s

from t h e book, 'Guru: Metaphors from a Psychotherapist' by

Sheldon Kopp (1971), who d e f i n e s 'metaphor' as f o l l o w s :

Generally, a m e t a p h o r i s d e f i n e d a s a way o f s p e a k i n g
i n w h i c h one t h i n g i s e x p r e s s e d i n terms o f a n o t h e r ,
whereby t h i s b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r t h r o w s new l i g h t o n
the c h a r a c t e r o f what i s b e i n g d e f i n e d . (Kopp, 1971,
p . 17, c i t e d b y G o r d o n , 1978, p . 7)

After an i n t r o d u c t i o n , Gordon describes the basic metaphor model

and p a t t e r n s f o re f f e c t i v e therapy. Then i n Part I I I , I V , a n d V,

he e x p l a i n s S a t i r c a t e g o r i e s (placater, blamer, computer and

distracters) , representational systems, and sub-modalities

respectively. Ways of u t i l i z i n g metaphors are discussed i n Part

VI. The a p p r o a c h adopted by Gordon draws from many different

facets o f communication. It i s eclectic and a multi-dimensional

method o f t h e r a p e u t i c communication. E v e n t h o u g h we h a v e n o t u s e d

his approach f o r our research, h i s work i s worthy of special

mention e s p e c i a l l y from t h e s t a n d p o i n t of a practitioner.

These and o t h e r literature demonstrate the usefulness of

studying t h e use o f metaphor i n a family context. Our e n t i r e

review has a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e need t o be a w a r e o f t h e complex

nature of metaphor and be guided accordingly i n our

 39

interpretation of metaphor within the t h e r a p e u t i c enterprise.

While i t i s not p o s s i b l e under the c o n f i n e s of our r e s e a r c h to

answer a l l the questions pertaining to the use of metaphors

raised i n this r e v i e w , an a t t e m p t i s made t o a d d r e s s those that

relate to the material i n hand.

 40

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

The Context

This s i n g l e case study was done u s i n g

1
material from a family

therapy conducted by V i r g i n i a Satir a t the University of Chico i n

California i n 1982. The f a m i l y consisted of three members, t h e

f a t h e r , Gary, t h e mother, Jane, and t h e i r t e e n a g e son, Kent. The

presenting problem was t h e s o n p l a y i n g truancy and t h e parents'

inability t o cope with t h e s i t u a t i o n . The s e s s i o n s were both

video-taped and a u d i o - t a p e d . T h e r e were a l t o g e t h e r ten 90-minute

audio tapes. T h e t h e r a p y was s t r u c t u r e d i n three main portions.

The first two o f t h e t h r e e natural segments were used f o r our

analysis. The f i r s t segment was t h e f a m i l y interview. The s e c o n d

segment was t h e f a m i l y reconstruction o f Kent's parents.

Preparing Transcript

The material of a family i ntherapy by V i r g i n i a S a t i r as

therapist was t r a n s c r i b e d verbatim from the audio tapes. The

transcribed material was t h e n typed. There were altogether four

hundred and t w e n t y - t w o pages o f t r a n s c r i p t . The f i r s t two hundred

and eighty-eight pages were used f o rour research.

Verifying Transcript

The written version was t h e n proof-read f o r i t s a c c u r a c y by

listening t o the tape again. Any m i s t a k e s were t h e n corrected to

produce the final working copy of the transcript. This also

helped the researcher t o become more f a m i l i a r with t h e c a s e and

get a total perspective.

 41

Dividing Transcript into Excerpts

The interactions between the therapist and the family were

markedout i n four minute excerpts f o r our r e s e a r c h and analysis.

These excerpts formed the basic units of our study. Each unit is

considered as an interval of therapy which w i l l be examined to

search out the metaphors i t c o n t a i n . Each u n i t will also be rated

to determine the therapeutic progress of the client. As i t turned

out, each four minute excerpt was equivalent to two pages of

typed transcript.

Training Research Assistant

The present researcher helped the research assistant become

familiar with the concepts of metaphor p r e s e n t e d i n CHAPTER I.

The p u r p o s e was to enable the research assistant to i d e n t i f y the

types of metaphors i n the transcript independently. The research

assistant a l s o became f a m i l i a r with the instrument for measuring

the therapeutic progress of the c l i e n t , the Approach-Avoidance

Scale to Self-exploration developed by Gore (1977). The purpose

was toenablethe research assistantto assess the progress of

therapy i n d e p e n d e n t l y . T h i s was an important p a r t of the research

because the r e s e a r c h e r had to ensure t h a t the a s s i s t a n t was at

one w i t h h i m on t h e c o n c e p t s u s e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h . T h i s was done

as outlined i n the p i l o t study.

Conducting a Pilot Study

The research assistant was given a segment of another

transcript of the work of V i r g i n i a Satir f o r the purpose of a

pilot study. The metaphors used by the therapist and the client
 42

were identified by t h e a s s i s t a n t . The d i f f e r e n t members o f t h e

family are collectively regarded as t h e c l i e n t i n t h e whole

research project. The r e s e a r c h e r t h e n checked h i s own findings

against that of the assistant t o make sure that the proper

concept and procedure were employed. Similarly, the Approach-

Avoidance S c a l e was u s e d by t h e a s s i s t a n t and a s s e s s e d by t h e

researcher. When a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e r e s u l t s of the researcher

and the assistant was r e a c h e d , the actual r e s e a r c h was launched.

This meant that eighty percent of the time the results ofthe

assistant agreed with that o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r . Thus the p i l o t

study ensured that both t h e r e s e a r c h e r and t h e a s s i s t a n t were n o t

only i n agreement with the concepts involved, but also i n the

procedures used t o apply these concepts.

Identifying t h e Metaphors

The r e s e a r c h e r and t h e a s s i s t a n t went through the entire

transcript to identify the metaphors. When t h i s was done, t h e

r e s e a r c h e r compare d h i s r e s u l t with that of the assistant t o look

f o r agreement. The m e t a p h o r s i d e n t i f i e d by b o t h were recorded

and the metaphors identified by only the researcher or h i s

assistant was discarded. An examination of those .that were

discarded revealed that most o f them had been used m e t a p h o r i c a l l y

in t h e p a s t b u t were now u s e d literally i n everyday speech. This

resulted i n a fewer number o f metaphors f o r the f i n a l analysis,

but i t d i dnot affect the overall result of the research.

The classifications o f t h e metaphors by both the researcher

and h i sassistant were compared. In case of disagreement, the

present r e s e a r c h e r would review the contexts o f t h e metaphors

 43

in question and come up with a final decision as to their

classifications.

Measuring the Therapeutic Progress

The therapeutic progress o f t h e f a m i l y t h a t went through

therapy was measured by t h e A p p r o a c h - A v o i d a n c e Scale to Self-

exploration developed by Gore (1977). The Approach versus

Avoidance scale (A-A S c a l e ) was u s e d to rate consecutive four-

minute excerpts throughout the length of the therapy. The Scale

uses six rating categories, plus the option of rating the

material as Not A p p l i c a b l e i n terms o f approach-avoidance. The

bottom two s c a l e points are f o r rating avoidance, with the lower

point f o r a c t i v e avoidance and t h e o t h e r f o r p a s s i v e avoidance;

the t o p two points represent tentative approach behavior and

clear approaches; while t h e two middle categories score, first,

an absence of e i t h e r approach or avoidance, and second, a mixture

of both, with the l a t t e r being scored higher (Gore, 1977, p.68).

The researcher and t h e a s s i s t a n t again reviewed this scoring

system used i n the p i l o t study just before the actual rating.

The s c o r i n g system developed by Gore was used t o assess the

movement i n counselling. The r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t was the sole

independent rater. The S c a l e , as an i n d i c a t o r o f t h e movement

of t h e therapy, was u s e d mainly to identify the high points of

the therapy f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f s t u d y i n g t h e ways t h e t h e r a p i s t

and the c l i e n t used metaphors therein. The r a t i n g helped the

researcher decide whether or n o t t h e t h e r a p e u t i c g r o w t h a t any

point correspond t o t h e use o f metaphors.

The rating s y s t e m by G o r e i s e l a b o r a t e d here:

 44

Table 1

APPROACH VS. AVOIDANCE OF SELF-EXPLORATION

1 — C l e a r - c u t , a c t i v e a v o i d a n c e . E i t h e r a t l e a s t one e x a m p l e
of t h i s behaviour, or a general stance of non-involvement,
e s p e c i a l l y an i m p e r s o n a l n a r r a t i v e .

