DCO Presentation 1 PDF

BSc IT
Digital and Computer Organization

Semester - III
Copyright@ Amity University

Boolean Algebra
• Boolean algebra (or Boolean logic) is a logical
calculus of truth values, developed by George Boole in
the 1840s.
• It resembles the algebra of real numbers, but with the
numeric operations of multiplication xy, addition x + y,
and negation −x replaced by the respective logical
operations of conjunction x∧y, disjunction x∨y,
and negation ¬x
• Boolean algebra is the algebra of two values. These are
usually taken to be 0 and 1, although F and T, false and
true, etc.

Boolean Algebra
•Boolean algebra provides the operations and the rules for
working with the set {0, 1}.
•These are the rules that underlie electronic circuits, and
the methods we will discuss are fundamental to VLSI
design.
•We are going to focus on three operations:
• Boolean complementation,
• Boolean sum, and
• Boolean product

Boolean Operations
•The complement is denoted by a bar (on the slides, we
will use a minus sign). It is defined by
-0 = 1 and -1 = 0.
•The Boolean sum, denoted by + or by OR, has the

following values:
1 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 0 + 1 = 1, 0+0=0
•The Boolean product, denoted by or by AND, has the

following values:
1 1 = 1, 1 0 = 0, 0 1 = 0, 0 0 = 0

Boolean Functions and Expressions
•Definition: Boolean function is a function of the
form ƒ : Bk → B, where B = {0, 1} is a Boolean
domain and k is a nonnegative integer. In the case
where k = 0, the "function" is essentially a constant element
of B.
•Let B = {0, 1}. The variable x is called a Boolean
variable if it assumes values only from B.
•A function from Bn, the set {(x1, x2, …, xn) |xi B,
1 i n}, to B is called a Boolean function of degree n.
•Boolean functions can be represented using expressions
made up from the variables and Boolean operations.
•The Boolean expressions in the variables x1, x2, …, xn are
defined recursively as follows:
• 0, 1, x1, x2, …, xn are Boolean expressions.
• If E1 and E2 are Boolean expressions, then (-E1),
(E1E2), and (E1 + E2) are Boolean expressions.
•Each Boolean expression represents a Boolean function.
The values of this function are obtained by substituting 0
and 1 for the variables in the expression.

•For example, we can create Boolean expression in the
variables x, y, and z using the “building blocks”
0, 1, x, y, and z, and the construction rules:
•Since x and y are Boolean expressions, so is xy.
•Since z is a Boolean expression, so is (-z).
•Since xy and (-z) are expressions, so is xy + (-z).
……..… and so on.

•Example: Give a Boolean expression for the Boolean
function F(x, y) as defined by the following table:
x y F(x, y)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 0
Possible solution: F(x, y) = (-x) y

•Another Example:
x y z F(x, y, z)
0 0 0 1 Possible solution I:
F(x, y, z) = -(xz + y)
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
Possible solution II:
1 0 1 0 F(x, y, z) = (-(xz))(-y)
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0

•There is a simple method for deriving a Boolean
expression for a function that is defined by a table. This
method is based on minterms.
•Definition: A literal is a Boolean variable or its
complement. A minterm of the Boolean variables x1, x2,
…, xn is a Boolean product y1y2…yn, where yi = xi or yi = -
xi.
•Hence, a minterm is a product of n literals, with one literal
for each variable.

•Consider F(x,y,z) again:
x y z F(x, y, z)
0 0 0 1 F(x, y, z) = 1 if and only if:

x = y = z = 0 or
0 0 1 1 x = y = 0, z = 1 or
0 1 0 0 x = 1, y = z = 0
Therefore,
0 1 1 0 F(x, y, z) =
(-x)(-y)(-z) +
1 0 0 1
(-x)(-y)z +
1 0 1 0 x(-y)(-z)
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0

•Definition: The Boolean functions F and G of n variables
are equal if and only if F(b1, b2, …, bn) = G(b1, b2, …, bn)
whenever b1, b2, …, bn belong to B.
•Two different Boolean expressions that represent the same

function are called equivalent.
•For example, the Boolean expressions xy, xy + 0, and xy 1

are equivalent.
•The complement of the Boolean function F is the function

–F, where –F(b1, b2, …, bn) = -(F(b1, b2, …, bn)).
•Let F and G be Boolean functions of degree n. The Boolean

