6.6.

CYCLES FOR GAS REFRIGERATORS 295

294 CYCLES OF CRYOCmNIC Pr,ANTS

7. I"rom Eq. (G.150),

The variable
= 1+0.429 = 2 5

w=(Vc,max-Vc,mln)l(Vo,I+VO,II)=!(Z, B, p) (6.195) a 1-0.429 .

is ovaluatod from tho samo llf(uutiollS as for tho siugle-stnge arrange­ R. Thl' l'rfrigeration dilly of an ideal Stirling machine [see Eq. (6.152)J is
ment (seo Table G.5), and the ratio z is found froUl Llw equution Q = 3.14 X 1 [jOO X 2.46 X 106 X 100 X 10-6 X 0,420 X 0.!i3 = 2 320 W

Z= Vc/(VO, I + VO,II) (6.196) 60 1+{1-0.429 z)I/Z

9. From Eq. (6.153),

The remaining equations aud relatiOlls remuin unchullgod.--As
a result, the refrigeration duty per stage [see Eq. (6.152)1 is 3.14X1500
QU,O = 60 X 2.46 X 106 X lUO X 10- 6 X 2.28 X
QI = (nn I 60) -V 6 sin 0
P 0,1 H-(1-6 2)1/2 X 0.429 X 0.873 8720 W
(6.197) 1+ {1 __ 0.429 z)I/Z
QII -_ (nnI60) P
-V 0 sin e
0, II 1+(1_0 2)1/2 10. From Eq. (6.154),
Nldeal = 8720 - 2320 = 6400 W
where V o, I and Vo,lI are in m3 , P is in Pa, and Q is in W.
11. For a real machine with lhe same power requirement (6 400 W) and a
relative efficil'Tlcy of 1]r = 0.3, Eq. (6.156) gives
Example 6.10. nough calculations of a single-stage coaxial-displacer Stir­
ling machine have yielded the following values: Qreal = 2320 X 0.3 = 695 W
and
V o = 100 cm 3 , ~ = 70°, z = 2.5, /-l = 0.97
4}: = 2, PmaX = 3.922 G MPa, n = 1.500 rpm
Qu,O = 6 400 + 695 = 7 095 W
12. The coefficient of performance is
Check the figures obtained. Breal = 695/6 400 = 0.108 6
Assuming that the machine attains the desired level of refrigeration tem­
perature (say, T = 80 K), we can find all the other variables. The next step is to analyze the performance of the machine graphically,
1. The temperature ratio is
which eaUs for plotting variations in the pressures, volumes and masses of the
"t = 300/80 = 3.75

working fluid. The plots thus constructed give an idea about the average velo­
cities of the working fluid in the various sections. Knowledge of these velocities
2. Using Eq. (6.176), is essential in the calculation of heat transfer.
(tl = (2.5 2 X 0.97 2 - 2 X 2.5 X 0.97 The GiHord-McMahon Cycle. In 1959, Gifford and McMahon
X 0.342 + 1)1/2 = 2.28 invented a cyclically operating refrigerator utilizing the nonequili­
3. Using Eq. (6.167),
brium expansion of the working fluid and transfer of energy as heat
tan <p = 2.5 X 0.94/(2.5 X 0.342 - 0.!)7)
to the surroundings (Fig. 6.48). Later, their original machine was
followed by systems with double and triple expansion. In 1960,
= -20.428
Gifford built a modified machine in which the displacer was driven
<p = 92°48' by compressed gas. Su~h machines are simpler than the Stirling
4. From Eq. (6.146),
refrigerator, but thermodynamically they are less efficient because
tan 8 = 2.28 X 0.998/(3.75 - 2.28 X 0.0488)
refrigeration is produced by free (J oule) expansion.
~. O.IiZfI
Briofly, a Gifford-McMahon refrigerator operates as follows. The
8 = 32°
starling point is when the displucer is at its boLLom position. The in­
5. From Eq. (6.147), let valve opens to admit the working fluid at temperature Toto the
"warm" volume A of cylinder 4, so that the temperature of the gas
. "= (3,75 2 -2X:1.7!iX2,28XO,fJ48R+2.2R z)1/2 =1 "')1 prl'sent ill tho "wnrm" spaco rises, in tho general caso from T , to
u 3.75-2.2~+2 X 2 J.I_.1
T f (path 1'-2' in Fig. G.48c). From Eq. (4.58),
6. From Eq. (6.151),
- (1-6)1/2 (1-0,429)1/ 2 T = VToTIPt/Pa (6.198)
P=PllInx 1-1-6 =3.022x i-j-0.420 =2.4(; ~ll'a f T, (Pl/Pa-{)+VT o
292 CYCLES OF CRYOGENIC PLANTS 6,6. CYCLES FOR GAS REFRIGERATORS 293
(in the experiments, the pressure was lllea::;ured ill the compressiull
space). The quantity of working fluid in the expansion, compression
and "doad" spaces of an idealized machine can be measured on the
basis of tho anglo of rotation, usillg' tho following' ('(I"ations; 8

