Ore Geology Reviews 13 Ž1998.

103–129

The Archaean Mount Gibson gold deposits, Yilgarn Craton,

Western Australia: Products of combined synvolcanic and
syntectonic alteration and mineralisation
Christopher J. Yeats ) , David I. Groves
Key Centre for Teaching and Research in Strategic Mineral Deposits, The UniÕersity of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6907, Australia
Received 1 October 1996

Abstract

The Mount Gibson gold deposits are sited at the southern tip of the Archaean Yalgoo–Singleton greenstone belt, in the
southern portion of the Murchison Province, Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia. Primary gold mineralisation is hosted within
an eastward facing, dominantly tholeiitic metabasalt sequence which has been metamorphosed to amphibolite facies
conditions.
Alteration and mineralisation occurs within the north to north-northeast striking, steeply east-dipping, Mount Gibson
shear zone, paralleling primary layering within the tholeiitic mine sequence. Two main styles of wallrock alteration and
associated sulphide mineralisation are present. The first of these is represented by garnet Žspessartine–almandine. –gahnite
and cordierite–muscovite-bearing schists. These lithologies are unusual for lode-gold mineralisation, and, despite their
apparently pelitic nature, have mafic precursors and reflect pre-metamorphic alteration of tholeiitic basalts. The garnet-bearing
schists form a coherent stratiform horizon which overlies the main ore zone at the Orion Two deposit and are associated with
recrystallised, metamorphosed, polymetallic sphalerite–galena–pyrite– Žpyrrhotite–chalcopyrite–tetrahedrite. mineralisation.
A more typical Žfor Archaean lode-gold., pervasive, syn-peak metamorphic, syn-shearing quartz–biotite" sulphide alter-
ation envelope is associated with pyrrhotite–pyrite " chalcopyrite mineralisation at Mount Gibson. Although free gold is
rare, there is a strong empirical relationship between enhanced gold grades and the pyrrhotite–pyrite" chalcopyrite
assemblage, suggesting that gold was introduced as part of this event.
Mass balance calculations at Orion Two show enrichment of Au, Ag, K, Rb, Ba and W and depletion of Na, Ca and Sr
over mineralised zones, which is typical of lode-gold mineralisation. However, the deposit also exhibits strong base-metal
enrichment, particularly within the garnet-bearing schists, and zonation from the Au–Cu enrichment of the main ore zone to
the overlying, stratiform Pb–Zn–Ag– ŽMn. enrichment, which is dominant in the garnet-bearing schist horizon. These
features are typical of VHMS mineralisation. Hornet exhibits similar overall elemental enrichment and depletion to Orion
Two. Lead-isotope data for sulphides from Orion Two and Hornet provide evidence of two discrete mineralising events at
Mount Gibson, separated by approximately 300 m.y.
A two-stage model best explains the features of the Mount Gibson gold deposits. Metamorphism of the aluminous
alteration and weak mineralisation associated with an early synvolcanic event resulted in the formation of cordierite–

)
Corresponding author. Fax: 09-9-380 1178; E-mail: cyeats@geol.uwa.edu.au

0169-1368r98r$19.00 q 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PII S 0 1 6 9 - 1 3 6 8 Ž 9 7 . 0 0 0 1 5 - 2
104 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129

muscovite and garnet Žspessartine–almandine. –gahnite bearing assemblages, respectively, which were less competent than
the surrounding tholeiitic metabasalts and consequently tended to localise shearing. Shear-hosted lode-gold mineralisation
was synchronous with peak metamorphism and shearing. Like the shearing, hydrothermal alteration was mostly concentrated
in and around the less competent rocks which were produced by metamorphism of synvolcanically altered precursors,
resulting in a fundamental stratigraphic control on gold mineralisation at Mount Gibson. q 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All
rights reserved.

Keywords: Archaean; Mount Gibson; lode-gold mineralisation; Yilgarn Craton; Western Australia; alteration

1. Introduction shallow lateritic ore reserve of 5.3 Mt at 1.6 grt Au

Throughout the 1980s, research on Archaean
lode-gold mineralisation concentrated heavily on the
so-called mesothermal group of deposits ŽColvine et
al., 1988; Kerrich, 1989; Groves et al., 1989., which
contributes the majority of historical and present
gold production from Archaean granitoid–greenstone
terranes, including that from Western Australia ŽFig.
1.. These deposits are normally hosted in greenschist
facies rocks and controlled by brittle to ductile shear
zones, and studies indicate that gold was deposited
from auriferous fluids at 3008C to 3508C and 1 to 3
kbar Žcf. Ho et al., 1990.. However, in the first half
of this decade, regional and mine scale studies of
Archaean lode-gold mineralisation, particularly in
Western Australia Že.g. Hagemann et al., 1992;
Knight et al., 1993; Neumayr et al., 1993; Bloem et
al., 1994., resulted in the realisation that these de-
posits are not confined to mid-crustal levels, but
rather may develop under conditions ranging from
subgreenschist to granulite facies. This realisation
led to the formulation of the so-called crustal contin-
uum model for Archaean lode-gold mineralisation
Žcf. Groves et al., 1992, 1995; Groves, 1993., adapted
from the models of Colvine Ž1989. and Foster Ž1989.,
which satisfactorily explains most features of lode-
gold deposits at a range of metamorphic grades,
within the broader tectonic controls proposed by
authors such as Barley et al. Ž1989. and Kerrich and
Cassidy Ž1994., and within available geochronologi-
cal constraints Žeg. Kent and McDougall, 1995..
The ‘Gibson Anomaly’ lateritic gold deposit was
discovered in 1983 by Reynolds Australian Gold, a
was defined, and production commenced in October
1986. Since mid-1987, exploration has focussed on
the search for bedrock-hosted deposits beneath the
laterite, revealing supergene oxide- and sulphide-zone
ore at Enterprise, Donkey D, Orion One, Orion
North and Deep South, and primary gold–silver
deposits at Hornet and Orion Two ŽFig. 2.. To the
end of September 1994, the Mount Gibson gold
project had produced about 17 tonnes of fine gold
and in excess of 10 tonnes of silver.
Little published information on the nature of the
primary gold mineralisation at Mount Gibson was
available prior to this study. However, Gee Ž1990.
had noted that the deposits had unusual Žfor lode-
gold. metal associations and Watkins and Hickman
Ž1990. recorded a relationship between gold and
Cu–Pb–Zn mineralisation. No consensus was avail-
able regarding the origin of primary gold mineralisa-
tion at Mount Gibson, with genetic models ranging
from those implicating synvolcanic mineralisation
through to those involving late, postpeak metamor-
phic mineralisation proposed within unpublished
company reports. However, it appeared unlikely that
the Mount Gibson gold deposits were an example of
‘typical’ lode-gold style mineralisation.
The purpose of this paper is to document the
primary gold–silver mineralisation at Mount Gibson,
which represents an apparently anomalous style of
mineralisation with respect to the crustal continuum
of Archaean lode-gold mineralisation, to develop a
model for the mineralisation, and to test the ade-
quacy of the crustal continuum model to explain it.
Emphasis is placed on the nature of alteration and