2 — T e n d e n c y t o shy away, t o p a s s i v e l y a v o i d r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l .
P a y i n g o n l y l i p - s e r v i c e t o t h e r a p i s t ' s attempts t o promote
s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n . Overly prolonged s i t u a t i o n a l d e s c r i p t i o n ,
with personal involvement being e n t i r e l y s i t u a t i o n - s p e c i f i c
or nominal.

3 — No a v o i d a n c e , a c t i v e o r p a s s i v e , b u t c e r t a i n l y no a p p r o a c h
to s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n . C l i e n t s w i l l introduce t o p i c s of l i k e l y
s i g n i f i c a n c e , but i t ' s mostly at a d e s c r i p t i v e l e v e l . I t i s
u n c l e a r whether c l i e n t w i l l d e v e l o p the t o p i c ( s ) i n t o
m e a n i n g f u l t h e r a p y w o r k . However, p e r s o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t i s
c l e a r l y p r e s e n t . T h i s c a t e g o r y c a n be u s e d as a b a s e - l i n e
s c o r e f o r any c o n v e r s a t i o n a b o u t c o n t e n t a r e a s o f p o t e n t i a l
relevance.

4 — Mixed a p p r o a c h - a v o i d a n c e ; i n v o l v e s examples of b o t h .
Ambivalence about p u r s u i n g the t o p i c m e a n i n g f u l l y i s r e v e a l -
ed. P o t e n t i a l i s t h e r e f o r f u r t h e r s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n .

5 — O v e r a l l a p p r o a c h . S e t t i n g t h e s t a g e f o r l a t e r , more m e a n i n g -
f u l s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n and e x p e r i e n c i n g . May i n v o l v e l a b e l l i n g
p r o b l e m s as s u c h , o r d e s c r i b i n g / m e n t i o n i n g f e e l i n g s a b o u t
p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s . Can be u s e d as a c a t c h - a l l c a t e g o r y
when one g e t s a s e n s e o f d i f f u s e , g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h .

6 — C l e a r a p p r o a c h . A t l e a s t one g o o d e x a m p l e , n o t contradicted
o r c a n c e l l e d by a v o i d a n c e s . May i n v o l v e s e l a b o r a t i o n upon
f e e l i n g s , i n s i g h t into d i f f i c u l t i e s , desire for understan-
ding of e x p e r i e n c e , c u r i o s i t y about s e l f , a sense t h a t the
c l i e n t i s open t o e x p e r i e n c e , a s t r o n g u n a m b i v a l e n t d e s i r e
to solve problems.

NA— S c o r e "Not A p p l i c a b l e " when t h e r e a r e no c o n t e n t i s s u e s

u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n . I n o t h e r w o r d s , o n l y when c l i e n t and
t h e r a p i s t are e x c l u s i v e l y d i s c u s s i n g c o n t r a c t i s s u e s and
a r r a n g e m e n t s . I f any c o n t e n t i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e excerpt,
score i t o n the 6 - p o i n t s c a l e . Even w i t h i n c o n t r a c t i n g ,
c l i e n t b e h a v i o r may o c c a s i o n a l l y be s c o r a b l e ; i t i t i s ,
do s o . I n o t h e r w o r d s , u s e NA as s p a r i n g l y as p o s s i b l e .
 45

Identifying the Patterns of Metaphoric Interactions

The u s e o f m e t a p h o r s by b o t h the c l i e n t and t h e t h e r a p i s t

was e x a m i n e d at c r i t i c a l points o f t h e t h e r a p y where growth or

l a c k o f g r o w t h was i n d i c a t e d . A descriptive analysis was made t o

look f o r patterns and to draw some generalizations where

possible. The question as t o how the q u a l i t y of metaphoric

interaction between the c l i e n t and t h e t h e r a p i s t relates to

effective counselling was included i n the discussion. Special

attention was given t o the metaphors that were related to the

pivotal points of the counselling process.

Interview with the Therapist, Virginia Satir

When the a n a l y s i s o f t h e t r a n s c r i p t was done, an interview

with the t h e r a p i s t , V i r g i n i a S a t i r , was conducted. Two important

segments o f t h e t h e r a p y where p i v o t a l metaphors were used were

played back t o h e r u s i n g an a u d i o t a p e . The f o l l o w i n g specific

q u e s t i o n s were asked of her:

1. What do y o u t h i n k triggered the use o f a metaphor i n this

segment of the interview?

2. What was going through your mind as you were using the

metaphor?

3. What were you f e e l i n g a t t h a t point?

4. What was t h e e f f e c t o f t h e u s e o f t h e m e t a p h o r on t h e c l i e n t ?

Was i t what you had e x p e c t e d ?

5. Having had this hindsight, would you have done anything

differently i f you can s t a r t a l l over again?

Satir was a l s o given general questions on t h e n a t u r e a n d u s e

of metaphor, the h i g h l i g h t s were included i n the discussion.

 46

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The r e s u l t s of the analysis revealed t h a t the therapist in

our single case study used an abundance of metaphors in

combination with other therapeutic techniques. A number of

incidences of the use of metaphor by the therapist was excluded

from our a n a l y s i s because they were e i t h e r not s e l e c t e d by the

present researcher or h i s a s s i s t a n t . While this was a loss, i t

did not a f f e c t the r e s u l t s i n any significant way. Some m e t a p h o r s

a r e u s e d s o o f t e n t h a t t h e y h a v e p a s s e d i n t o common u s a g e a n d may

not be recognized as metaphors. Quite naturally these metaphors

tend t o be b y p a s s e d by e i t h e r one or both the persons involved in

this research. The r e s u l t was that only novel metaphors were

identified. However there remained seventeen occurrences in the

family interview segment, and twenty-eight i n the second segment

which contained the family reconstruction portion of the therapy.

As mentioned i n the introduction, the family interview dealt with

the present s i t u a t i o n of the three family members, G a r y , Jane,

and their son, Kent; and the family reconstruction dealt with

tracing the roots of Kent's parents.

In the first segment, the most s i g n i f i c a n t uses of metaphor

by the therapist were the introductions of the images of the

toadstool and the plumber's l i c e n s e s . They were f o u n d in contexts

of high degree of approach to s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n by the client. In

the second segment, the most significant point of therapeutic

growth was when the therapist introduced the metaphor of the

black sheep to which the client responded in kind. These

 47

metaphors,along with others u s e d by the client, were a n a l y z e d by

the r e s e a r c h e r and recorded in this chapter.

In c o n t r a s t , our c l i e n t was found t o be q u i t e impoverished

in metaphoric expressions. In the first segment, there was found

only 2 incidences where the client used metaphors. In each

incidence the client was explaining his feelings of being in the

therapy. They were u n r e l a t e d t o the metaphors suggested by the

therapist and unrelated to the therapeutic progress. In the

second segment, t h e r e were o n l y t h r e e i n c i d e n c e s of metaphoric

expression by the client. However, the first two occurred at

points where the client showed high degree of approach to self-

exploration which was an indicator of therapeutic progress. This

is also true of the third incidence when the client actually

responded to the metaphor of the black sheep suggested by the

therapist.

We present i n sequential order first a summary o f a l l t h e

metaphors found. The metaphors were a r r a n g e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y , and

the points at which they occurred were r e c o r d e d . The numbering

system follows the order i n which the metaphors occurred and

designated 'T' i f t h e m e t a p h o r came from the therapist and 'C

if i t came f r o m the client. Each metaphor had been identified

according to i t s type. The types were those defined in the

introduction, namely, metaphor of identity (I), metaphor of

approximation (A), m e t a p h o r o f o r g a n i z a t i o n (Or), and metaphor of

operation (Op). M e t a p h o r s o f identity (I) a r e the ways by which

people know who they are, over time. Metaphors of approximation

(A) a r e the ways one can c o n c e p t u a l i z e the inner world of oneself

or of another. Metaphors of organization (Or) are the ways

 48

relationships are ordered socially. Metaphors of operation (Op)

are the patterns of interpersonal relationship.

The next stage of the a n a l y s i s , the ' d i r e c t i o n , ' r e f e r s to

the intent o f the use o f the metaphor by the speaker. This

involved either making the strange familiar (S/F), o r making t h e

familiar strange (F/S), o r m a k i n g t h e f a m i l i a r f a m i l i a r ( F / F ) . By

this process of the use of metaphor, one i s engaged i n the

process of making r e l a t i o n s h i p , of connecting. The t a s k of the

researcher was to uncover this process a n d make explicit the

dynamics of the t h e r a p i s t - c l i e n t communication.