Mo = pV o(1 - cos a)/2R'T (6.189) 7

Mc = pwV o[1 - cos (a - (r)IIR'T o (G.190) 6

Ma = pValR'T av (v.1!ll)
According to practical data, single-stage Stirling refrigerators
can generate fairly large quantities of refrigeration at temperature
levels 150-70 K and down to 40 K at low rates. They are also widely
---
Air

used to liquefy gases. A simplified arrangement of such a liquefier

is shown in Fig. 6.47.
Lower temperature can be obtained with Stirling machines by
letting the working fluid expand consecutively at several stages. 10
In fact, this is the only practically realizable method, because the
efficiency of the regenerators has already approached its practical
limit (0.98-0.99). Two-stage gas refrigerators are known to have
successfully been used to liquefy hydrogen (at the 20 K level),
and the lowest temperature obtained with a three-stage machine
is about 8.5 K.
Figure 6.46 shows the arrangement of Stirling machines with two
expansion spaces. Equation (6.152) allows a two-stage Stirling
machine to be formally reduced to a single-stage arrangement. The
Fig. 6,47, Simplified cross-section through of a Philips gas refrigerating machine
6
2 J 5
p oA employed as an air liquefier
I-comprrsslon I.iston; 2-comprrssion-piston conm'cUn!: rod; 3-dlsplacer conllcctin!: rod;
4-high-tcmprralnrr wnlt',. hl'ut. l'xc:han/:rr; 5-I'I'gcncrnlor; 6-thcnnolly insnlntrd dlsplacer;
UWLLLLIO
5 Tu 7-1owrr part of lhr low-Irmpcl'llturr hrat. rxchnng('r drllverinl( refrIgeration duty (or aIr
lil]n,'lnc1lon); X--II!,!,l'1' 1'111'1 of till' low-I."lIll,rrnllll'r hrat exchanl'(rr (whrrr moisturr and
carbon t1loxhll' /11'1' fI"""'1I 001. of IIIUl08J1hl'I'Ic a/l'); V-III'lIUIlI cyllntl,'r; la-rlrctrlc motor
'I
'" point is that when the dimensionless coefficient & is found from
Eq. (G.1.'J7) nIHI tlle nngln 0 is fOlllld from Eq. (6.14.6), the variables
7 't' and OJ for a two-stage machine take on a different form. For exam­
2 T, ple,
t
fiT 't = TolT r
where T r is found from the relation
(6.192)

111' r = xIIT I xIIIT II + (6.193)

where 1'1 und Tn [11'0 the temper[ltures in the expansion spaces of
(a) (6) stage I and stage II, respectively; XI and XII are the fractions of
the swept volumes in the expansion spaces of the first and second
Fig. 6.46. Two-stage Stirling refrigerators
{f1) wILli conxlnl plslolls; (b) with externnl dlsplacer; l-r,ornr.ression piston; 2-hIKh-tem­
stages, respectively, such that XI XII = 1. +
IJornl.lIro hMl OXOIIIIIIU"I'; ,,-tII'Hl-RlnUII l'I'UI'lIl'rlll.II1'; d-tll'H ,-Alnut' low-trll1llrrnlurn lIent The values of XI and XII are found from the equations
.exchllllger; 6-Bt'OUIIII-RllIl{" I'C'UC,llnrnl.IIl·; /1.,- H"(:tlll!l-SI.IIf/,1' 1l,w-l."III1H'I'III.III'" 111'111. c"xchnlll{orj
7-second-stage dlsplacer; 8-flrsl-stage t1lsplocer xJ - , Vo. I/(V 0,1 -1- Vo. II) XII =-= VO.II/(V 0, d- VO,ll) (G. HJ.1)
290 CYCLES OF CRYOGENIC PLANTS