Fig. 1. Simplified Archaean geology of the Murchison Province showing the location of major gold mining centres. Modified from Watkins
and Hickman Ž1990..
C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129 105
106 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129
mineralisation in the Orion Two and Hornet deposits,
which suggest the presence of two superimposed
mineralisation systems.
2. Geological setting
The Mount Gibson gold deposits are located at
the southern tip of the Retaliation belt, the southern-
most portion of the Yalgoo–Singleton greenstone
belt, in the Murchison Province of the Archaean
Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia ŽFig. 1..
The Murchison Province is second only to the
Eastern Goldfields Province Žor, more particularly,
the Norseman–Wiluna belt. in terms of Archaean
gold production in Western Australia ŽWoodall,
1990.. To the end of 1987, total production from the
province was in excess of 227 tonnes Au ŽWatkins
and Hickman, 1990.. Almost all significant minerali-
sation in the Murchison is hosted by the rocks of the
ca. 3000 Ma Luke Creek Group ŽWatkins and Hick-
man, 1990., with the vast majority of the province’s
production derived from the linear Meekatharra Mt.
Magnet greenstone belt in the northeast of the
province. Gold mineralisation is spatially related to
regional deformation zones, and appears to have
occurred more or less contemporaneously across the
province, synchronous with the intrusion of two
suites of posttectonic granitoids. Wang et al. Ž1993.
have dated gold mineralisation at Reedys at 2638.8
" 4.2 Ma, using a pyrite–titanite Pb–Pb isochron.
Syngenetic, ca. 3000 Ma ŽPidgeon and Wilde, 1990.,
volcanic-hosted massive sulphide ŽVHMS. Cu–Zn–
ŽPb–Ag–Au. mineralisation also occurs within the
Luke Creek Group at Golden Grove within the Yal-
goo–Singleton greenstone belt.
The Yalgoo–Singleton greenstone belt has histor-
ically been considered to lack significant gold miner-
alisation. Prior to the opening of the Mount Gibson
mine in December 1986, only 6 tonnes of gold had
been produced from the entire belt, which is the
largest greenstone belt in the Murchison Province.
Fig. 2. Bedrock geological map of the Mount Gibson minesite showing Archaean stratigraphy and the location of bedrock gold lodes. The
Mount Gibson shear zone is developed throughout the Mine Sequence. The strike and dip direction of the dominant foliation is indicated for
each of the pits Ždip angle is always in excess of 758.. Modified from Fleming and Krapez Ž1991..
2.1. Lithostratigraphy
There is very little bedrock exposed at Mount
Gibson. In much of the area, laterite and colluvium
form a crust up to 10 m thick over deeply weathered,
saprolitic bedrock. In general, the depth to fresh rock
is in excess of 50 m. As a result of this, conventional
geological mapping of the area is impossible and the
Archaean geology of the minesite is interpreted from
drillholes Žboth diamond and RC., pit mapping and
airborne and ground magnetic surveys.
The Archaean basement to the Mount Gibson
mine area dominantly comprises metavolcanic and
intrusive felsic rocks and their sheared equivalents,
which have been metamorphosed to mid-amphibolite
facies conditions. Rare metasedimentary rocks con-
sist of thin discontinuous units of interflow ferrugi-
nous chert. The basement lithostratigraphy of the
mine area may be divided into five volcanic se-
quences ŽFig. 2., the eastern four of which were
originally recognised by Krapez Ž1991.. These com-
prise Žfrom west to east.:
Ž1. A thick, wedge shaped, tholeiitic metabasalt
sequence.
Ž2. A sequence of predominantly magnesian
metabasalts, with komatiitic components.
Ž3. A mixed ‘mine sequence’, which hosts gold
mineralisation at Mount Gibson, and is dominated by
variably differentiated tholeiitic metabasalts and
metadolerites, with lesser magnesian metabasalts and
quartz–feldspar porphyries.
Ž4. A sequence of magnetic quartz–andesites and
minor interflow metasedimentary rocks.
Ž5. A thick, monotonous sequence of quartz–
phyric felsic metavolcanic rocks.
The magnesian metabasalt and quartz–andesite
units also host quartz–feldspar porphyries which
form approximately conformable lensoid bodies. An
unfoliated, post-tectonic granitoid body intrudes the
southernmost portion of the felsic metavolcanic se-
quence, immediately to the east of the mine. Protero-
zoic ŽWatkins and Hickman, 1990. northwest and
C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129 107
108 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129

east-northeast striking dolerite and ultramafic dykes
cut the Archaean lithologies.
The major element compositions of the Archaean
supracrustal rocks in the Mount Gibson area are
consistent with derivation from a single magma
source. They lie close to the tholeiite fractionation
line of MacLean Ž1990. on a TiO 2 –Zr plot ŽFig. 3..
As a result of the poor outcrop quality and lack of
definitive stratigraphic markers in the Mount Gibson
area, it is difficult to determine confidently the fac-
ing of the generally steeply east-dipping sequence in
the mine area. However, it is reasonable to assume
that the stratigraphy is generally conformable with
that of the bulk of the Retaliation belt, which youngs
to the east ŽLipple et al., 1983..
2.2. Relationship of the granitoids to the greenstone
sequence
The southern portion of the Retaliation greenstone
belt, which hosts the Mount Gibson gold deposits,
forms an attenuated, south-pointing wedge sand-
wiched between three recrystallised monzogranite
plutons to the east, west and south. Although the
contacts between the regional granitoids and the
greenstone sequence are not well exposed, reverse
circulation drilling and limited mapping has revealed
that they are complex, quartz-veined, strongly foli-
ated zones in which strongly foliated to composition-
ally banded monzogranite commonly contains de-
formed xenoliths of greenstone. The regional grani-

Fig. 3. TiO 2 vs. Zr plot comparing unaltered Archaean supracrustal rocks from Mount Gibson with altered lithologies which do not have a
readily identifiable precursor. The samples of magnesian metabasalt fall within the Abitibi komatiite field of Moritz and Crockett Ž1991.,
while the other unaltered rocks fall close to the tholeiite fractionation line of MacLean Ž1990.. With the exception of one sample of
garnet-bearing schist, all the altered samples have a TiO 2rZr ratio equivalent to mafic rocks, making it unlikely that they have pelitic
protoliths. Dashed lines delineate the mafic, intermediate and felsic compositional fields of Hallberg Ž1985..
 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129
toids predate gold mineralisation, which is hosted in
relatively late, regional-scale shear zones, both lo-
cally at Mount Gibson and regionally throughout the
Murchison Province Žcf. Watkins and Hickman,
1990..
There appears to be a broad spatial relationship
between the distribution and orientation of basement
gold mineralisation at Mount Gibson and the western
margin of the post-tectonic granitoid ŽFig. 2.. How-
ever, abundant dykes of unfoliated post-tectonic
granitoid and pegmatite clearly cut foliated miner-
alised greenstone in the Deep South pit, indicating
that the intrusion of the post-tectonic granitoid post-
dated the mineralisation and deformation of the
greenstone sequence. In addition, rare pegmatite
dykes, interpreted to be related to the posttectonic
granitoid, cut the mineralisation in the Orion Two
pit. The posttectonic granitoid is not foliated and is
postdated only by the intrusion of the Proterozoic
cross-cutting mafic dykes at Mount Gibson.
2.3. Structure and deformation
The structure of the host sequence to mineralisa-
tion at Mount Gibson is dominated by the Mount
Gibson shear zone, a broad Žup to 1 km wide., north
to north-northeast striking, generally steeply east-di-
pping, anastomosing ductile shear network, which is
developed primarily within the mixed mine sequence
and contains all the known primary gold mineralisa-
tion at Mount Gibson. The schistosity associated
with this shear zone is very strongly developed in all
the pits and the majority of the diamond holes drilled
at Mount Gibson, making the recognition of earlier
deformation events extremely difficult.
A three-stage deformation history is proposed for
the Mount Gibson district. The earliest deformation
is manifested as a generally weakly developed, ap-
proximately north–south trending, regional schistos-
ity ŽS 1 . which is expressed as a weak orientation of
acicular actinolite in regionally metamorphosed
basaltic rocks which are distal to the mineralised
shears and as a mylonitic foliation on the contacts
between the greenstone sequence and the regional
granitoids.
The second recognisable deformation event at
Mount Gibson is a shearing event ŽD 2 ., coincident
109
with peak amphibolite facies metamorphism, repre-
sented by the broad, north to north-northeast striking,
generally steeply east-dipping, anastomosing shear
zone developed within the mine sequence. The spa-
tial and temporal relationships of the mineralisation
at Mount Gibson to the D 2 shear zone are further
discussed below.
The final recognisable deformation event at Mount
Gibson is a late, post-metamorphic brittle event ŽD 3 ..
This event postdates mineralisation at Mount Gibson,
and is expressed as a set of variable oriented, gener-
ally low-angle, small-scale faults, joints and barren
siderite" quartz veins.
3. Hydrothermal alteration assemblages
Most of the primary gold mineralisation at Mount
Gibson is hosted by the foliated tholeiitic metabasalts
and metadolerites which comprise the bulk of the
mine sequence. At Hornet, mineralisation is devel-
oped along the contact between magnesian
metabasalts, to the west, and the stratigraphically
overlying tholeiitic sequence. Gold mineralisation at
Mount Gibson is rarely developed in the felsic intru-
sive bodies which are ubiquitous in the mine se-
quence.
Two contrasting main styles of hydrothermal al-
teration are developed in the mafic rocks at Mount
Gibson. The first of these is represented by garnet-
bearing and cordierite–muscovite schist assem-
blages.
3.1. Garnet-bearing schists
Garnet-bearing schists, which dominantly com-
prise spessartine–almandine garnet, quartz and bi-
otite with accessory muscovite, tourmaline and gah-
nite, are associated with polymetallic ŽFe–Zn–Cu "
Pb. base-metal sulphide mineralisation at both Orion
Two, Orion One, Orion North, Donkey D, Enterprise
and Hornet. They form a stratiform horizon overly-
ing gold mineralisation at Orion Two ŽFig. 4..
There is abundant evidence of garnet growth Žand
therefore mid-amphibolite facies metamorphic condi-
tions. pre- to syn- and post- the main foliation-for-
110 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129