Sum F+G and Boolean Product FG are then defined by
(F + G)(b1, b2, …, bn) = F(b1, b2, …, bn) + G(b1, b2, …, bn)
(FG)(b1, b2, …, bn) = F(b1, b2, …, bn) G(b1, b2, …, bn)

•Question: How many different Boolean functions of

degree 1 are there?
•Solution: There are four of them, F1, F2, F3, and F4:
x F1 F2 F3 F4
0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1

•Question: How many different Boolean functions of
degree 2 are there?
•Solution: There are 16 of them, F1, F2, …, F16:
x y F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F15 F16

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Duality
•Examples:
The dual of x(y + z) is x + yz.
The dual of -x 1 + (-y + z) is (-x + 0)((-y)z).
The dual of a Boolean function F represented by a

Boolean expression is the function represented by the dual
of this expression. This dual function, denoted by Fd, does
not depend on the particular Boolean expression used to
represent F.
The dual of a Boolean expression is obtained by interchanging Boolean sums
and Boolean products and interchanging 0s and 1s.

Duality
•Therefore, an identity between functions represented by
Boolean expressions remains valid when the duals of both
sides of the identity are taken.
•We can use this fact, called the duality principle, to
derive new identities.
•For example, consider the absorption law
x(x + y) = x.
•By taking the duals of both sides of this identity, we
obtain the equation x + xy = x, which is also an identity
(and also called an absorption law).

Definition of a Boolean Algebra
•All the properties of Boolean functions and expressions
that we have discovered also apply to other mathematical
structures such as propositions and sets and the operations
defined on them.
•If we can show that a particular structure is a Boolean
algebra, then we know that all results established about
Boolean algebras apply to this structure.
•For this purpose, we need an abstract definition of a
Boolean algebra.

Definition of a Boolean Algebra
•Definition: A Boolean algebra is a set B with two binary
operations and , elements 0 and 1, and a unary
operation – such that the following properties hold for all x,
y, and z in B:
•x 0 = x and x 1=x (identity laws)
•x (-x) = 1 and x (-x) = 0 (domination laws)
•(x y) z=x (y z) and
(x y) z=x (y z) and (associative laws)
•x y=y x and x y=y x (commutative laws)
•x (y z) = (x y) (x z) and
x (y z) = (x y) (x z) (distributive laws)
Logic Gates
• A logic gate performs a logical operation on one or
more logic inputs and produces a single logic output.
• The logic is called Boolean logic and is most
commonly found in digital circuits.
• A truth table is a table that describes the behaviour of
a logic gate or any combination of logic gates. It lists
the value of the output for every possible combination
of the inputs and can be used to simplify the number
of logic gates and level of nesting in an electronic
circuit.

Logic Gates
•Electronic circuits consist of so-called gates.
There are three basic types of gates:
x -x
inverter
x
x+y
OR gate
y
x
xy
AND gate
y

Logic Gates

Logic Gates
•Example: How can we build a circuit that computes the
function xy + (-x)y ?
x
xy
y
xy + (-x)y
x -x
(-x)y

Manipulating Boolean Function
• In Boolean algebra, any Boolean function can be
expressed in a canonical form using the dual
concepts of minterms and maxterms.
• Minterms are called products because they are

thelogical AND of a set of variables.
• Maxterms are called sums because they are

the logical OR of a set of variables.

• The dual canonical forms of any Boolean function are
a "sum of minterms" and a "product of maxterms."
• The term "Sum of Products" or "SoP" is widely used
for the canonical form that is a disjunction (OR) of
minterms.
• Its De Morgan dual is a "Product of Sums" or "PoS"
for the canonical form that is a conjunction (AND) of
maxterms.
• These forms allow for greater analysis into the
simplification of these functions, which is of great
importance in the minimization or other optimization
of digital circuits.
Minterm:
• For a boolean function of n variables , a product
term in which each of the n variables appears once (in
either its complemented or uncomplemented form) is
called a minterm. Thus, a minterm is a logical
expression of n variables that employs only
the complement operator and the conjunction operator.
• There are 2n minterms of n variables, since a variable
in the minterm expression can be in either its direct or
its complemented form--two choices per n variables.

Maxterm:
• For a boolean function of n variables , a sum term in
which each of the n variables appears once (in either its
complemented or uncomplemented form) is called a
maxterm.
• A maxterm is a logical expression of n variables that
employs only the complement operator and
the disjunction operator.
• Maxterms are a dual of the minterm idea (i.e.,
exhibiting a complementary symmetry in all respects).