or, with allowance for the displacer-rod diameter,

2zIL cos ~ -I- IL 2)1 / 2 (li.183)
0'
-~
eo

--
(0) c=: (Z2 -

From a comparison of Eqs. (G.175), (G.t7G), (G:18~) uud (G.18J),

it is seen that the difference in (0) for the arrangements discussed
reveals itself only when fl is introduced into the calculations.
'tl
'tl
,,,OJ
o
­
eo
00
I~ ~~
eo eo

The relative reduced additional dead volume in the compression

space for the arrangements with an external displacer [see Eqs.
(6.171), (6.174) and (6.179)] is
a>
­
""
eo
eo

-
a

or, with allowance for fl,

I T
= IT c.mn 0 - - (V /2)(1 +Z-(o))
add VoTcomp --
(G.184)
0
III
il'
-
t­
oo
00

ti:dd = (Vo/2) (~l +Z- (,)) (6.185) ...."

.~
ell

­
:l o:i: t­
C' co.. eo
~
For machines with two load pistons, all equations reduce to a very ~
..... II
~ eo
simple form, because then :is 11 S-
So
qJ ~ and (0)' = z (6.186) = (,) = ell
.;1

The phase difference 'p for all al'l'angements of the Stirling machine j .:0:
can be found; subject to the equality aVI./aa = 0:
\ tan 'p = (,) sin {p/(l - (0) cos (r) (6:187)
"1;l

"
o:l
III
~
.....
s
II
­ ~
eo
It".loo
t-t­
~~
eo eo --
&:l~
eo eo

For convenience, the above relations are summed up in Table 6.6.

In an idealized machine, the pressure is a function of the angle
ll.I
:isell
.;:
..II 8 ..
..

of rotati on: o:l "

'0 8
i\­
> § II i\­ S
p = Pmax(l - 6)/[1 - 6 cos (a - 8)] (G. Hl8) ~
II '8 8 ll­
s '8
The general aspect of the indica ter diagrams for tho idpalized :c"
c.>
S
machine and a real machine equivalent in terms of refrigl'l'ation
:a
­ ­
Q

duty can be gleaned from Fig. G.45. TIIC indicator diagrams for a 8 o 12 ~
real machine are constructed without allowance for pressure drops eD c5
eD ::. eo eo
p,MPa
~ I I ' I I!
:is Q
ell

I
V'
........
~ Eo< 8

'"

o
].," ::.0
1//
~
\ ~ ~.
].0
If
...<: en <>

"
'\ e:o

"

()

~, C4 C4
2.6 Cll E II l~ ~
,~
2.2 \
.....
"1\.' 1'. =
8Cll
on III

...,o=
~ C4""
~
r":
f-­ l-
I-­
......

"
"'Ii;;
I': I-
-r-P~ OJ
t:
OJ
Cll
III
'i5.
rti
§
...,~
III U
~
._
III

u
O l~
-~
p...",
III
.- "0
<:
:a<> "'o"
.- m
p..""
p..m ~ ~
-~
o:l
1.4
";~ .~ to ~oO
0 60 120 ~.emJ 0 60 v" .em J *00 450 S20 Vr,cm J
OJ
::a --;­
Om .~ bO
as ._ >< • ~cQ
Fig. 6.45. Indicators diaJ:rrnms: - - , n renl gns rerl'iJ:rerator with a coaxial dis­
~~
E-<eo
or:...
u~
~ .~
ur:... ~
....~
r.:::Ieo
"".
)11(1('(1)' (j; ". ~,;I;' ~I PII), ----, 1111 icll'lIli'I,l'cl JlIIH'hilll\ IIf tho !lIUJIn COOliIlI{ lHiw(lr
10*
288 CYCLES OF CRYOGENIC PLANTS
6.6. CYCLlOS Fan GAS REFRIGEHATORS
289
Then,
Snbjl'('.[ to 1;:, co= V", lit a ., 1HOO·1 (I', WO ]IIIVO
Vc = ~e [1-coS(a-~)]_I~o
max.
(1-cosa)+Veanst-Vr,h (6.164)