Fig. 4. Simplified geological cross-section of Orion Two, based on detailed logging of section 3300 mN.
 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129 111

ming deformation event in the Mount Gibson shear
zone. Although the foliation itself is poorly defined
in the garnet-bearing schists because of their coarse-
grained nature, there is a trend from attenuated,
largely xenoblastic, pre- to syntectonic garnets with
abundant quartz, biotite and sulphide Žpyrite, spha-
lerite, galena and chalcopyrite. inclusions, to slightly
finer grained, subhedral to euhedral post-tectonic
porphyroblasts, commonly lacking inclusions. In
some cases, there are clearly pre- to syn- and post-
tectonic garnets within the same thin section.
Xenoblastic cores containing abundant inclusions are
also commonly overgrown by clear euhedral rims.
Garnets from Mount Gibson are essentially al-
mandine–spessartine solid solutions with only minor
pyrope and grossular ŽTable 1.. The garnets are
considerably more manganiferous than those associ-
ated with mafic-hosted gold mineralisation in the
Coolgardie Goldfield ŽFig. 5; Knight, 1994., and are
most similar in composition to garnets occurring in
interpreted altered metafelsic schists at the Corinthia
and Hopes Hill mines in the Southern Cross green-
stone belt ŽBloem, 1994.. However, there is clear
geochemical evidence from immobile elements that
the garnet-bearing schists have mafic precursors ŽFig.
3., suggesting that a strong alteration event preceded
garnet growth Žand therefore amphibolite facies
metamorphism. at Mount Gibson.
The compositions of gahnite grains from the gar-
net-bearing schist horizon at Mount Gibson ŽTable 2.
are dissimilar to spinel compositions measured in
metabasites ŽFrost, 1991., but are consistent with the
compositions of zincian spinel associated with meta-
morphosed volcanic-hosted massive sulphide
ŽVHMS. deposits in the Appalachians and Scandina-
vian Caledonides ŽSpry and Scott, 1986; Fig. 6..
Spry and Scott Ž1986. considered that these VHMS-
related spinels form predominantly by desulphidation
reactions involving a member of the Fe–S–O system
and either sphalerite and garnet or sphalerite and an
aluminosilicate mineral. The strong association be-
tween gahnite, garnet and sphalerite in the garnet-
bearing schists supports this mode of formation for
gahnite at Mount Gibson.
Garnet-bearing schist, which forms a coherent
stratiform horizon overlying mineralisation at Orion
Two ŽFig. 4., is readily interpreted as a metamor-
phosed, base-metal rich, hydrothermally altered,
seafloor horizon: that is, the upper or distal portion
of a VHMS system. The presence of manganiferous
garnet and zincian spinel, intimately associated with
significant base-metal sulphides, in a stratiform alter-
ation zone within a tholeiitic metabasalt sequence,
provides evidence of a premetamorphic, manganese
and base-metal rich stratiform alteration event, such
as a VHMS-type seafloor alteration event.

Table 1
SEM compositional data for garnet from Mount Gibson. No. of analysess 155. Analyses carried out on a JEOL JSM 6400 scanning
electron microscope at the University of Western Australia. The SEM was operated using a link EDS X-ray analysis system, a normally
incident X-ray, a take-off angle of 408, and a counting time of 60 s. The accelerating voltage was set at 15 kV, and the beam current at
3 = 10y9 nA
Compounds Žwt%.
SiO 2 TiO 2 Al 2 O 3 Cr2 O 3 FeO a NiO MnO MgO CaO Na 2 O K 2 O Cl Total
Mean 36.79 — 20.76 — 23.62 — 14.69 1.90 2.32 — — — 100.13
Maximum 38.43 0.44 22.00 0.27 37.99 bld 25.15 3.32 5.75 0.31 0.15 bld 103.08
Minimum 35.25 bld 19.64 bld 13.50 bld 0.38 0.77 1.23 bld bld bld 96.00
Cations Žppm. Xalm Xsp X py Xgr
Si Ti Al Cr FeŽII. Ni Mn Mg Ca Na K Cl Total
Mean 2.99 0.00 1.99 0.00 1.60 0.00 1.01 0.23 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.02 0.53 0.33 0.08 0.07
Maximum 3.02 0.03 2.05 0.02 2.60 0.00 1.76 0.40 0.50 0.05 0.02 0.00 8.07 0.87 0.56 0.13 0.16
Minimum 2.93 0.00 1.89 0.00 0.89 0.00 0.03 0.09 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.97 0.30 0.01 0.03 0.03

Cations calculated for 12 oxygens.

—s not possible to calculate; bld s below limit of detection; alm s almandine; sp s spessartine; py s pyrope; gr s grossular.
a
All Fe assumed to be ferrous.
112 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129

Fig. 5. Xalm y Xsp yŽ Xgr q X py . triangular plot of garnet compo-
sitions from Mount Gibson Ž Ø .. The fields correspond to the
compositions of garnets associated with gold mineralisation in
mafic rocks from the Coolgardie Goldfield ŽC.; banded iron
formation-hosted gold mineralisation from the Mount York dis-
trict in the Pilbara Craton ŽY.; and metasedimentary rocks associ-
ated with gold mineralisation from the Hopes Hill and Corinthia
deposits in the Southern Cross greenstone belt ŽSX.. Raw data
from Knight Ž1994; Coolgardie., Neumayr Ž1993; Mount York.
and Bloem Ž1994; Southern Cross..
3.2. Cordierite–muscoÕite schists
Cordierite–muscovite schists underlie the garnet-
bearing schists at Orion Two and mostly consist of
quartz, cordierite and muscovite, commonly with
accessory biotite. This assemblage is consistent with
Fig. 6. Fe–Mg–Zn ternary plot showing the compositions of
spinels from Mount Gibson Ž Ø ., compared to the compositional
fields of spinels from metabasites Ždata from Frost, 1991. and
spinels associated with VHMS deposits Ždata from Spry and Scott,
1986..
mid-amphibolite facies metamorphism of a magne-
sium-rich aluminous precursor. However, immobile
elements indicate that the cordierite–muscovite
schists, like the garnet-bearing schists, are derived
from a mafic precursor ŽFig. 3., requiring that the
parent rock underwent significant premetamorphic
aluminous and magnesian alteration. One possible
explanation is that the rocks represent footwall alter-
ation associated with VHMS-style mineralisation Žcf.
Franklin, 1990.. The stratigraphic relationships
recorded at Orion Two cannot be distinguished at

Table 2
SEM compositional data for gahnite from Orion Two. No. of analysess 24. Operating conditions are as for Table 1
Compounds Žwt%.
SiO 2 TiO 2 Al 2 O 3 Cr2 O 3 FeO Fe 2 O 3 NiO MnO MgO CaO Nb 2 O5 ZnO V2 O 3 Total
Mean — — 55.55 — 7.62 1.44 — — 1.93 — — 33.14 — 100.35
Maximum bld bld 56.78 0.94 8.96 2.45 bld 0.80 2.60 bld bld 35.34 bld 102.10
Minimum bld bld 53.57 bld 6.00 0.74 bld bld 1.20 bld bld 30.88 bld 98.18
Cations Žppm.
Si Ti Al Cr FeŽII. FeŽIII. Ni Mn Mg Ca Nb Zn V Total
Mean 0.00 0.00 1.95 0.01 0.19 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.73 0.00 3.00
Maximum 0.00 0.00 1.98 0.02 0.22 0.05 0.00 0.02 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.79 0.00 3.01
Minimum 0.00 0.00 1.93 0.00 0.15 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.68 0.00 2.99

Cations calculated for 4 oxygens. bld s below limit of detection;

—s not possible to calculate.
 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129 113