K - Map
• Karnaugh maps are used to facilitate the simplification
of Boolean algebra functions.
• A Karnaugh map provides a pictorial method of

grouping together expressions with common factors
and therefore eliminating unwanted variables. The
Karnaugh map can also be described as a special
arrangement of a truth table.

K - Map
• The diagram below illustrates the correspondence
between the Karnaugh map and the truth table for the
general case of a two variable problem.

K - Map
• The values inside the squares are copied from the
output column of the truth table, therefore there is one
square in the map for every row in the truth table.
Around the edge of the Karnaugh map are the values
of the two input variable. A is along the top and B is
down the left hand side. The diagram below explains
this:

K - Map
• The Karnaugh map uses the following rules for the
simplification of expressions
by grouping together adjacent cells containing ones.

K - Map
• Groups must contain 1, 2, 4, 8, or in general 2n cells.
That is if n = 1, a group will contain two 1's since 21 = 2.
If n = 2, a group will contain four 1's since 22 = 4.

K - Map

K - Map

K - Map

ADDER
• In electronics, an adder or summer is a digital
circuit that performs addition of numbers. In
modern computers adders reside in the arithmetic logic
unit (ALU) where other operations are performed.
Although adders can be constructed for many numerical
representations, such as Binary-coded decimal or excess-
3, the most common adders operate on binary numbers.
• In cases where two's complement or one's complement is

being used to represent negative numbers, it is trivial to
modify an adder into an adder-subtractor.
ADDER
• A half adder is a logical circuit that performs an

addition operation on two one-bit binary numbers
often written as A and B. The half adder output is a
sum of the two inputs usually represented with the
signals Cout and S where .
• Following is the logic table for a half adder:

ADDER
• A full adder is a logical circuit that performs an

addition operation on three one-bit binary numbers
often written as A, B, and Cin. The full adder produces
a two-bit output sum typically represented with the
signals Cout and S where Sum = 2 Cout+ S.
• A full adder can be implemented in many different

ways such as with a custom transistor-level circuit or
composed of other gates.

ADDER
• The full adder's truth table & block diagram can be

shown as:

ADDER
A full adder can be implemented in many different

ways such as with a custom transistor-level circuit or
composed of other gates. One example
implementation is with
A full adder can be constructed from two half adders

by connecting A and B to the input of one half adder,
connecting the sum from that to an input to the
second adder, connecting Ci to the other input and
OR the two carry outputs.

Encoder
An encoder is a device, circuit, transducer, software

program, algorithm or person that converts information
from one format or code to another, for the purposes of
standardization, speed, secrecy, security, or saving space
by shrinking size.
A simple encoder circuit can receive a single active

input out of 2n input lines generate a binary code
on n parallel output lines.

Encoder
• For example a single bit 4 to 2 encoder takes in 4 bits
and outputs 2 bits.

Decoder
• A decoder is a device which does the reverse of
an encoder, undoing the encoding so that the original
information can be retrieved. The same method used
to encode is usually just reversed in order to decode.
• In digital electronics, a decoder can take the form of a

multiple-input, multiple-output logic circuit that
converts coded inputs into coded outputs, where the
input and output codes are different. e.g. n-to-
2n, binary-coded decimal decoders.

Decoder
• A slightly more complex decoder would be the n-to-
2n type binary decoders. These type of decoders are
combinational circuits that convert binary information
from 'n' coded inputs to a maximum of 2n unique
outputs.
• We can have 2-to-4 decoder, 3-to-8 decoder or 4-to-16
decoder.
• Decoding is necessary in applications such as data
multiplexing, 7 segment display and memory address
decoding.

Decoder
• Example:

Multiplexer
• In electronics, a multiplexer or mux is a device that

performs multiplexing; it selects one of many analog
or digital input signals and forwards the selected
input into a single line.
• A multiplexer of 2n inputs has n select lines, which

are used to select which input line to send to the
output.

Multiplexer
• A demultiplexer (or demux) is a device taking a

single input signal and selecting one of many data-
output-lines, which is connected to the single input. A
multiplexer is often used with a complementary
demultiplexer on the receiving end.
• An electronic multiplexer can be considered as

a multiple-input, single-output switch, and a
demultiplexer as a single-input, multiple-
output switch.

Multiplexer
• The schematic symbol for a multiplexer is an isosceles
trapezoid with the longer parallel side containing the
input pins and the short parallel side containing the
output pin. The schematic on the right shows a 2-to-1
multiplexer on the left and an equivalent switch on the
right. The sel wire connects the desired input to the
output.