The r a t i n g of the therapeutic progress of the c l i e n t was

done by means of the Approach Vs. Avoidance Scale of Self-

exploration w h i c h has t h e f o l l o w i n g scales:

1 — Clear-cut, active avoidance.

2 — T e n d e n c y t o s h y away.

3 — No a v o i d a n c e , b u t no a p p r o a c h to self-exploration.

4 — Mixed approach-avoidance.

5 — Overall approach.

6 — Clear approach.

NA— Not a p p l i c a b l e .

All t h e above r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n the form of a t a b l e .

Part I presents t h e r e s u l t s from t h e f a m i l y i n t e r v i e w . A t t h e end

of the f i r s t ninety minutes, the family interview terminated.

This was f o l l o w e d by commentary g i v e n by t h e t h e r a p i s t . Part II

presents the r e s u l t s from the family reconstruction which was

done i n two s e s s i o n s . The f i r s t session was o v e r sixty minutes

long w h i l e t h e second was o v e r n i n e t y minutes long.

 49

Table 2

SUMMARY OF THE ANALYSIS OF THE METAPHORS

Part I . The F a m i l y Interview

M i n s . Nos. Particular Type D i r e c t i o n Scale

1 Tl Even t h e cameras a r e f r i e n d s Or F/S 2

1 T2 like you're going t o be a star A S/F 2

1 C2 It's like going to the dentist A F/F 2

1 C3 got the p i t i n your stomach A F/F 2

2 T3 do pits i n your stomach A F/F 2

6 T4 You g o t t o be a star A S/F 3

8 T5 Now I want t o make a map Or F/F 3

16 T6 I want t o t r y t o g e t a picture Or F/F 4

18 T7 how t o c o v e r up f o r y o u r s e l f I F/F 4

18 T8 would you t u r n a sumersault A S/F 4

 50

Table 2 (Continued)

M i n s v NOS . Particular Type Direction Scale

46 T9 isn't seeing t h e whole picture Or F/F . 4

52 T10 I ' l l t e l l you a p i c t u r e I had.

Do y o u know what a t o a d s t o o l
looks l i k e ? A F/F 6

52 T i l I saw a g r e a t , b i g t o a d s t o o l
and y o u were s i t t i n g u n d e r i t
and y o u wanted t o have e x c i t e -
:

ment a n d i n t e r e s t and s o o n .
And y o u d i d n ' t n o t i c e t h a t
a r o u n d t h e e d g e s were f u n n y
t h i n g s a n d s o o n . Does t h a t s a y
a n y t h i n g t o you? Op F/S 6

52 , T12 g e t t i n g plumber's licenses I F/F 6

54 T13 A l o t o f us h e r e g o t o u r plum-
b e r ' s l i c e n s e s o u t h e r e and t h e n
we f o r g o t a b o u t t h e p l u m b i n g
a f t e r w a r d on p u r p o s e . T h e y m i g h t
n o t l i k e t h a t f o r me t o s a y t h a t ,
b u t t h a t ' s one o f the; t h i n g s
t h a t h a p p e n s . Do y o u want p l u m -
ber's licenses? Op F/S 5

54 A make-believe conversation
i n t r o d u c e d by t h e t h e r a p i s t

58 T14 I t sparkles a l l over your eyes. A S/F 5

68 S c u l p t i n g a n d game m e t a p h o r
i n t r o d u c e d b y the^ t h e r a p i s t h e r e
 51

Table 3 (Continued)

Mins . Nos. Particular Type Direction Scale

70 T15 I take e v e r y t h i n g I f i n d and

compost i t . Op F/F 5

80 T16 the things y o u want to build Op F/F 4

86 S c u l p t i n g a n d game m e t a p h o r r e -
i n t r o d u c e d by t h e t h e r a p i s t here

88 T17 if y o u make t h a t i n t o a dance Or F/F 5

The e n d o f P a r t I . The F a m i l y Interview

Part I I . The F a m i l y Reconstruction

M i n s . Nos. Particular Type D i r e c t i o n S c a l e

1 Tl Right i n the limelight A F/F 3

4 T2 I make a g o l d s t a r o f o u r drama I F/F 3

4 T3 He was a g u i n e a p i g I F/S 3
 52

Table 2 (Continued)

M i n s . Nos. Particular Type D i r e c t i o n Scale

20 T4 g e t t i n g ready the cast of

characters •Op F/F 3

24 T5 you're the sandwich Or F/F 3

44 T6 you're the director I F/F 4

48 T7 you're the a r c h i t e c t , you're

the p r o d u c e r I F/F 4

58 T8 bring this out of the closet Or F/F 3

62 T9 s u g a r and cream a l l t h e time Op F/F 3

End of f i r s t half of P a r t II

Part I I . (Second Half)

1 Tl what b u b b l e d f o r you after

yesterday A F/F 5

2 CI Well, I f e l t v e r y open l a s t n i g h t .
It just sort o f came o u t o f me A F/F 5

2 T2 Your juices were flowing A F/F 5

 53

Table 2 (Continued)

M i n s . Nos. Particular Type Direction Scale

2 T3 A n y t h i n g bubble f o r you Jane? A F/F 5

6 T4 When I s a y t a p e i t ' s k i n d of a
conclusion A S/F 4

40 T5 One c h i l d . I'm l o o k i n g f o r b l a c k
s h e e p , b e c a u s e t h e r e o u g h t t o be
b l a c k s h e e p as w e l l . I F/S 4

40 T6 B l a c k s h e e p . Now I w i l l t e l l y o u
why y o u h a v e t o h a v e b l a c k s h e e p ,
and you l o o k f o r i t . A b l a c k sheep
i s somebody i n t h e f a m i l y where
the messages a r e s u c h you don't
c o u n t and t h e b l a c k s h e e p g o e s
o u t and shows t h e w o r l d what aw-
f u l people they are... I F/S 4

42 T7 ...The b l a c k s h e e p g e t s a l l k i n d s
of a t t e n t i o n , because the b l a c k
s h e e p i s t h e one t h a t k e e p s t h e
f a m i l y a l i v e . I f you d o n ' t have a
b l a c k s h e e p i n a f a m i l y t h a t i s so
r i g i d , then i t takes a l o t to
r a i s e the dead, I w i l l t e l l you.
T h a t ' s what t h e b l a c k s h e e p d o e s ,
t h a t ' s t h e i r f u n c t i o n . . . Now how
d i d t h a t b l a c k sheep t u r n out? I F/S 4

72 T8 I t (a v a l u e ) i s one of those
t h i n g s you can use Op F/S 6

72 C9 I t could be a tool Op F/S 6

 Table 2 (Continued)

Mins. NOS . Particular Type D i r e c t i o n Scale

72 T9 A tooll Exactly. A tool, marvel-

l o u s . Your f a t h e r d i d n ' t use i t as
a t o o l , he u s e d i t a s p a r t o f h i s
life. Op F/F 6

72 T10 shine i n a l l the brightness A F/F 6

72 Til So y o u ' v e g o t y o u r light turned

low. A S/F 6

73 T12 These a r e a l l g i f t s from h i s

family. Op F/S 6

78 T13 l o o k a t them i n t e r m s o f y o u r
gift givers Op F/S 5

78 T14 B u t now I ' d a l s o l i k e t o show y o u

some o t h e r t h i n g s y o u g o t . You
g o t . . . k n o w i n g how t o be a b l a c k
sheep... I F/F 5

78 C14 B e i n g a b l a c k s h e e p c a n be
p o s i t i v e i f y o u want t o g e t
out o f s i t u a t i o n s I F/F 5

78 T15 I s n ' t i t m a r v e l l o u s ? ...So

y e s t e r d a y , i t ' d be t e r r i b l e .
You'd a v o i d b e i n g a b l a c k s h e e p .
But today b e i n g a b l a c k sheep,
used p r o p e r l y , i s going t o g e t
you l o t s o f p l a c e s , r i g h t ? I F/F 5
 55

Table 2 (Continued)

M i n s . Nos. Particular Type D i r e c t i o n Scale

80 T16 The servant part of y o u r s e l f . I F/F 5

82 T17 with the syrup that followed

later Op F/F 5

84 T18 B l a c k sheep i s e x c i t i n g , b u t
a n y b o d y who i s a b l a c k s h e e p
i n y o u r f a m i l y on one l e v e l
always g o t punished... I F/F 6

84 T19 performing a servant a c t I F/F 6

The end o f P a r t I I . The F a m i l y Reconstruction

It i s interesting t o note that the therapist used metaphors

of identity fifteen times, metaphor of approximation thirteen

times, metaphors of organization 6 times, and metaphors of

operation eleven times.Of these 6 o f them w e r e t o make something

strange familiar, t e n o f them were t o make s o m e t h i n g familiar

strange, and t w e n t y - n i n e o f them w e r e t o make s o m e t h i n g familiar

more familiar. The p r e s e n t researcher could n o t d i s c e r n any

significance i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the types o f metaphors used.