Hornet, probably due to the increased structural com- clear, it appears that stratigraphy parallels the domi-
plexity of the latter deposit. nant foliation in the Mount Gibson shear zone. Con-
sequently, it is difficult to determine whether struc-
3.3. Quartz–biotite" sulphide alteration ture or stratigraphy provides the dominant control on
hydrothermal alteration at Mount Gibson. However,
The second main alteration style in the mafic
the spatial association between economic lode-gold
rocks at Mount Gibson is typical of that recorded
mineralisation and the garnet-bearing schists, in the
from other Western Australian Archaean lode-gold
deposits studied, suggests a fundamental strati-
deposits hosted in mafic rocks at amphibolite facies
graphic control on mineralisation, related to the pref-
conditions. It comprises a syndeformational, synpeak
erential development of shear zones in a previously
metamorphic, foliation-parallel, shear-hosted,
altered stratigraphic horizon or horizons. This control
quartz–biotite" sulphide alteration envelope, which,
is reflected by the distribution of bedrock-hosted
at Hornet and a number of the minor deposits at
economic mineralisation at Mount Gibson, which
Mount Gibson, has been overprinted by retrograde
dominantly occurs on an approximate line of strike
chloritic alteration. This style of alteration is inti-
between Orion Two and Hornet ŽFig. 2.. The excep-
mately associated with a pyrrhotite–pyrite "
tions are Orion North, which is similar to the other
chalcopyrite sulphide assemblage and associated gold
deposits and is interpreted to represent either a strati-
mineralisation, and is consistent with silica-potas-
graphic or structural repetition of the precursor to the
sium metasomatism of the mafic precursor.
garnet-bearing schists, and Deep South, which is not
Importantly, quartz–biotite" sulphide alteration is
associated with garnet-bearing schists, is felsic-
developed both in conjunction with, and well away
hosted, and is considered to have a different genesis
from, garnet-bearing and cordierite–muscovite
to the other deposits studied at Mount Gibson.
schists. In particular, narrow zones of strong
quartz–biotite–sulphide alteration are commonly de-
veloped immediately adjacent to contacts with intru-
sive quartz–feldspar porphyries within mafic rocks 4. Mineralisation
of the mine sequence. These zones commonly dis-
play strongly elevated gold values Žup to 5 grt Au..
There are two dominant sulphide assemblages,
However, they are generally less than 1 m in width
corresponding to the two main styles of alteration, at
and none have been mined to date. Nevertheless, the
Mount Gibson.
presence of quartz–biotite " sulphide alteration
Semi-massive to massive, polymetallic spha-
which is distinct from garnet-bearing and
lerite–galena–pyrite–pyrrhotite–chalcopyrite miner-
cordierite–muscovite schists precludes a direct ge-
alisation is hosted almost exclusively within garnet-
netic link between the two styles of alteration and
bearing schists. The relative abundance of galena
suggests that rheological contrast plays a dominant
within this assemblage is quite variable: Orion Two
role in the localisation of the biotitic alteration.
contains abundant galena, whereas only minor con-
Felsic intrusive bodies from within the mine se-
centrations are present at Hornet. The sulphides show
quence at Mount Gibson may also display potassic
evidence of deformation and metamorphic recrys-
metasomatism, which is represented by strong sericite
tallisation, and commonly occur as inclusions within
alteration, particularly along their margins. However,
garnet porphyroblasts, indicating a pre-deformational
mineralisation hosted in felsic rocks is rare, the
and pre-peak metamorphic timing. At Orion Two,
exception being Deep South, where supergene gold
base-metal sulphide mineralisation forms a stratiform
mineralisation is hosted in sericite–quartz schists.
horizon, which overlies the gold orebody.
3.4. Relationship between stratigraphy, structure and Pyrrhotite–pyrite " chalcopyrite mineralisation is
alteration much more widespread than the base-metal assem-
blage, and is intimately associated with quartz–bio-
Stratigraphic markers are rare within the mine tite alteration and gold mineralisation at Mount Gib-
sequence at Mount Gibson. Where relationships are son. This assemblage is shear-hosted and also shows
114 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129
evidence of deformation and recrystallisation. How-
ever, boudinaged and crenulated quartz-sulphide
veinlets associated with this event cut xenoblastic
and porphyroblastic garnets in some sections, indi-
cating a syn-peak metamorphic and syn-deforma-
tional timing for pyrrhotite–pyrite " chalcopyrite,
and therefore gold, mineralisation. Post-deforma-
tional, retrograde, spongy to colloform secondary
pyrite is locally developed after pyrrhotite, most
strongly in samples which exhibit chloritisation of
biotite.
Free gold is rare at Mount Gibson. However,
there is a strong empirical relationship between
pyrrhotite–pyrite " chalcopyrite mineralisation and
gold grades in diamond drillcore. Consequently, gold
mineralisation is interpreted to be synchronous with
D 2 deformation and metamorphism along with
quartz–biotite alteration. Gold Žoccurring as elec-
trum. has been recorded by Rugless Ž1990. as rare
inclusions in chalcopyrite and as fine Ž20 m m. grains
interstitial to polygonal recrystallised quartz at Orion
Two. Electrum has also been noted at Hornet ŽYeats,
1996., where it occurs in a late cross-cutting fracture
in a quartz-sulphide vein. However, this is inter-
preted as retrograde remobilisation of submicro-
scopic gold from a pyrrhotite–pyrite–chalcopyrite
aggregate.
5. Geochemical changes associated with alteration
and mineralisation
The gains and losses of specific elements from
altered and mineralised rocks at Orion Two have
been calculated using the method described by Gre-
sens Ž1967.. This method compares the major- and
trace-element concentrations of altered samples with
their least-altered precursor rock types. By using the
densities of the individual samples, and assumptions
of which elements remain immobile during alter-
ation, volume gains and losses and the gains and
losses of individual elements or element oxides may
be quantitatively determined.
Depending on their precursor lithologies, gains
and losses on samples from Orion Two are deter-
mined relative to an average least-altered tholeiite or
andesite, assuming both TiO 2 and Zr to be immobile
Žrefer to Fig. 7.. The average least-altered tholeiitic
precursor is estimated by averaging the analyses for
those samples which hand specimen and thin section
work indicated are essentially unaltered and un-
weathered Žsee Table 3.. The andesitic precursor is
assumed to be the quartz-eye mafic schist Ža strati-
graphic marker within the mine sequence at Orion
Two., despite the fact that this sample shows evi-
dence of biotitic alteration, as it is clearly the least
altered sample with an intermediate TiO 2rZr ratio.
The only sample of strongly altered quartz–sericite
schist analysed from Orion Two has a TiO 2rZr ratio
outside the range of its probable precursors, indicat-
ing that Zr is not truly immobile under alteration for
felsic lithologies. This hypothesis is supported by the
identification of metasomatic zircons from a sample
of quartz–sericite schist from the Hornet deposit
ŽYeats et al., 1996.. Consequently, mass balance
calculations were not carried out on felsic rocks from
Orion Two.
Element enrichments and depletions for altered
rocks from Orion Two are illustrated in Fig. 8. In
addition, log–log plots of selected element enrich-
ment factors are shown, by rock type, for individual
samples on Fig. 9. Most of the samples show only
moderate mass changes associated with alteration
Ži.e. mean volume factor ŽFV. f 1., although a sam-
ple of biotite–quartz–sulphide mineralisation ŽOR57.
shows a significant mass gain ŽFV f 2.4.. From
Figs. 8 and 9, it is apparent that a number of major-
and trace-elements have been significantly enriched
or depleted during alteration and mineralisation at
Orion Two.
Elements which exhibit significant enrichment
Žaverage enrichment factor ) 2. are, in the same
order as Table 3: Mn Žave.s 4.24., K Ž11.9., S
Ž20.9., Cu Ž13.7., Zn Ž36.6., Rb Ž12.9., Ag Ž11.3.,
Sb Ž11.0., Ba Ž8.49., W Ž7.45., Au Ž55.8., Pb Ž137.
and Bi Ž53.3.. Those which show significant deple-
tion Žaverage enrichment factor - 0.5. are: Na
Žave.s 0.24. and Sr Ž0.24.. Calcium is also generally
depleted Žave.s 0.66.. Silica enrichment and deple-
tion, which is generallyf 1, shows a near perfect 1:1
log–linear relationship with mean FV ŽFig. 9A..
The mass-balance geochemistry of the garnet-
bearing schist exhibits a number of anomalous char-
acteristics when compared to the other samples from
Orion Two. Samples of garnet-bearing schist are
 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129 115