Multiplexer
• In telecommunications, a multiplexer is a device that
combines several input information signals into one output
signal, which carries several communication channels, by
means of some multiplex technique. A demultiplexer is in
this context a device taking a single input signal that
carries many channels and separates those over multiple
output signals.
• In telecommunications and signal processing, an
analog time division multiplexer (TDM) may take several
samples of separate analogue signals and combine them
into one pulse amplitude modulated (PAM) wide-band
analogue signal.
Memory
• Computer memory can be divided into two
parts: primary and secondary. Primary memory is
accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is an
example of primary memory.
• As soon as the computer is switched off the contents
of the primary memory is lost. You can store and
retrieve data much faster with primary memory
compared to secondary memory.
• Secondary memory such as floppy disks, magnetic
disk, etc., is located outside the computer.

Memory
• Primary memory is more expensive than secondary
memory. Because of this the size of primary memory
is less than that of secondary memory.
• Computer memory is used to store two things:

i) instructions to execute a program and
ii) data. When the computer is doing any job, the data
that have to be processed are stored in the primary
memory. This data may come from an input device
like keyboard or from a secondary storage device like
a floppy disk.
Memory
• Read Only Memory (ROM): There is another memory
in computer, which is called Read Only Memory
(ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the
ROM. The storage of program and data in the ROM is
permanent.
• Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions
with high speed, there is also movement of data between
various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer the
processed data with high speed. So the computer uses a
number of special memory units called registers.

Memory
• Registers are not part of the main memory but they
store data or information temporarily and pass it on as
directed by the control unit.
• Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high
compared to the access time of main memory.
Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the
slow speed of main memory. To decrease the mismatch
in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached
between CPU and Main memory whose access time is
very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called
CACHE memory. CACHE memories are accessed
much faster than conventional RAM.
Flip-Flops
• In digital circuits, a flip-flop is a term referring to

an electronic circuit that has two stable states and
thereby is capable of serving as one bit of memory.
• A flip-flop is usually controlled by one or two

control signals and/or a gate or clock signal.
The output often includes thecomplement as well as
the normal output.

Flip-Flops
• Flip-flops can be either simple (transparent) or

clocked. Simple flip-flops can be built around a pair
of cross-coupled inverting elements.
• Clocked flip-flops are typically implemented as

master–slave devices where two basic flip-flops (plus
some additional logic) collaborate to make it
insensitive to spikes and noise between the short
clock transitions.

Flip-Flops
• RS (Reset-Set) flip-flop: The fundamental latch is the
simple RS flip-flop (also commonly known as SR flip-
flop), where R and S stand for reset and set,
respectively. It can be constructed from a pair of cross-
coupled NOR logic gates. The stored bit is present on
the output marked Q.
• D (Delay) flip-flop: The D ﬂip-ﬂop is the most
common flip-flop in use today. It is better known
as delay flip-flop or data latch. It is called the Dflip-
flop for this reason, since the output takes the value of
the D input or Data input, and Delays it by one clock
cycle.
Flip-Flops
• T (Toggle) flip-flop: If the T input is high, the T flip-
flop changes state ("toggles") whenever the clock input
is strobed. If the T input is low, the flip-flop holds the
previous value.
• J-K flip-flop: The JK flip-flop augments the behavior

of the SR flip-flop (J=Set, K=Reset) by interpreting
the S = R = 1 condition as a "flip" or toggle command.
Specifically, the combination J = 1, K = 0 is a
command to set the flip-flop; the combination J = 0, K
= 1 is a command to reset the flip-flop.
Flip-Flops
• Master-Slave flip-flop: A master–slave flip-flop is
created by connecting two flip-flops in series, and
inverting the enable input to one of them. It is called
master–slave because the second latch in the series
only changes in response to a change in the first
(master) latch. At a time only one flip-flop works. In
other way, we can say that if one flip-flop is active
then other flip flop will be inactive state.
• A single flip-flop can be used to store one bit, or
binary digit, of data. Any one of the flip-flop type can
be used to build any of the others.
Registers
• In computer architecture, a register is a processor
register (or general purpose register) which is a
small amount of storage available on the CPU whose
contents can be accessed more quickly than storage
available elsewhere.
• Processor registers are at the top of the memory

hierarchy, and provide the fastest way for a CPU to
access data. The term is often used to refer only to the
group of registers that are directly encoded as part of
an instruction, as defined by the instruction set.