However t h e number o f m e t a p h o r s t h a t f e l l into the category of

'making the f a m i l i a r familiar' i s worth noting. On closer

examination the researcher discovered that many of these

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metaphors were the more c o m m o n p l a c e m e t a p h o r s t h a t had become

part of the therapist's p i c t u r e s q u e language. Sometimes they were

used t o v a r y e x p r e s s i o n s , e.g. 'now I w a n t t o make a map' and 'I

want to t r y and get a picture.' Other times they were used to

help the client assume different roles, e.g. 'you're the

sandwich,' 'you're the director,' 'you're the architect,' and

'you're t h e p r o d u c e r . ' T h e s e w e r e b y no means v e r y s p e c i a l uses

o f m e t a p h o r , b u t t h e y h e l p e d t o c r e a t e a more l i v e l y context in

w h i c h movement i n c o u n s e l l i n g could take place.

As f o r the client, three of the five metaphors used were

metaphors of approximation, one was a metaphor of o p e r a t i o n and

the remaining one a metaphor of identity. Four of these were

used t o make t h e f a m i l i a r more f a m i l i a r , and the remaining was to

make t h e f a m i l i a r s t r a n g e . No obvious p a t t e r n c o u l d be d i s c e r n e d .

The . P a t t e r n o f M e t a p h o r i c Interaction

The t h e r a p i s t b e g a n w i t h two metaphors a t the s t a r t of the

t h e r a p y t o t r y and put the c l i e n t a t e a s e . The client responded

with two o f h i s own to describe h i s feelings of being there. The

therapist tried to pick up on the client's metaphor, but the

client did not follow through. At that point, the therapist

returned t o one of the metaphors w i t h which she started. Most of

the metaphors used here were metaphors of a p p r o x i m a t i o n which

were a p p r o p r i a t e at the b e g i n n i n g of therapy. T h i s interaction

took place within the first six minutes of the therapy. No

discernable p a t t e r n h o w e v e r c o u l d be observed. At this point, the

client moved f r o m the tendency t o shy away t o t h e point where he

was not a v o i d i n g the suggestions of the therapist.

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Moving from the beginning of therapy, the next 'burst' of

m e t a p h o r s by the therapist occurred at about sixteen to eighteen

minutes into the session. The therapist was t r y i n g to paint a

picture f o r the client using d i f f e r e n t types of m e t a p h o r . However

the client d i d not respond i n kind. Nevertheless, the client is

showing the first signs of mixed approach-avoidance behaviour.

The therapeutic movement i n the client came t o a peak round

about fifty-two to fifty-four minutes into the session. The

therapist introduced the metaphor of the toadstool. Even though

the client d i d not use a metaphoric expression i n response, i t i s

clear that he was engaged i n s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n . To the metaphor of

him sitting under the toadstool, he r e p l i e d : ' M a y be that I'm not

looking out f a r enough. I'm not kind of expanding enough, looking

out f a r enough into the future to see what's g o i n g to happen.' On

further plodding by the therapist, he went on to say, 'Looking...

May be I should go o u t and l o o k f o r more i d e a s and more t h i n g s to

do.' At this point the therapist must have sensed that the

client was on to s o m e t h i n g and so she very quickly applied the

insight the client g a i n e d to the problem of truancy t h a t he was

facing. She introduced the f e e l i n g of excitement at school when

one gets up i n the morning and asked the client to suggest one

thing that would appeal to him.The c l i e n t replied, 'Well, may be

expecting to do s o m e t h i n g . . . on a field trip or seeing... doing

something i n t e r e s t i n g that I like.'

This exchange Is a prime example of a skillful use of

m e t a p h o r by the t h e r a p i s t . A metaphor of operation was used to

make the f a m i l i a r strange. The therapist was successful in

 58

introducing a novel suggestion using a familiar object and

action. Furthermore the promptness with which the therapist

directed the i n s i g h t g a i n e d by the c l i e n t to the a c t u a l situation

t h a t he was facing led to a positive response from the client.

This response would o t h e r w i s e have been d i f f i c u l t to elicit.

Even though the above use of metaphor was an obvious

success, the t h e r a p i s t d i d not overdo it. She d i d not press on

and q u e s t i o n the client as to why he did not act on what he

thought could be exciting. Rather, she posed the situation as 'a

real d i l e m m a ' and went s t r a i g h t into another metaphor, t h a t of

getting plumber's licenses. She i n t r o d u c e d the n o t i o n of one

getting a plumber's license and then f o r g e t t i n g the purpose of i t

all. The obvious ludicrous nature of the metaphor prompted the

client to reply positively and with humour, suggesting that may

be he should find classes that a r e more i n t e r e s t i n g f o r him at

school. The metaphor is a metaphor of i d e n t i t y , something that

the client could identify or sympathize with, and something

t h a t i s f a m i l i a r t o him. A g a i n t h e metaphor had h e l p e d t h e client

in deeper self-exploration. Note however the therapist again

moved r a p i d l y into something new. This time she f o c u s e d on the

f e e l i n g s of resentment t h a t t h e c l i e n t s h a d t o h i s p a r e n t s on t h e

whole matter.

The therapist interjected a make-believe c o n v e r s a t i o n here.

She f o l l o w e d t h i s up w i t h s c u l p t i n g o r game m e t a p h o r w h e r e the

clients were asked to assume postures that expressed their

feelings. The insight g a i n e d by this exercise was shared with

each other. Throughout these last thirty minutes i n p a r t one of

the therapy, the c l i e n t maintained a high degree of approach to

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self-exploration.

In part two, the therapist a g a i n began with a series of

metaphors of approximation and i d e n t i t y . . I t took less time to

make t h e c l i e n t feel comfortable about being i n therapy at this

second segment. I n t h e f i r s t hour of t h i s segment, t h e t h e r a p i s t

helped the c l i e n t t o a c t o u t i n h i s mind different roles t h a t he

could play. The m e t a p h o r s u s e d by t h e t h e r a p i s t are of different

types but are a l l f a m i l i a r to the client. They were metaphors

about being a director, o r an a r c h i t e c t , or a producer. The

client d i d not respond i n kind but remained open to change

throughout this period, scoring 4 a n d 3 on t h e s c a l e of approach

vs. avoidance to self-exploration.

The client carried t h e same o p e n n e s s i n t o the second h a l f o f

part two, showing an overall willingness to re-examine his

problem. Several metaphors of approximation were exchanged

between t h e t h e r a p i s t a n d t h e c l i e n t . An e x a m p l e o f s u c h exchange

is when the therapist asked, 'What bubbled f o r you after

y e s t e r d a y ? ' To t h i s the c l i e n t replied, 'Well, I f e l t very open

last night. It just sort o f came o u t o f me.' However no new

insight was b r o u g h t out i n t h i s initial exchange.

The t h e r a p y came a l i v e w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e metaphor

of t h e b l a c k sheep a t about the f o r t i e t h minute of the second

half of part two. This metaphor was u s e d repeatedly throughout

the rest of the therapy. The t h e r a p i s t seemed t o hang on t o t h i s

particular metaphor and i t was obvious that the c l i e n t was

catching on as well. I t drew laughter when i t was f i r s t

introduced a n d t h e mood b e c a m e l i g h t . The t h e r a p i s t d w e l l e d on

 60

some l e n g t h y e x p o s i t i o n s of the concept of the black sheep in the

family. As a metaphor, it was classified as metaphor of identity

that made the familiar strange. After an initial burst of the use

of this metaphor, there was a gap of over thirty minutes before

the therapist again returned to it. When she did so, she asked

whether the client had had a change of view concerning the black

sheep. To this the client replied, 'Being a black sheep can be

positive if you want to get out of situations.' This reply

evidently gave rise to an outburst of delight on the part of the

therapist. She remarked, 'Isn't it marvellous? ...So yesterday,

it'd be terrible. You'd avoid being a black sheep. But today

being a black sheep, used properly, is going to get you lots of

places." This change of attitude on the part of the client could

be directly attributed to the extensive use of the metaphor of

being the black sheep. The therapist was delighted that the

client was able to see the positive side as well as the negative

side. Towards the end of the session however, the therapist came

back to balance the excitement of being a black sheep with the

punitive aspect of being a black sheep. Contrary to what we found

in part one, we find the therapist dwelled at length on a

particular metaphor here, bringing out different shades of

meaning, and both the positive and the negative aspects.