Obviously, the phase shift qJ must be found subject to the condition

l'e,max = V; (1-D~)+ l;e ('1+D~)cos(qJ-~)-VocosqJ (6.172)
1"1'0111 Eqs. (6.172) and (6.170), we obtain
oDe/oa = 0 (6.165)
On differentiating, we get
0)' = -;- (1- Dn + -;- (1 + D;) cos (~-~) -cos qJ (6.173)
0) = zcos (qJ -~) -cos qJ (6.174)
tan qJ = z sin ~/(z cos ~ - 1) (6.166)
where z = Ve/V o is the ratio of the total swept volumes. It is seen from Eqs. (6.173) and (6.174) that <0' = (0) at Do =
With allowance for the displacer rod diameter, d dr, we may write = De· Using Eq. (6.166), we can re-write Eq. (6.174) as
tan qJ = z sin ~/(z cos ~ - ~l) (G.1 (7) w = (Z2 - 2z cos ~ + 1)1/2 (6.175)
where or, with allowance for the rod diameter,
~= 1- (ddr/Dey!)2 (6.1G8) w = (Z2~2 - 2z~
(6.176) cos ~ + 1)1/2
where Dey! is the diameter of the cylinder passing the displacor
rod. Whell detormi IIi ng Q from Ell. (0.152), it is essential to allow
for the additional dead volume in the compression space:
Equation (6.152) can be used to compute the refrigeration duty
of any Stirling machine, irrespective of its arrangement, but for Vadd = V e, min (6.177)
each particular type it is necessary to determine 0) = f (z, ~) and
the additional dead volume in the compression space. It is clear from Eqs. (6.170) and (6.177) that for the arrangement
It is important to differentiate between 0)' and (I): with coaxial pistons, Vadd = 0 at Do = De. The relative reduced
additional dead volume in the compression space is
ro' = V e, max/VO.max = V e, max/Vo
~add = (V e , min/V 0) (To/T ('amp)
0) = (V e, max- V e, mln)/(V o, max- V o, min) =--, (Ve, max- V e, min)' Vo (().1G9) Approximat.ely,
whero (I)' is the ratio of tho maximulII alJ:'i()llIte volllJlw or !.lIe (;0111­ -
(('Hid I' l',11I11I / I- 1>---
-- (I -. U')
I'
(~"'/-:'") (./ -.
:. - ('os I' '/2 ) (.II. I7 0U )
pression space to the maximum volumo of tho expansion space, (:.2-21. cos ~+ 1)
whereas 0) is the ratio of the maximum varying volume of the com­ The term a:dd must be lumped with ti';;.
pression space to the maximum volume of the expansion space. For the arrangement with all external displacer (see Fig. 6.43b).
In any arrangement, V o, min = 0, whereas V e. min = 0 only for Equations (6.162) through (6.164) hold as well, so the relation bet­
the arrangement with two compression pistons and for the arrange­ ween (P, z and ~ is likewise described by Eqs. (6.166) and (6.167).
ment with coaxial pistons and the Rame cylindor diameter. The relation he tween (", z and B Can 1>0 established fiS follows. At
, According to Schmidt, when Eq. (G.152) is applied to different
arrangements, use must be made of the quantity 0). a = rp and Ve = Ve • min =1= 0, we may write
To begin with, consider the arran{{cment with coa:r:ial pistons
(see Fig. G.lt3c):
V", nlill = l~o (1+cosrp)-! ~c [1-coR(qJ-~)l «(j.17!))