Fig. 7. Isocon mass balance diagrams ŽGrant, 1986. of major and selected trace elements ŽY, Zr, Au. comparing altered and unaltered
tholeiites from Orion Two Ždata from Table 3.. The immobile elements define a line with a slope of 0.89. TiO 2 and Zr are clearly immobile.
The error bars represent 1 standard deviation. Concentrations are in weight % for the oxides and parts per million for the trace elements.

significantly more strongly enriched in Mn, Pb, Zn, bearing schist samples generally show moderate de-
As, Ag and Sb than the other alteration styles sam- pletion of Al, which generally behaves as an immo-
pled from the deposit ŽFig. 9.. In addition, garnet- bile manner in the other styles of alteration.
 116
Table 3
Raw geochemical data for samples from Orion Two. TiO 2 rZr and measured densities are also shown, as are data for the Average Unaltered Tholeiite used for mass balance
calculations. Trace elements are listed in order of increasing atomic weight

C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129

Compounds Žwt%. TiO 2 rZr Density
Žg cmy3 .
SiO 2 TiO 2 Al 2 O 3 Fe 2 O 3 MnO MgO CaO Na 2 O K 2O P2 O5 LOI Total
Tholeiites
AVE 50.9 1.16 15.46 10.69 0.21 6.36 11.20 2.43 0.26 0.125 0.96 99.73 96.7 3.042 average unaltered tholeiite
OR18 53.6 1.26 11.15 15.75 0.80 5.75 3.28 0.43 3.44 0.133 3.80 99.39 96.9 2.982 garnet-bearing schist
OR23 50.7 1.11 13.13 22.97 0.17 2.37 0.25 0.29 1.94 0.114 6.16 99.20 111.0 2.888 cordierite–muscovite schist
OR24 47.7 1.33 15.59 13.44 0.21 6.87 5.45 0.31 2.98 0.125 5.16 99.17 110.8 2.918 biotite altered tholeiite
OR30 48.3 1.12 14.41 19.69 0.31 5.19 3.50 0.48 1.81 0.119 5.17 100.10 93.3 2.865 biotite altered tholeiite
OR34 63.0 1.31 16.89 5.84 0.09 1.66 1.62 0.96 5.86 0.134 2.96 100.32 93.6 2.749 amphibolite
OR35 48.0 1.16 15.87 13.38 0.50 4.67 10.87 0.74 2.68 0.129 2.12 100.12 89.2 3.122 biotite altered tholeiite
OR39 a 50.9 1.18 15.11 10.94 0.21 6.62 11.04 2.57 0.18 0.130 0.96 99.84 90.8 3.004 tholeiitic metabasalt
OR40 a 52.7 1.15 15.68 9.14 0.19 6.64 9.97 2.75 0.37 0.124 1.00 99.71 95.8 2.935 tholeiitic metadolerite
OR42 51.1 1.05 13.41 11.59 0.52 8.20 7.04 0.35 2.80 0.108 3.11 99.28 95.5 3.073 amphibolite
OR45 49.8 0.95 15.63 10.77 0.37 8.70 6.27 0.30 3.82 0.098 3.20 99.91 100.0 3.088 biotite altered tholeiite
OR53 48.2 1.26 11.61 16.34 1.17 4.47 3.27 1.14 2.11 0.127 5.39 95.09 105.0 3.052 garnet-bearing schist
OR56 51.3 1.08 15.39 14.87 0.72 4.40 2.19 0.45 5.30 0.112 3.17 98.98 98.2 2.809 garnet-bearing schist
OR57 58.2 0.55 6.61 23.18 0.11 2.33 0.87 0.51 1.54 0.060 4.92 98.88 110.0 2.857 biotite–quartz–sulphide rock
OR64 50.3 1.22 14.61 10.59 0.20 5.98 11.31 0.61 3.50 0.124 1.74 100.18 101.7 3.070 striped amphibolite
OR65a 49.0 1.16 15.60 11.98 0.24 5.81 12.60 1.98 0.22 0.121 0.91 99.62 105.5 3.187 tholeiitic metabasalt

Andesites
OR44 44.4 0.45 6.82 13.73 2.69 11.37 10.99 0.48 0.14 0.066 3.90 95.04 40.9 3.439 garnet-bearing schist
OR59 b 54.9 0.63 14.08 10.14 0.13 7.32 4.60 3.09 3.04 0.390 1.70 100.02 39.4 2.884 quartz eye mafic schist

Felsic rocks
OR12 71.1 0.25 14.72 2.92 0.07 1.55 2.96 2.19 2.94 0.079 1.09 99.87 15.6 2.709 quartz porphyry
OR17 76.5 0.07 0.90 12.99 0.22 0.50 0.14 0.08 0.25 0.014 5.92 97.58 15.6 3.956 quartz-sulphide mineralisation
OR26 64.6 0.43 14.38 8.23 0.06 2.18 0.82 0.47 3.78 0.121 3.91 98.98 22.6 2.730 quartz–feldspar porphyry
OR31c 76.0 0.03 12.39 2.22 0.09 1.68 2.39 0.63 3.16 0.027 1.68 100.30 5.5 2.704 quartz–sericite schist
OR47 67.9 0.42 14.95 4.18 0.10 1.95 4.72 0.60 3.36 0.128 1.33 99.64 21.0 2.730 quartz–feldspar porphyry
OR63 67.4 0.30 13.44 4.22 0.13 2.52 4.52 0.70 4.64 0.091 1.07 99.03 17.6 2.709 quartz–feldspar porphyry
 Cations Žppm.
S Sc Cr Co Ni Cu Zn As Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Ag Sn Sb Ba W Au Pb Bi
Tholeiites
AVE 1900 30 260 43 115 92 91 3 11 141 32 120 2 3 9 -3 75 5 0.050 11 -1
OR18 37000 34 220 19 85 2360 600 16 210 37 35 130 8 22 11 50 220 35 1.870 505 2
OR23 88500 29 190 60 192 2270 52 6 50 1 25 100 -3 15 -3 -3 2300 30 0.885 15 6
OR24 19000 35 250 25 86 462 65 2 100 35 30 120 -3 7 6 -3 1100 25 0.395 27 2
OR30 7800 30 300 29 113 102 170 8 110 46 25 120 -3 4 7 -3 220 30 0.075 3 -1
OR34 17500 33 300 31 101 132 123 4 180 21 30 140 6 3 8 3 530 60 0.157 94 -1
OR35 10000 30 280 30 91 146 181 6 200 72 35 130 6 4 11 -3 480 14 0.571 58 3
OR39 a 1700 31 260 42 113 136 91 4 6 137 30 130 -3 4 10 -3 50 6 0.015 3 -1

C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129

OR40 a 1100 30 310 41 120 55 82 4 16 144 30 120 4 3 11 -3 80 7 0.021 10 -1
OR42 18500 28 250 36 101 218 298 4 150 63 30 110 -3 6 6 4 400 25 0.200 58 -1
OR45 4300 29 430 32 103 92 386 3 180 45 20 95 -3 8 13 4 640 25 1.420 408 5
OR53 52500 33 120 29 75 864 32767 4 80 17 25 120 -3 74 4 50 260 27 2.370 6090 9
OR56 33000 30 300 26 77 916 1530 7 210 33 30 110 -3 20 11 4 760 35 0.944 792 4
OR57 87500 16 370 71 235 3050 316 1 60 9 12 50 -3 13 5 -3 320 75 9.800 58 14
OR64 6200 28 210 24 86 182 255 2 160 68 35 120 -3 4 6 -3 300 8 2.250 54 3
OR65a 3000 30 210 46 112 84 101 2 10 143 35 110 -3 3 6 -3 95 -5 0.125 20 -1

Andesites
OR44 37000 14 170 16 50 1630 8660 8 30 29 19 110 -3 184 18 65 50 11 4.040 22300 195
OR59 b 5600 19 280 34 175 132 152 2 140 691 30 160 -3 3 7 -3 1800 5 0.100 31 -1

Felsic Rocks
OR12 5100 3 11 6 -10 7 65 6 130 63 12 160 5 3 7 -3 450 9 0.049 14 -1
OR17 92500 2 45 84 61 2060 839 640 25 2 9 45 -3 253 2 530 19 -5 24.600 9800 19
OR26 24000 7 35 14 62 661 135 2 120 1 13 190 -3 6 5 -3 1250 19 0.150 70 2
OR31c 4600 2 5 -5 -10 62 98 5 180 18 30 55 6 4 10 -3 280 6 0.085 131 2
OR47 2500 6 35 10 18 91 94 4 120 58 13 200 3 3 7 -3 560 10 0.180 142 2
OR63 4600 6 19 8 12 75 140 3 210 38 13 170 3 2 7 -3 540 7 0.067 123 -1

a
Used to calculate the average unaltered tholeiite.
b
Used as least altered andesitic precursor.
c
Strongly altered felsic rock with anomalously low TiO 2 rZr.