The black sheep is however not the only important metaphor

in this segment. Towards the end of the segment, the therapist

talked about certain abiding value in the family that can be

useful if correctly applied. At this point, the client introduced

the metaphor of a tool. The therapist responded enthusiastically

to this novel metaphor freely introduced by the client. She

 61

commented that the c l i e n t ' s father didn't use 'the v a l u e ' as a

'tool.' I t became part of h i s l i f e . Therein lied h i s problem,

suggesting that the c l i e n t could do d i f f e r e n t l y . This metaphor of

operation coincided with very clear approach to s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n

on t h e p a r t of the client.

Following at the heel of the metaphor of the t o o l was the

metaphor of l i g h t . Using this metaphor, t h e t h e r a p i s t was able to

show that the c l i e n t was not living up to h i s f u l l potential.

T h i s was a c k n o w l e d g e d by t h e c l i e n t . The t h e r a p y e n d e d w i t h the

client holding a very p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e . Even though the client

did not communicate i n an e x t e n s i v e way by means o f metaphors,

the metaphors used by the therapist had been successful in

helping the client view his situation from a different

perspective. The high marks of the therapeutic growth of the

client corresponded closely to incidences of significant use of

metaphors by t h e t h e r a p i s t .

Effective Uses o f Metaphors

A Useful Classification

We have attempted to examine i n a q u a l i t a t i v e manner the

results o f o u r s t u d y . The t h e r a p i s t e m p l o y e d d i f f e r e n t types of

metaphors t o t r y and g e t a more c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n

presented by the c l i e n t . The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the metaphors into

metaphors of identity, approximation, organization, and

operation, was found t o be a very functional tool i n term of

understanding the roles the metaphors played. For example,

metaphors of identity like 'getting plumber's l i c e n s e s ' or 'a

 62

gold s t a r of our drama 1

projected a sense of i d e n t i t y onto the

client. Also metaphors of approximation such as 'like going to

the dentist' or 'got the pit in your stomach' were useful in

expressing the inner feeling of the client. An example of

a metaphor of organization usefully applied were 'you're the

sandwich,' showing the ordering of r e l a t i o n s h i p of the client.

Finally, describing 'value' as a 'tool' exemplified a good use of

a metaphor of operation which portrayed the governing principle

behind a r e l a t i o n s h i p . These examples a l l show that these types

are useful and practical classifications of metaphors. A

counsellor who is aware of this classification can be more

creative i n the use of metaphors i n the counselling process.

A Helpful Categorization

In general, the c a t e g o r i z a t i o n of metaphors i n t o metaphors

that make the strange familiar and metaphors that make the

familiar strange was found to be a very helpful concept in

understanding the process involved i n the use of metaphors. In

our discussion, we have already seen some g o o d examples of how

the t h e r a p i s t used metaphors t h a t make t h e f a m i l i a r more f a m i l i a r

and thereby provided a better context for therapeutic progress.

Here we shall consider the usefulness of the two other

categories. The metaphor of the 'toadstool' when i t was first

m e n t i o n e d by the t h e r a p i s t was a f a m i l i a r f i g u r e to the client.

The therapist turned i t into a metaphor of accommodation that

made t h e f a m i l i a r strange by embellishing i t with new features,

enabling the client t o d r a w new i n s i g h t . The therapist could also

do the opposite and turn something strange into something

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familiar a s i n 'you g o t t o b e a s t a r , ' h e l p i n g the client to

assume new r o l e s . O u r l i t e r a t u r e review shows that f o ra long

time philosophers and p s y c h o l o g i s t s alike have struggled to

arrive at a more complete understanding of the nature and

functions o f metaphors. I t seems to the present researcher that

the types and c a t e g o r i e s used i n our study were v e r y descriptive

of what really went on i n t h e s i t u a t i o n s o f t h e c l i e n t . These

classifications seem t o be able to move beyond the static

definitions of metaphors and i n t r o d u c e a dynamic way t o

conceptualize metaphors. They h e l p counsellors using metaphors i n

counselling to focus on t h e c o u n s e l l i n g p r o c e s s and n o t j u s t on

the content.

A Vehicle of Insight

We had asked the question i n our l i t e r a t u r e review whether

insight i s necessarily literal. Some researchers are of the

opinion that the therapeutic process i s one t h a t moves from

metaphorization to literalization t o produce i n s i g h t . When we

examined o u r own findings, we have found that the metaphors

either d i d not e l i c i t any response, or e l i c i t e d an immediate

response as i n t h e case o f the metaphors o f the t o a d s t o o l , the

plumber's l i c e n s e , and t h e b l a c k s h e e p . No a p p a r e n t process of

literalization took place. The t h e r a p i s t d i d n o t go i n t o an

explanation o r t r a n s l a t i o n of any o f t h e metaphors. In a c t u a l

fact, i n the case o f our f i r s t two examples, the therapist moved

very q u i c k l y f r o m one t o t h e o t h e r . The m e t a p h o r s themselves were

the vehicles o f t h e i n s i g h t s . However, because our data are

limited, we can only t e n t a t i v e l y say that i n our case study,

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insight was not derived from a lateralization of the metaphors.

A Freedom t o Respond

We intended to uncover the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the use of

m e t a p h o r s by the t h e r a p i s t and the use by the client. Since the

client i n our s i n g l e case study did not express himself often in

metaphorical language.it was not possible to d i s c e r n any overall

pattern. This points t-o a possible conclusion that effective

therapy need not be a c c o m p a n i e d by corresponding metaphors from a

client in response to the metaphors from a therapist. The

effective use of m e t a p h o r s by a t h e r a p i s t should help produce

insight for a client who may express the i n s i g h t gained i n verbal

or non-verbal ways, and in figurative or non-figurative language.

In our case, Kent, the son was much more p o s i t i v e t o w a r d s school

at the end of the family interview. The family as a whole was

evidently c l o s e r a t the end of the family r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . One can

safely say that the use of metaphors was at least partly

instrumental i n p r o v i d i n g these therapeutic progress. The use of

metaphors, unlike other literary devices such as questioning,

allowed the client the freedom t o respond or not to respond. I t

also allowed the client the freedom to respond in a variety of

ways.

From A c c o m m o d a t i o n to A s s i m i l a t i o n

E v e n t h o u g h an overall pattern of metaphoric i n t e r a c t i o n s

could not be detected, an interesting observation concerning the

three key metaphors, the t o a d s t o o l , the plumber's license, and

the black sheep r can be made. When they were first introduced

by the t h e r a p i s t , they w e r e a l l u s e d t o made t h e familiar strange

 65

or i n other words, i n accommodation. They were then followed

immediately or shortly after by metaphors that made the strange

familiar or i n other words, i n a s s i m i l a t i o n . The f i r s t process

was one that suggested new and innovative ways of meeting

realities. Once this was done, the process of learning followed.

This procedure could have been a major factor i n the

effectiveness of the counselling. Metaphors of accommodation

make the f a m i l i a r strange, j a l t e r i n g a person's stereotypical

viewpoints. I f followed by metaphors o f a s s i m i l a t i o n t h a t make

the s t r a n g e f a m i l i a r , t h e new i n s i g h t g a i n e d i s incorporated into

the e x i s t i n g thought pattern or value system. This sequence of

moving from accommodation to assimilation has important

implication f o r the practice of counselling and t h e r a p y .

A Non-threatening Climate

The skillful use o f metaphors by t h e t h e r a p i s t on several

instances helped the c l i e n t to self-explore in a non-threatened

way. To b o r r o w t h e t e r m i n o l o g y of Transactional Analysis, the use

of appropriate metaphors eliminated t h e need f o r p a r e n t - c h i l d

transactions, and p u t i n t h e i r place adult-adult transactions.