Registers
• Registers are normally measured by the number
of bits they can hold, for example, an "8-bit register"
or a "32-bit register". Registers are now usually
implemented as a register file, but they have also
been implemented using individual flip-flops, high
speed core memory, thin film memory, and other
ways in various machines.
• A processor often contains several kinds of registers,

that can be classified accordingly to their content or
instructions that operate on them.

Registers
• User-accessible Registers - The most common
division of user-accessible registers is into data
registers and address registers.
• Data registers are used to hold numeric values such
as integer and floating-point values. In some older
and low end CPUs, a special data register, known as
the accumulator, is used implicitly for many
operations.
• Address registers hold addresses and are used by
instructions that indirectly access memory.

Registers
• Conditional registers hold truth values often used to
determine whether some instruction should or should
not be executed.
• General purpose registers (GPRs) can store both
data and addresses, i.e., they are combined
Data/Address registers.
• Floating point registers (FPRs) store floating
point numbers in many architectures.
• Constant registers hold read-only values such as
zero, one, or pi.

Registers
• Vector registers hold data for vector
processing done by SIMD instructions (Single
Instruction, Multiple Data).
• Special purpose registers ( SPR ) hold
program state; they usually include the program
counter (aka instruction pointer), stack pointer,
and status register (aka processor status word).
In embedded microprocessors, they can also
correspond to specialized hardware elements.

Registers
• In some architectures, model-specific
registers (also called machine-specific
registers) store data and settings related to the
processor itself. Because their meanings are
attached to the design of a specific processor,
they cannot be expected to remain standard
between processor generations.
• Control and status registers - It has three
types. Program counter, instruction registers,
Program status word (PSW).
Registers
• Registers related to fetching information
from RAM, a collection of storage registers
located on separate chips from the CPU
are
• Memory buffer register
• Memory data register
• Memory address register
• Memory Type Range Registers (MTRR)

Counters
• In digital logic and computing, a counter is a device
which stores (and sometimes displays) the number of
times a particular event or process has occurred, often
in relationship to a clock signal.
• In practice, there are two types of counters:

 Up counters, which increase (increment) in value
 Down counters, which decrease (decrement) in value

Counters
• In electronics, counters can be implemented quite
easily using register-type circuits such as the flip-
flop, and a wide variety of designs exist, e.g.:
 Asynchronous (ripple) counter – changing state bits

are used as clocks to subsequent state flip-flops
 Synchronous counter – all state bits change under

control of a single clock

Counters
• Decade counter – A decade counter is one that counts

in decimal digits, rather than binary.
• Up–down counter – A counter that can change state in

either direction, under the control of an up–down
selector input, is known as an up–down counter. When
the selector is in the up state, the counter increments its
value; when the selector is in the down state, the
counter decrements the count.

Counters
• Johnson counter – A Johnson counter is a modified
ring counter, where the output from the last stage is
inverted and fed back as input to the first stage.
• Ring Counter - A ring counter is a shift register (a
cascade connection of flip-flops) with the output of
the last one connected to the input of the first, that is,
in a ring. Typically a pattern consisting of a single 1
bit is circulated, so the state repeats every N clock
cycles if N flip-flops are used. It can be used as a
cycle counter of N states.

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BSc IT

Digital and Computer Organization

Copyright@ Amity University

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•The Boolean sum, denoted by + or by OR, has the

•The Boolean product, denoted by or by AND, has the

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0 0 0 1 F(x, y, z) = 1 if and only if:

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•Two different Boolean expressions that represent the same

•For example, the Boolean expressions xy, xy + 0, and xy 1

•The complement of the Boolean function F is the function

•Let F and G be Boolean functions of degree n. The Boolean

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•Question: How many different Boolean functions of

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x y F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F15 F16

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The dual of a Boolean function F represented by a

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• Minterms are called products because they are

• Maxterms are called sums because they are

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• A Karnaugh map provides a pictorial method of

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Copyright@ Amity University

Copyright@ Amity University

Copyright@ Amity University

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• In cases where two's complement or one's complement is

• A half adder is a logical circuit that performs an

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• A full adder is a logical circuit that performs an

• A full adder can be implemented in many different

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• The full adder's truth table & block diagram can be

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A full adder can be implemented in many different

A full adder can be constructed from two half adders

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An encoder is a device, circuit, transducer, software

A simple encoder circuit can receive a single active

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• In digital electronics, a decoder can take the form of a

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