117
118 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129

Fig. 8. Element enrichments and depletions for altered and mineralised rocks from Orion Two. The box covers 25th–75th percentile, the
central line is the median, and the bar includes 10th–90th percentile. An enrichment factor of one corresponds to no change relative to
unaltered precursor. Dashed lines correspond to enrichment and depletion factors of 2. Elements ordered as in Table 3.

Cordierite–muscovite schist is not strongly en-
riched in base metals, although it exhibits strong Ba
and Au–Cu enrichment, when compared to other
styles of alteration.
A number of studies have considered elemental
enrichment associated with Archaean lode-gold de-
posits. Kerrich Ž1983. showed that Au, Ag, As, Sb
and W are enriched by between one and four orders
of magnitude with respect to unaltered host rocks in
Canadian Archaean gold deposits, while Cu, Pb and
Zn show only minor enrichments and depletions.
Nurmi et al. Ž1991. reported similar results for
Finnish lode-gold deposits, which show no enrich-
ment of base metals, but similar levels of enrichment
to those reported by Kerrich Ž1983. for a slightly
different Au-related element suite: Au–Ag–As–Bi–
Te–W. Perring et al. Ž1991. carried out a similar
study on Western Australian Archaean lode-gold de-
posits, concluding that Au, Ag, As, S, Sb, Te, W, Bi,
K, Rb and Ba are consistently enriched by one to
two orders of magnitude Žwith the exception of Au,
which shows a median enrichment factor of 2346..
In addition, Cu and Pb are generally enriched by a
factor of less than 10. Zinc is neither enriched nor
depleted to any significant degree.
The elemental enrichments and depletion patterns
at Orion Two, while in most ways similar to those
noted by the other Archaean lode-gold researchers,

Fig. 9. Log–log plots of element enrichment factors for different lithologies from Orion Two. Note the approximately 1:1 relationship
between the FV and Si enrichmentrdepletion ŽA. for almost all the samples analysed.
C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129 119
120 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129
show a number of important differences. Both Mn
and Zn, which show little variation for most lode-gold
deposits, exhibit significant enrichment in the
garnet-bearing schists, as does Pb, which is much
more strongly enriched at Orion Two ŽFig. 9. than
expected for a lode-gold deposit Žsee above.. Hot
Ž200–4008C. hydrothermal fluids at mid-ocean ridges
deplete Mn in basalts ŽWolery and Sleep, 1976;
Mottl, 1983., and Mn enrichment is common on the
periphery of VHMS deposits ŽFranklin, 1990.. It is
therefore reasonable to assume that any fluid associ-
ated with VHMS-style mineralisation Žas suggested
by the strong stratiform Pb and Zn enrichment within
the garnet-bearing schists at Orion Two. would de-
plete Mn in the underlying mafic rocks and deposit it
along with the base-metal sulphides, resulting in a
Mn-enriched horizon, as recorded at Orion Two.
All samples used in the mass balance calculations
for Orion Two were collected from diamond drill-
holes on a single section, with the majority taken
from one hole ŽORD141.. Consequently, an opportu-
nity is presented to consider variations in elemental
enrichment and depletion across the Orion Two ore-
body. The fifteen samples which are interpreted to
have a tholeiitic precursor have been used for this
analysis. Twelve of these are taken from ORD141.
However, because of the relatively simple stratiform
nature of the mineralisation and alteration at Orion
Two, it is considered reasonable to extrapolate the
other three samples approximately 20 m down dip to
give an equivalent depth on ORD141.
Elements which show significant enrichment or
depletion on a deposit scale are plotted against down
hole depth on Fig. 10, with elements which show
similar enrichment and depletion patterns grouped
together.
Potassium, Rb, Ba and W consistently show en-
richment by an order of magnitude within the main
biotite alteration envelope at Orion Two, although a
gradual decrease in enrichment occurs as alteration
intensity drops with depth. These elements are simi-
larly enriched in minor narrow biotite shear zones
which occur in mafic rocks within a dominantly
felsic zone in the hangingwall of the deposit ŽFig.
10A.. The behaviour of these elements is similar to
that in other Western Australian Archaean lode-gold
deposits Žcf. Perring et al., 1991..
Sodium, Ca and Sr generally exhibit moderate
depletion in association with biotite alteration ŽFig.
10B.. This is also typical behaviour for these ele-
ments in lode-gold systems. However, both Ca and
Sr show strong depletion Žapproximately two orders
of magnitude. in the cordierite–muscovite schist.
Iron and Si mostly show only minor enrichment
and depletion, and closely mirror the mean volume
factor ŽFig. 10C..
Zinc, Mn, Ag, Sb and Pb ŽFig. 10D. are most
strongly enriched in samples of garnet-bearing schist
and, with the notable exception of Pb, are not en-
riched away from the main ore zone at Orion Two.
Although Zn, Ag, Sb and Pb exhibit moderate en-
richments within the main biotite alteration envelope,
these are up to two orders of magnitude lower than
those for garnet-bearing schist. This distribution is
atypical of Archaean lode-gold deposits, and is inter-
preted to reflect a synvolcanic, base-metal rich,
seafloor VHMS-style mineralising event at Orion
Two.
Gold, Bi and S are enriched in both the main
biotite alteration envelope and, to a lesser extent, the
minor biotite shear zones ŽFig. 10E.. Copper closely
mirrors the behaviour of these three elements, with
the exception that it is not enriched away from the
main alteration envelope. Interestingly, the peak en-
richment factors for all four elements occur immedi-
ately below the garnet-bearing schist Žand therefore
directly below the Zn–Mn–Ag–Sb–Pb peak., and
show a more gradual decrease into the footwall
alteration. This distribution is again interpreted to
reflect VHMS-style mineralisation at Orion Two,
exhibiting a classical zonation from Au–Cu into a
Pb–Zn–Ag rich assemblage Žcf. Large et al., 1988;
Franklin, 1990..
In summary, therefore, while many of the geo-
chemical changes associated with alteration and min-
eralisation at Orion Two Že.g., K, Rb, Ba and W
enrichment; Na, Ca and Sr depletion. appear to be
similar to those of other lode-gold deposits, the
strong base-metal enrichment within the garnet-
bearing schist, and the zonation from a zone of
Au–Cu enrichment into an overlying, stratiform Pb–
Zn–Ag rich assemblage, are more typical of
VHMS-style mineralisation. The overall element en-
richments and depletions at the Hornet deposit are
similar to those present at Orion Two, and are conse-
quently not discussed here.
 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129
Fig. 10. Distribution of element enrichments and depletions for mafic rocks from Orion Two. Depths shown are for drillhole ORD141 ŽSection 3300 mN.. Individual plots group
elements which show similar behaviour within the alteration system. A simplified graphical drill log of ORD141 is shown for comparison Žrefer to Fig. 4 for the legend..