Part of the problem that t h e son Kent faced was t h e p r e s s u r e he

felt f r o m h i s p a r e n t s who w a n t e d h i m t o g o t o s c h o o l . T h r o u g h t h e

use of the metaphor of the 'toadstool' and t h e 'plumber's

license, 1
t h e t h e r a p i s t and t h e c l i e n t could together look a t the

issue of going t o school as i f b o t h w e r e o n l o o k e r s . The therapist

was therefore not viewed as an a u t h o r i t y figure n o r as a

overpowering adult. The medium of t h e metaphor allowed the

therapist and t h e c l i e n t to level with each other. The client

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could also claim as his own any insight that was gained through

the use of metaphor.

A Change i n Perspective

We have seen t h e advantage of distancing i n the use of

m e t a p h o r s o b s e r v e d by p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h e r s . Two distancing are

involved here. First the client can distance'himseIf from the

p r o b l e m and t h u s o b t a i n a more o b j e c t i v e v i e w o f r e a l i t y . He is

free to approach or avoid the problem that he is facing.

Therefore therapeutic progress is a self-paced process on the

part of the client. Such an atmosphere removes the pressure that

the client normally faces i n coping with his problem. Second the

client can distance himself from the t h e r a p i s t . No longer is he

interacting with a change agent that demands compliance. Rather

he is faced with a change agent that facilitates change.

The therapist can also help the client change h i s perspective.

Furthermore there i s also advantage f o r the t h e r a p i s t who can be

tentative i n h i s approach to the client and h i s p r o b l e m s . As he

t r i e s to enter the i n n e r world of the c l i e n t , the use of metaphor

is o p e n - e n d e d and n o n - j u d g m e n t a l . He f r e e s the c l i e n t to arrive

at a conclusion of h i s own. This p h e n o m e n o n was quite clearly

demonstrated at several p i v o t a l points of the therapy at which

the t h e r a p i s t employed the use o f m e t a p h o r s . An example of this

is when t h e therapist said, 'But now I'd a l s o like you some other

things you got. You got... knowing how t o be a black sheep.' To

this the client replied, 'Being a black sheep can be positive i f

you want to get out of situations.' ' K n o w i n g how t o be a black

sheep' was a non-judgmenta1 and open-ended statement. This

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elicited a p o s i t i v e response from the c l i e n t .

An O f f e r i n g o f A l t e r n a t i v e s

We can a l s o see t h a t the use of metaphor helped the c l i e n t

improve h i s process of thinking. F o r example, the client's

parents wanted h i m t o go t o s c h o o l ; the c l i e n t d i d not like to

go; and t h e r e f o r e he d i s o b e y e d h i s parents by r u n n i n g away from

school. This i sbasically linear t h i n k i n g . The t h e r a p i s t opened

up the p o s s i b i l i t y o f some excitement i n school here-to-fore

missed by t h e c l i e n t , using the metaphor o f t h e t o a d s t o o l . The

client was then no longer responding to the wishes of h i s

parents, but looking at the school life itself. The s k i l l f u l use

of the metaphor by the t h e r a p i s t helped infuse the sense of

adventure and f u n . Alternatives could be o f f e r e d o r s u g g e s t e d t o

the client through t h e use o f metaphor i n counselling.

A T o u c h o f Humour

Turning to the aspect of f u n , the use of metaphor 'added

juice' t o the whole counselling process. The t h e r a p i s t could

introduce novel ideas and s t r a n g e notion i n a h a l f - s e r i o u s and a

half-joking manner. T h e p r e s e n c e o f humour a l l o w e d the c l i e n t to

feel more a t e a s e . The c l i e n t could even laugh at himself as i n

the case of the metaphor of the black sheep introduced by t h e

therapist. Both the l i g h t and t h e s e r i o u s sides of a s i t u a t i o n

could be c o n s i d e r e d by t r a n s f e r r i n g t o t h e p o s i t i v e a n d negative

sides o f a metaphor. Humour and t h e use o f metaphor together can

help a counsellor suggest i n s i g h t to a c l i e n t i n a form that he

can receive more r e a d i l y .

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A Matter of Pacing

In the f i r s t segment of the therapy, the therapist moved

very rapidly f r o m one s u c c e s s f u l u s e o f a m e t a p h o r t o the next.

In t h e s e c o n d segment, she d w e l l e d at length with one m e t a p h o r

and. r e t u r n e d to i ttime and a g a i n throughout the course of the

therapy. Contextual factors and an intuitive sense of the

progress of the therapy seemed t o govern the c o n t i n u a l use or

discontinuation o f a metaphor.

Another observation i s the e n t h u s i a s t i c responses displayed

by the therapist at points immediately f o l l o w i n g the production

of a metaphor or insightful statement by the c l i e n t . Such

responses reinforced greatly the self-exploration behaviour of

the c l i e n t as e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e t h e r a p i s t ' s r e s p o n s e after the

positive statement about being a 'black sheep,' r e s u l t i n g in

ongoing pattern of self-exploration.

The s y s t e m i c u s e o f t h e m e t a p h o r o f t h e b l a c k s h e e p seems t o

be v e r y a p t and f r u i t f u l i n the context of f a m i l y therapy. The

family r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the c l i e n t was g r e a t l y enhanced by t h e

use of t h i s particular metaphor. This e x p l a i n s why the t h e r a p i s t

put i t t o extensive use i n the second segment when s h e d i s c o v e r e d

its appropriateness.

Thus the s u c c e s s f u l use of metaphor i n c o u n s e l l i n g i snot

only a matter of choices of appropriate metaphors and an

awareness of the process involved. It i s also a matter of

p a c i n g . T h e c o u n s e l l o r n e e d s t o s e n s e w h e n t o move o n a n d w h e n t o

dwell on a p a r t i c u l a r metaphor. The r e a d i n e s s of the c l i e n t must

be c o n s i d e r e d as w e l l .
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Specific Comments b y t h e T h e r a p i s t , Virginia Satir

The researcher spent an e v e n i n g w i t h the t h e r a p i s t , Virginia

Satir,at t h e end o f t h e above a n a l y s i s . The p u r p o s e was to get

first hand her remarks concerning her views of the use of

metaphor i n therapy i n general, as w e l l as h e r r e a c t i o n s to

hearing h e r own use of certain metaphors i n this research.

Because of the limited time available, only two such excerpts

were played back t o h e r . The f o l l o w i n g i s a summary of the

excerpt from the interview with Virginia Satir that pertains

specifically t o t h e metaphors of the toadstool and t h e plumber's

license. Satir's comments follow each replaying of t h e two

sections of the audio tapes.

Responding to section containing the f i r s t metaphor, t h e

toadstool, Virginia Satir said, 'What i s e x c i t i n g here i s that

I want t o s w i t c h i t [thei s s u e of Kent going to school] from a

blame t o something that i s going t o be e x c i t i n g . ' S a t i r " went on

to says that as a result of using the metaphor of the

toadstool, the c l i e n t told h e r what exciting thing c a n happen.

She said, 'But now we a r e n o t o n how b a d h e i s f o r n o t g o i n g t o

school. We are into new possibilities. I have switched the

context entirely.'

Satir was also sensitive to the family context i n this

instance. She w a n t e d to raise the family's awareness on t h e

positive aspect of schooling f o r the c l i e n t . To t h i s effect, she

said, 'I w a n t e d t o r a i s e the family's a w a r e n e s s a n d p u t i n some

of these things because a l o tof l i t t l e things like that are

d r a m a t i c and they i n t r o d u c e a note that I think i s a musical note

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of s o m e s o r t i n t o s o m e t h i n g . ' S h e a l s o w e n t o n t o a d d , 'The i d e a

I can s t a r t playing with pictures introduce something; t h a t also

goes i n t o t h e i n t u i t i v e part^of t h e person.'

G e t t i n g t h e c l i e n t o u t o f t h e l i n e a r t h i n k i n g mode i s o n e o f

the m a i n p u r p o s e o f t h e t h e r a p i s t . When s h e f i r s t started therapy

with the c l i e n t , the c l i e n t was n o t l o o k i n g into the future. But

as the therapy progressed along, especially after the

introduction o f t h e metaphor of the toadstool at the pivotal

point, the c l i e n t was looking into a l l sortsof possibilities.

Satir had t h i s t o s a y , 'The m e t a p h o r took him o u t o f t h a t [being

a pleaser] b e c a u s e t h a t was s o m e t h i n g h e p u t i n t o i t h i m s e l f . A n d

I had a l l t h e c l u e s i n i t . " I am not looking f a r enough." "The

future i s o u t there." And y o u w o u l d n o t i c e that t h o s e were themes

that I p i c k e d up.'

In response to whether she would have done anything

differently a f t e r having heard the tape again, Satir s a i d no. She

added that a metaphor i s chosen always because o f t h e o p p o r t u n i t y

for opening, that i s , f o r going somewhere. F u r t h e r m o r e metaphors

can be p i c k e d up a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s , and t h e t h e r a p i s t i sto

listen t o how and where t h e y are picked up b y t h e c l i e n t .

Satir also pointed out that metaphors generate f o r her the

vocabulary needed f o r the therapy. The c l i e n t brought outthe

material and t h e f o c u s about the future, the central concern f o r

the family. Up t o t h i s point of the therapy, the focus had been

on the surface problem o f truancy. The m e t a p h o r l e d to the heart

of t h e p r o b l e m w h i c h was t h e w o r r i e s about Kent's future.

Turning t o t h e next metaphor, t h e plumber's l i c e n s e , which

followed r i g h t a f t e r t h e metaphor of the toadstool, Satir was

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asked why she moved so quickly from one metaphor t o the next. To

this she r e p l i e d very specifically, 'I've got some v e r y important

things - going i n t o the f u t u r e . Now part of going i n t o the future

i s g e t t i n g y o u r s e l f p r e p a r e d . So w h a t I was l o o k i n g f o r was a way

to put i n something that was h u m o r o u s . And something that his

parents would understand.' So relevance, humour, and

comprehensibility are three factors that should be considered in

the choice of metaphor.

S a t i r w e n t on t o a d d , 'What i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t w i t h y o u r w o r k

w i t h a group i s t o have something t h a t moves t h e group along. I

could have said diploma but that wouldn't be of interest. The

plumber's license - his father knew about that, his mother knew

about that, and that's just talk everybody understands.'

There is also the aspect of humour. S a t i r said, 'It's also

talk t h a t has a kind o f a c o m i c t o i t t o o . You would n o t i c e that

s o m e t i m e s I make a c o m i c t h i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o t h i s . T h i s t i m e the

comic part was they a l l got their plumber's l i c e n s e . ' The humour

is weaved i n t o the m e t a p h o r t o add to i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s for the

therapeutic growth of the client.

On this aspect of weaving i n her work, S a t i r commented, 'So

there i s a c e r t a i n element of weaving that goes on i n my work.

The weaving of a piece of fact with a fantasy, a metaphor with

s o m e t h i n g e l s e . T h e r e i s a l o t o f w e a v i n g t h a t g o e s on to t r y to

activate a l l the parts of the p e r s o n and other people that I can.

The colour of i t , the sound of i t , the fun of i t and a l l the rest

of that.'

When a s k e d why she went from the metaphor of the plumber's

license t o the make-believe conversation, Satir r e p l i e d t h a t she

was trying t o remove the communication barrier that existed

between t h e members of the family. The p a r e n t s were eager to

help, but they d i d n o t know how. The boy was wanting to

communicate h i s wishes t o h i s parents, b u t h e d i d n o t how e i t h e r .

B e s i d e s he d i d n o t f e e l h i s parents could understand. So Satir

used the make-believe conversation to develop the things that

came up f r o m t h e two metaphors that s h e h a d u s e d . S h e s a i d , 'I

need t o take the meaning and t h e c l u e s that I g e t from the

response that I g e t t o t h e metaphor i n t o the next thing.'

General Comments b y t h e T h e r a p i s t , Virginia Satir

Apart from commenting o n t h e two s p e c i f i c instances of the

use of metaphors, Satir also shared some o f h e r o t h e r insights

concerning the use of metaphors. The following are some

highlights.

On h e r i n t e n t i o n a l u s e o f m e t a p h o r i n therapy, Satir had

this t o s a y , 'There a r e s o many things that have t o do with

meanings i n terms o f being human t h a t t h e r e i s no g o o d language

f o r . And what I do i s t o g e t t h e m e a n i n g o v e r so t h a t i s when I

will bring i n a metaphor.' T h e r e a r e two t h i n g s t h a t one should

note. F i r s t , there i s t h e meaning that the therapist wants t o

convey. Second, there i s the space between t h e t h e r a p i s t and t h e

metaphor that the t h e r a p i s t wants to maintain. She went on t o

say, 'By u s i n g a m e t a p h o r , I c a n make a s p a c e b e t w e e n w h a t e v e r i t

is I am trying to get across, and a l m o s t make a metaphor an

adjunctive t h e r a p i s t . ' The t h e r a p i s t a n d t h e c l i e n t can also look

at the metaphor from a distance and g e t a l l t h e b e n e f i t s of the

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meaning. T h i s enables the client to move o u t of h i s system and

look a t h i s problem from the outside.

Satir revealed that metaphor has been one of the most

important ways f o r h e r to teach in languages and countries where

the native language i s not E n g l i s h . Metaphor i s f o u n d t o be the

most e f f e c t i v e means o f carrying meaning.

On the use of the r i g h t and left brains i n r e l a t i o n s h i p to

metaphoric language, Satir said, 'It's i m p o r t a n t to know that

both brains can do the same things. In the right brain, the

intuitive i s out f a r t h e r , but there is still logic back there. In

the left brain, the logic is out, but there is s t i l l the

intuitive possibility.' Satir pointed out that a l l the metaphors

she uses are aimed at a c t i v a t i n g the senses, the seeing, the

hearing, the touching and so on.

Satir pointed out most therapy is conducted as an

intellectual e x e r c i s e . She thinks that when p e o p l e a s k how do you

feel, often i t i s how you think t h a t they are interested in. She

believes f e e l i n g should be related to the senses. She said, 'My

therapy is full of a l l kinds of v i s u a l things - of sculpting, of

metaphors, of pictures and exercises and a l l that. Those a l l

activate the right brain activities. So we get a whole message.'

Satir classifies her metaphor functionally. Some metaphors

are used to prepare a client, that i s , to put a distance between

w h a t a t h e r a p i s t s a y s and the c l i e n t . Other metaphors are used to

elicit the inner understanding that a client has. A third use of

metaphors i s t o awaken - t o d r a w t h e process out of a metaphor -

for the t h e r a p i s t and the client. Yet other metaphors can be used

to l e s s e n the t h r e a t of c e r t a i n s u g g e s t i o n s of the therapist, a

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softening, and laying t h e groundwork. A f i f t h use of metaphors i s

to introduce certain phenomenological thinking or cluster of

thought. Lastly metaphors c a n be used to extend and increase

alternatives. So the use of metaphor extends i n t o story-telling.

These are a l l very helpful ways of conceptualizing about

metaphors. Metaphors h e l p people go beyond linear thinking into

better ways of problem-solving. Metaphor i s like music for

therapy. Metaphors are the juice of the language of sensing.

Satir says, 'The m e t a p h o r i s the highly sophisticated language

about feeling, and pictures, and sounds. A metaphor makes i t

possible t o g e t a new s o u n d a n d a new sight, a new t o u c h and a

new feel, and a new thought about s o m e t h i n g . And that's what

create the change.'

Metaphor helps people change perspective. The change in

perspective then r e s h a p e one's belief. Sometimes Satir would

invent m e t a p h o r s a b o u t be 1 i e f - c h a n g i n g . She said, 'Metaphor i s

the most helpful thing I know to begin t o ask people to look

differently at their beliefs, and then to see a different

perspective.'

A metaphor is versatile and n o t s t a t i c . I t c a n be a d a p t e d t o

different situations, b a c k g r o u n d and cultures. Satir feels that

therapists n e e d t o be alert to these differences. She added that

sometimes jokes c a n be u s e d a s a metaphor.

Satir believes that a w e l l - d o n e metaphor does not preach -

it only opens up a l l kinds of new possibilities. It i s a

magnificient way of helping us into the absurdities of our

t h i n k i n g . She f e e l s that metaphor c a n l e t us g e t i n t o u c h with,

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o r awaken, t h e i n n e r wisdom within us.

The r e s e a r c h e r suggested that metaphors are l i k e pictures

where people bring into or bring out t h e i r own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ,

Satirconcurred enthusiastically. The u s e o f m e t a p h o r islikea

guided imagery. I t c a n be content-oriented or process-oriented.

Satir b e l i e v e s that a proper use o f metaphor i s process-oriented.