121
122 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129
6. Lead isotopic constraints on timing of minerali-
sation
From the alteration and ore mineral assemblages
and geochemistry discussed above, two main stages
of sulphide mineralisation have been identified at
Mount Gibson: an early, polymetallic, base-metal
sulphide rich assemblage, interpreted to represent the
product of a synvolcanic VHMS-style event, and a
synmetamorphic pyrrhotite–pyrite " chalcopyrite as-
semblage, associated with gold mineralisation.
A Pb isotopic study of sulphides Žmostly galena.
from the Orion Two and Hornet deposits was under-
taken to provide independent confirmation of the two
stage model proposed for mineralisation at Mount
Gibson. This is possible because zircon U–Pb
geochronology of the hosting Luke Creek Group
ŽPidgeon and Wilde, 1990. and Pb model ages ŽMc-
Naughton et al., 1990. for undoubted VHMS de-
posits within it indicate an age of ca. 3000 Ma,
whereas most workers date lode-gold mineralisation
at ca. 2630 Ma Že.g. Clark et al., 1989; Barnicoat et
al., 1991; McNaughton et al., 1992; Wang et al.,
1993; Kent, 1994; Kent and McDougall, 1995.
throughout the Yilgarn Craton. Lead isotopic deter-
minations were carried on a VG 354 solid-source
mass spectrometer at Curtin University of Technol-
ogy, Perth, with Pb analyses referenced to NBS-981
ŽMcNaughton et al., 1988.. The theory of Pb isotope
systematics has been reviewed in detail by Doe and
Stacey Ž1974., Cumming and Richards Ž1975., Stacey
and Kramers Ž1975., Faure Ž1986. and McNaughton
Ž1987., and is not reiterated here.
Lead isotope analyses were carried out on 13
galena and four pyrite samples from the Orion Two
and Hornet deposits. In addition, two further analy-
ses on galena, which were carried out by the Geolog-
ical Survey of Western Australia ŽP.E. Playford,
written communication to A.F. Ross, 11 April 1990.,
were made available by Reynolds Australian Gold
Pty. This sample was also reanalysed as part of this
study.
Sulphide lead isotopic data for samples from
Mount Gibson are presented in Table 4. Model ages
are 207 Pbr206 Pb ages, based on model III of Cum-
ming and Richards Ž1975.. Analytical error on the Pb
ratios is typically "0.02 Ž95% confidence limits.,
which translates into an uncertainty of approximately
"30 m.y. in the model age.
On the 207 Pbr204 Pb versus 206 Pbr204 Pb diagram
ŽFig. 11., the sulphide data from Mount Gibson, for
the most part fall into two discrete groups, providing
evidence of two stages of mineralisation. Galena and
pyrite from the Hornet deposit have primitive iso-
topic ratios, comparable to the ratios of known syn-
volcanic Murchison deposits, such as Scuddles and
Golden Grove ŽMcNaughton et al., 1990., giving a
model age, from the most primitive galena, of 3046
" 30 Ma Žanalytical error.. Galena from Orion Two,
on the other hand, gives a model age of 2772 " 30
Ma, and has similar Pb-isotopic ratios to those for
other Archaean lode-gold deposits of the Murchison
Province ŽMcNaughton et al., 1990.. Values for pyrite
from Orion Two fall between the two galena popula-
tions, suggesting incorporation of Pb from the early
sulphide mineralisation into the ore fluid prior to
pyrite formation.
In more detail, all five galenas from the Hornet
deposit ŽTable 4. give 207 Pbr206 Pb model ages within
error of the most primitive value of 3046 Ma, whereas
the single pyrite analysis gives a slightly younger
model age of 3005 Ma. This difference is interpreted
to reflect radioactive decay of trace amounts of
uranium within the pyrite, resulting in some modifi-
cation of the initial Pb isotopic ratio. The massive
pyrite sample from Hornet is consequently consid-
ered to be contemporaneous with the galena samples
and to be synvolcanic in origin.
The Pb isotopic results obtained from the Orion
Two deposit are slightly more complex than those
from Hornet. The majority of galena analyses lie
within error of the 207 Pbr206 Pb model age of the
most primitive galena Ž2772 " 30 Ma.. However,
two samples of galena inclusions extracted by acid
digestion from within garnet porphyroblasts ŽTable
4. are more evolved and give younger 207 Pbr206 Pb
model ages of 2709 " 30 Ma and 2535 " 30 Ma.
These samples were extracted in the hope that they
may preserve more primitive Pb isotopic ratios than
other galena samples from Orion Two. In fact, the
reverse is true, suggesting that these samples have
modified isotopic ratios, probably due to decay of
trace uranium in the surrounding garnet. The Pb
isotopic results from Orion Two galenas are consis-
tent with a second mineralising event at Mount
Table 4
Sulphide Pb-isotopic data for Mount Gibson

C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129

206
Deposit Mineral Description Pbr204 Pb 207
Pbr204 Pb 208
Pbr204 Pb Model
age ŽMa.
Hornet galena strongly sheared, mafic hosted semimassive sph-py-gn with qtz boudins Ženterprise. 12.950 14.444 32.745 3046
Hornet galena strongly sheared, mafic hosted semimassive banded sph-py-Žgn.. GSWA galena A 12.970 14.451 32.755 3034
X
Hornet galena strongly sheared, mafic hosted semimassive banded sph-py-Žgn.. UWA galena A 12.969 14.447 32.765 3032
Hornet galena strongly sheared, mafic hosted semimassive banded sph-py-Žgn.. GSWA galena B 12.965 14.443 32.735 3032
X
Hornet galena strongly sheared, mafic hosted semimassive banded sph-py-Žgn.. UWA galena B 12.973 14.450 32.771 3031
Hornet pyrite very coarse grained massive py. 13.027 14.477 32.836 3005
Orion Two galena semimassive sph-gn-Žpy. with minor associated gt wraps around qtz boudins 13.677 14.848 33.588 2772
Orion Two galena coarse euhedral py, rimmed by po, rimmed by late gn, hosted in strongly silicified mafic schist 13.622 14.814 33.506 2772
Orion Two galena sheared massive sph-gn-gt band hosted in mineralised, silicified, bt altered mafic schist 13.630 14.820 33.524 2770
Orion Two galena sheared semimassive sph-gn associated with gt hosted in a massive mafic rock 13.651 14.839 33.537 2768
Orion Two galena silicified mafic schist with blebby py-sph and minor Žlate?. gn 13.648 14.835 33.534 2767
Orion Two galena semimassive sheared sph-gn, associated with qtz in a gt-bearing mafic schist 13.654 14.833 33.548 2761
Orion Two galena Bt altered, gt-bearing schist. Sph-gn associated with qtz-rich bands 13.657 14.832 33.538 2758
Orion Two galena semimassive sph-gn-Žpy. with minor associated gt wraps around qtz boudins 13.676 14.870 33.650 2755
Orion Two galena Gt-bearing schist. Gn extracted from within gt porphyroblasts 13.759 14.871 33.690 2709
Orion Two galena Gt-bearing schist. Gn extracted from within gt porphyroblasts 14.039 14.921 33.965 2535
Orion Two pyrite massive coarse eursubhedral py-Žcpy. in white qtz 13.315 14.633 33.175 2882
Orion Two pyrite colloform secondary Žpartially oxidised. py in a strongly siliceous matrix 13.437 14.638 33.026 2786
Orion Two pyrite coarse euhedral py, rimmed by po, rimmed by late gn, hosted in strongly silicified mafic schist 13.658 14.822 33.541 2750

bt s biotite; cpy s chalcopyrite; gn s galena; gt s garnet; po s pyrrhotite; py s pyrite; qtz s quartz; sph ssphalerite.

123
124 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129

Fig. 11. Lead isotope data for sulphides from Mount Gibson compared to other synvolcanic and lode-gold deposits from the Murchison and
Southern Cross provinces Žadditional data from McNaughton et al., 1990.. Typical analytical error of 0.02 Ž95% confidence limits. is
approximately equal to the size of the symbols used in the plot.