She says, 'I c a n p u t o u t s o m e t h i n g that seems t o have some

relatedness t o what's going on. I f t h e r e i s any vibrational

tuning, i twill come b a c k j u s t like i t was w i t h the c l i e n t i n

such a b e a u t i f u l way.'
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CHAPTER F I V E

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In this chapter, we will briefly summarizethe research

findings reported i n chapter Four. In a d d i t i o n , certain

conclusions will be d r a w n . F i n a l l y , implications f o r counselling

p r a c t i c e and s u g g e s t i o n s f o rfuture research stemming from the

present study will be explored.

Summary

Background

We started our research by a d o p t i n g a way o f understanding

the process o f t h e usage o f metaphor i n terms o f 'making t h e

strange familiar' ( a s s i m i l a t i o n ) and 'making the familiar

strange' (accommodation). Metaphors were d e f i n e d according to

their functions relating to identity, approximation, organization

or operation. The p u r p o s e of the study was t o examine the

metaphoring process of both the c l i e n t and t h e t h e r a p i s t . T h i s

was done by f i r s t classifying t h e metaphors using t h e above

categoriesand classifications. Then t h e p a t t e r n s of metaphoric

use and i n t e r a c t i o n were examined. A measure of the therapeutic

progress of the c l i e n t , the Approach-Avoidance Scale to Self-

exploration, was used to find out points where there were

significant movements i n t h e therapy. We t h e n examined whether

the use o f metaphor corresponded t o some o f t h e s e high points i n

the therapy. A t t h e end o f t h e a n a l y s i s , an i n t e r v i e w w i t h t h e

therapist, Virginia Satir, was a l s o conducted.

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Results

In the material that we examined, a total of forty-five

instances o f t h e use o f metaphors by t h e t h e r a p i s t was r e p o r t e d .

But only five such uses by the client were found. Of t h e

metaphors used by the therapist, fifteen were related to

identity, thirteen to approximation, s i xto organization, and

eleven to operation. S i x of these were t o make the strange

familiar, t e n t o make t h e f a m i l i a r s t r a n g e , and t w e n t y - n i n e t o

make t h e f a m i l i a r more familiar. The h i g h number i n this last

c a t e g o r y was a t t r i b u t e d to the fact that these metaphors found

here were many o f t h e more common metaphors that had been

assimilated into the therapist's everyday language. They added a

picturesque quality to the therapeutic communication of the

therapist.

As f o r the five metaphors used by t h e c l i e n t , three were

related to approximation, one t o i d e n t i t y and one t o o p e r a t i o n .

Four of these were metaphors used t o make the f a m i l i a r more

familiar, and t h e f i f t h used t o make the f a m i l i a r s t r a n g e . No

obvious p a t t e r n c o u l d be found.

An Analysis

We found that throughout the entire therapy, the therapist

used an abundance of metaphors t o e i t h e r t r yand e n t e r i n t o t h e

w o r l d o f t h e c l i e n t o r s u g g e s t new w a y s o f t h i n k i n g . I n t h e f i r s t

segment, the metaphors o f 'the t o a d s t o o l ' and 'the plumber's

license' were the high p o i n t s o f the use of metaphors by t h e

therapist. They a l s o corresponded with t h e peak of t h e r a p e u t i c

progress i n this first segment. As a result of these two

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metaphors, the c l i e n t was looking p o s i t i v e l y i n t o the future.

In the second part, the therapist used a variety of

metaphors t o m a i n t a i n a high degree of s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n pattern.

With t h e i n t r o d u c t i d n of the metaphor of the 'black sheep,' t h e

t h e r a p y came a l i v e towards the second h a l f o f t h i s portion of the

t h e r a p y . The t h e r a p i s t u s e d this metaphor e x t e n s i v e l y . The family

was much more c o h e s i v e a t t h e end o f t h i s session.

Conclusions

Our research findings point to certain conclusions that we

can draw. F i r s t , t h e many e x a m p l e s of the uses of metaphor i n

this c a s e and t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of the types and c a t e g o r i e s which

we h a v e a d o p t e d forthis research show t h a t we h a v e a w o r k a b l e

model o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g m e t a p h o r s a n d how they f u n c t i o n . Metaphors

can f i r s t be identified as to their types (identity,

approximation, organization or operation) and then further

classified i n the d i r e c t i o n of t h e i r usage (making the strange

familiar, the f a m i l i a r strange, or the f a m i l i a r f a m i l i a r ) . This

method of conceptualizing metaphors goes beyond the current

theories o f metaphors.

Second, the therapeutic progress of a client i s not

dependent on t h e amount of metaphoric expressions. Rather,

insight obtained from t h e use o f metaphors by a c l i e n t may be

expressed i n non-figurative ways o r n o n - v e r b a l means. T h u s there

may n o t be a p a t t e r n of metaphoric interaction that directly

relate to therapeutic progress.

Third, the insights obtained from the metaphors came

directly to the c l i e n t . I n no i n s t a n c e d i d the t h e r a p i s t have t o

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make the metaphors more literal i n order that the c l i e n t can

receieve the insight. This illustrates that i n our case, and

given the fact that our client showed no difficulty i n

understanding the metaphors used, m e t a p h o r s do n o t h a v e t o be 1

literalized i n order that i n s i g h t s c a n be d e r i v e d .

Fourth, i n our case study, the three pivotal metaphors i n

the process of counselling were a l l introduced by the therapist

as m e t a p h o r s t h a t make t h e f a m i l i a r strange ( a c c o m m o d a t i o n ) . They

were then f o l l o w e d b y m e t a p h o r s t h a t make t h e s t r a n g e familiar

(assimilation). Having provided new ideas f o r the c l i e n t , the

therapist then helped the c l i e n t incorporate them. T h i s procedure

contributed t o the o v e r a l l success of the therapy.

Recommendations

Practical Implications

Our research f i n d i n g s have r e v e a l e d metaphor c a n be a u s e f u l

method of therapeutic intervention. As pointed o u t by many

authors i n our l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w , a n d a l s o i n o u r own f i n d i n g s ,

metaphor h e l p s t h e t h e r a p i s t and t h e c l i e n t t o be more process-

oriented and l e s s content-oriented. I t helps t h e t h e r a p i s t and

the client to break out of the l i n e a r thinking mode. Also i t

enables the therapist to introduce a change in perspective. It

creates ahealthy d i s t a n c e between t h e t h e r a p i s t and t h e c l i e n t

which enables the therapist t o be more tentative with his

suggestions and therefore appear less a u t h o r i t a r i a n and

judgmental. The c l i e n t i s open t o move a t h i s own p a c e a n d c l a i m

the insight from t h e metaphor a s h i s own. M e t a p h o r h e l p s provide

 80

the client with a l t e r n a t i v e s . Metaphor can also be combined with

humour i n c o u n s e l l i n g . T h e s e and other advantages of the use of

m e t a p h o r s make m e t a p h o r an important t o o l i n therapy. There i s an

old Chinese saying that states, 'A p i c t u r e i s worth a thousand

words.' M e t a p h o r s are pictures that can be used e f f e c t i v e l y by a

therapist i n a v a r i e t y of ways t o help a client.

Future Research

Our research has b e e n done u s i n g one s i n g l e case study. Many

of the f i n d i n g s are therefore specific to t h i s p a r t i c u l a r case.

The consistency and the applicability of the concepts of metaphor

adopted in this research illustrates the fact that we have a

workable model. However this needs further confirmation by more

extensive research using more that one case study and with a

variety of therapists and clients.

Furthermore in order to ascertain the effect of metaphoric

interactions between the therapist and the client on therapeutic

progress, clients who uses more f i g u r a t i v e language in their

communication can be selected for future studies. This could not

be achieved i n our research because such a s e l e c t i o n process did

not take place p r i o r to the therapy nor the research phase.

The results of this study indicated that the process of

moving from accommodation t o a s s i m i l a t i o n i n the use of metaphors

was a contributing f a c t o r t o movement i n t h e counselling. Whether

this i s generally true can be the subject of further research.

We have also found in the results of this research that

metaphors were the direct vehicles of i n s i g h t . However b e c a u s e of

the limited data, we cannot generalize. Would a process of

 81

literalization be necessary in other cases? This needs to be

further investigated.

Finally in view of the amount of psychoanalytic literature

on the subject, f u t u r e c o n t r o l l e d study can be done t o v a r i f y the

efficacy and e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the psychoanalytic approach of the

use of metaphor v e r s u s the non-psychoanalytic approach of the use

of metaphor.

This thesis i s but a primer to the enormous potential in

metaphors. There is a l o t of room f o r f u r t h e r and more extensive

research.
 82

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