Gibson, using the same evolved lead source, about
300 m.y. after the initial synvolcanic event recorded
at Hornet. Alternatively, it is possible that the two
deposits formed coevally with different lead sources.
Given the fact that Orion Two and Hornet are lo-
cated only 4 km apart, in the same greenstone pack-
age and in the same host-structure, this possibility is
considered to be remote.
The three samples of Orion Two pyrite have quite
different Pb isotopic ratios, with 207 Pbr206 Pb model
ages of 2882 " 30 Ma, 2786 " 30 Ma and 2750 " 30
Ma. The last of these analyses lies within the Orion
Two galena field on the 207 Pbr204 Pb versus
206
Pbr204 Pb diagram ŽFig. 11. and may reasonably
be assumed to reflect the same mineralising event.
The other two analyses lie approximately midway
along a line between the Hornet and Orion Two
galena populations. These analyses are interpreted to
record incorporation of Pb from the early mineralis-
ing event into fluids associated with the second
event.
Given the overall similarity, both petrographically
and geochemically, between the Hornet and Orion
Two deposits, the difference in their Pb isotopic
results is surprising. With regards to gross morphol-
ogy and metal distribution Žin particular the appar-
ently stratiform nature of mineralisation and the metal
zonation., Orion Two appears to reflect an initial,
synvolcanic mineralising event much more strongly
than Hornet. However, despite considerable effort to
identify primitive galena at Orion Two, the Pb iso-
tope data indicate that the reverse is true. Interest-
ingly, base-metal sulphide mineralisation at Orion
Two is much more Pb-rich than that at Hornet.
 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129
Typically, Archaean VHMS mineralisation is Pb-poor
ŽFranklin et al., 1981.. The possibility is therefore
raised that the anomalously high Pb content of base-
metal sulphide mineralisation at Orion Two is the
result of introduction of lead during the second,
lode-gold style, mineralising event at Mount Gibson.
Perring et al. Ž1991. reported enrichment of Pb by up
to a factor of ten in some Western Australian Ar-
chaean lode-gold deposits. Lead enrichment of this
order of magnitude would explain both the anoma-
lously high Pb content and the evolved Pb-isotopic
ratios of base-metal sulphide mineralisation at Orion
Two.
In summary, sulphide Pb isotopic studies at Mount
Gibson provide further evidence for two discrete
mineralising events. Galena from Hornet has primi-
tive Pb isotopic ratios, similar to those of known
synvolcanic mineralisation at Scuddles and Golden
Grove. A second event, some 300 m.y. later, is
recorded by galena from Orion Two. These samples
have similar Pb isotopic ratios to galena from other
Archaean lode-gold deposits in the Murchison
Province.
7. A conceptual genetic model for the Mount
Gibson gold deposits
A two-stage genetic model best explains the fea-
tures of the Mount Gibson gold deposits.
An initial, weak, polymetallic VHMS-style event
deposited minor subeconomic, semimassive to mas-
sive, base-metal and pyritic sulphide mineralisation
within a dominantly tholeiitic submarine volcanic
sequence. Footwall alteration associated with this
event produced zones of aluminous alteration in the
basaltic host rocks. It is possible that synvolcanic
mineralisation and alteration occurred on more than
one horizon within the mine sequence at Mount
Gibson.
During the next 300 m.y., an east–west compres-
sional event affected the host sequence to mineralisa-
tion at Mount Gibson, producing a weakly devel-
oped, north–south-trending, regional schistosity,
most likely associated with upright, north–south-
trending folds ŽD1 .. It is possible that, during this
event, the synvolcanically mineralised and altered
125
horizonŽs. within the mine sequence were deformed
and repeated by folding.
A major tectonothermal event, approximately 300
m.y. after volcanism, resulted in the formation of a
major anastomosing ductile shear network within the
mine sequence at Mount Gibson. The Mount Gibson
shear zone, which was approximately synchronous
with peak amphibolite facies metamorphism, now
has a north to north-northeast strike, with a generally
steep east to vertical dip. Amphibolite facies meta-
morphism of the aluminous alteration and weak min-
eralisation, associated with the early synvolcanic
event, resulted in the formation of quartz–
c o rd ie rite – m u sc o v ite a n d q u a rtz – g a rn e t
Žalman-dine – spessartine. – gahnite – sphalerite – py-
rite–galena–chalcopyrite assemblages, respectively,
which were less competent than the surrounding,
mostly tholeiitic, metabasalts and consequently
tended to localise shearing. Shear-hosted lode-gold
mineralisation was synchronous with peak metamor-
phism and shearing. Submicroscopic gold related to
this event occurs with pyrrhotite–pyrite–chalcopyrite
mineralisation, which is associated with rare quartz
veining and shear-hosted quartz–biotite alteration of
the mafic host rocks. Like the shearing, hydrother-
mal activity was mostly concentrated in, and around,
the less competent rocks which were produced by
metamorphism of synvolcanically altered precursors,
resulting in a fundamental stratigraphic control on
gold mineralisation at Mount Gibson.
Subsequent to gold mineralisation, minor retro-
grade metasomatism resulted mainly in locally de-
veloped chlorite replacement of biotite, replacement
of primary pyrrhotite by secondary pyrite and rare
remobilisation of gold into late fractures.
8. Discussion and conclusions
The features of the majority of documented late-
Archaean lode-gold deposits are readily explained by
the crustal continuum model ŽGroves et al., 1992,
1995; Groves, 1993.. The two-stage genetic model
proposed for the Mount Gibson gold deposits, in-
volving VHMS-style mineralisation overprinted by a
lode-gold event, marks the first time that such a
model has been suggested for a Western Australian
126 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129
Archaean gold deposit, although a similar model has
been applied to the Bousquet deposits in the late
Archaean Superior Province of Canada ŽTourigny et
al., 1989, 1993; Marquis et al., 1990a,b,c.. Similarly,
pre-peak metamorphic aluminous alteration, possibly
associated with synvolcanic hydrothermal activity,
has been recorded at the Canadian Calumnet ŽWil-
liams, 1990. and Red Lake ŽMathieson and Hodg-
son, 1984. lode-gold deposits, although a synmeta-
morphic origin for the alteration at Red Lake has
been postulated by Andrews et al. Ž1986.. The con-
troversial Big Bell deposit in Western Australia may
also be a case where late gold mineralisation Žcf.
Wilkins, 1993. has overprinted an earlier alteration
zone Žcf. Chown et al., 1984; Phillips, 1985; Phillips
and de Nooy, 1988..
Archaean lode-gold style mineralisation is demon-
strably epigenetic and structurally controlled at meta-
morphic grades ranging from sub–greenschist to
granulite facies ŽGroves et al., 1995.. At mid-
amphibolite facies conditions, such as those present
during gold mineralisation at Mount Gibson, gold
deposits are commonly hosted in broad, ductile
shear-zones, generally sited along lithological con-
tacts Žcf. Bloem et al., 1994., where competency
contrasts localise shearing. At Mount Gibson, gold
mineralisation is hosted within a monotonous, domi-
nantly tholeiitic, metabasalt sequence where compe-
tency contrast is provided primarily by the less-com-
petent aluminous alteration zones which are related
to the synvolcanic event. It is worth noting, however,
that narrow mineralised zones may also be present
along the contacts between the tholeiitic metabasalts
and the felsic bodies which intrude the mine se-
quence at Mount Gibson: a more normal scenario for
Archaean lode-gold deposits of the Yilgarn Craton.
Archaean lode-gold deposits are the products of
crustal-scale hydrothermal systems Žcf. Groves et al.,
1995. and are spatially related to crustal-scale struc-
tures which may have complex and protracted defor-
mation histories. In most cases, structurally con-
trolled gold mineralisation is related to the last sig-
nificant movement of its host structure Že.g. Grigson
et al., 1990; Hagemann et al., 1992.. Increasingly,
workers are realising the importance of synvolcanic
growth faults in focussing fluid flow for synvolcanic
VHMS mineralisation Žcf. Large, 1992.. The pres-
ence of VHMS-style mineralisation and alteration,
with overprinting lode-gold mineralisation at Mount
Gibson, raises the possibility that the Mount Gibson
shear zone may represent, at least in part, originally
synvolcanic faults which were reactivated some 300
m.y. later, under amphibolite facies conditions.
The main genetic implication of the two-stage
model proposed for the Mount Gibson gold deposits
is that it highlights the interplay of factors which
may lead to the formation of so-called epigenetic
mineralisation. Gold is interpreted to have been in-
troduced at Mount Gibson as part of a syn-peak
metamorphic, shear-hosted, lode-gold style event, as
for other amphibolite-hosted lode-gold deposits of
the crustal continuum. However, the fundamental
control on the location of economic mineralisation is
provided by the minor massive and semimassive
sulphide mineralisation and aluminous alteration as-
sociated with the synvolcanic VHMS-style hy-
drothermal activity. In essence, this form of control
is not dissimilar to that of classical Archaean lode-
gold deposits at a range of metamorphic grades,
where the siting of mineralisation is controlled by
the interaction of a range of host-rock chemical
andror rheological properties with the regional stress
field ŽGroves et al., 1995..
Consequently, in essence, the mineralisation at
Mount Gibson is lode-gold style, with shearing, and
subsequent gold mineralisation, best developed in the
less competent rocks which were produced by meta-
morphism of the synvolcanic alteration and minerali-
sation. This supports the concept of ‘ground prepara-
tion’ for some structurally controlled hydrothermal
ore deposits.
Acknowledgements
This paper forms part of a Ph.D. study by CJY,
who was the recipient of an Australian Postgraduate
Award ŽIndustry.. The research was sponsored by
the Mount Gibson Gold Project, whose financial and
logistical support is gratefully acknowledged. Dr.
Neal McNaughton ŽUWA. provided invaluable assis-
tance with the lead isotope study. Dr. Dennis Gee
Žformerly of Reynolds Australian Gold. is thanked
for his consistent support and enthusiasm for the
project. Finally, CJY would like to thank the geolog-
 C.J. Yeats, D.I. GroÕesr Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 103–129
ical and other staff at Mount Gibson for their assis-
tance and support for the work. The comments of
three Ore Geology Reviews reviewers significantly
improved the original manuscript.
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