Ve. mln = (1-D~) (Ve/2) [1 - cos (qJ - ~)l (6.170) Then, from Eq. (6.164),
where Dr = D olD e and Do and De are the diameters of the expan­ Veanst -- V r, h = V o (6.180)
sion and compression cylinders, respectively. Therefore, at a = 180 + qJ,
AS~llIllillg' V~ "'.~ V(~, 111111 lIlld a .• (P, frolll Eq. ((; ..1tj~) wo rilld I I'c', JlIlIK _ 1-I,z-I-(z2-2zen~ [1-1- 0 1/ 2
hI V - 2 (1j,18i)
o
Veon~t-Vr,h= ~o (1-cosqJ)-D; ~~ [1-cos(qJ-~)1 (G.171) and
«() = (Ve, mnx - V e , mln)/V o = (Z2 - 2z cos ~ + 1)1/2 (6.182)
19-01026
II 286 CYCLES OF CRYOGENIC PLANTS 6.6. CYCLES FOR GAS REFRIGERATORS 287

Tho tOI'JIl at is ocfinorl ns millo tho cllrrent displnccm!1nts (with a swung dash overscribed)
or 1.110 ('xpallsion and comprDssion .pistons:
at = ae + ah + ar + ao + aadd (6.149)
where a e, ah, a r , and a o are the dead volumes of the compression s'e = r e (1 - cos a) + (r:/2l e) sin z a (6.157)
space, high-temperature heat exchanger, regenorator and expansion r e [1 - cos (a - ~)] + (r~/2le)
se =
space computed as fractions of V o; and aadd is the additional dead
volume of the .working space. X sin z (a - ~) (6.158)
The ratio of the maximum to minimum pressure of the working where r e and r e are the lengths of the compression and expansion
fluid gives the expansion (or compression) ratio: cranks, respectively; Ie and Ie are the lengths of the compression
(J = PmaxlPmln = (1 + 6)/(1 - 6) (6.150) and expansion connecting rods; ~ is the crank angle (see Fig. 6.44).
The current swept volumes corresponding to the above displace­
Tho ratio of tho maximum to tho avorage pressuro is ments nrC':
-
Pmaxlp= (1+6
1-6
)'/2 .
«(j.151)
-
Vo = T
l'
[1-cosa+ (r e/2I c ) sinZa]
- V . (6.159)
The theoretical refrigeration duty of an ideal Stirling refrigerator
with harmonically moving pistons is
Vc = T [f-cos (a-~) + (r c/2l c) sin z (a- ~)]
where V o and V e are the total swept volumes, expansion and com­
Q -_ (nn160) -V 6 sin e
P 01+(1_6 2)' / 2 (6.152) pression, respectively.
As the pistons move, the current volumes of the compression and
where Q is in W, n is in rpm, V o is in m a , 'and pin Pa. expansion spaces, Ve and Vo, change.
The heat rejected through the high-temperature heat exchanger For any idealized machine, irrespective of its design and arrange­
into the surroundings is ment (see Fig. 6.43),
QH,O = (nn /60)-V 6sin(lp-O)
P Offi 1 + (1- 62 )' / 2 (6.153) vo=Vo (6.160)

The power required to drive an ideal machine is

v
Since e and Yc are identical only for ideal machines with two load
pistons (see Fig. 6.33a), the current total working volume is then
Nldcal = QH,O-Q (6.154) given by
For a real machine delivering the same refrigeration duty at the iT 1: = Vc + Vo + Val: (6.161)
same temperature level, the drive power and the heat rejected to where Val: is the total dead volume.'
the surroundings are: For displacer-type machines, the change in the total working
N rcal = N idclll/llr volume (without allowance for the displacer-rod diameter) is deter­
QH,o=Nm1+Q (6.155) mined solely by the position of the compression piston. If we neglect
tho fillito ICl1~th or tho conllocting' 1'011, tholl t.ho total worJdng' volumo
Given the same work requirement as for an ideal machine, the will be given by
refrigeration duty of a real machine will be
- Ve R
Vl:=T [1-cos (a- p )] + Vconst (6.162)
Qrcal = Qllr (6.156)
where llr is the relative efficiency describing the losses due to im­ where Vconst is the constant volume determined by the overall
perfect heat transfer, pressure drop and other factors. For example, volume of the regenerator and the high-temperature heat exchanger,
at T = 70-80 K, llr = 0.3-0A. VI'. /" nne1 tho cranJ, anglo B (V COIIHt > VI', It).
Til eyelo nnl1lysis nllll IllnellillO cnlr.lllnl.iolls, il. is also illlpol'I.I1IlI. Oil tho othol' 11(\1111, rOJ' tho VOllllllO 1-,<, oneIoR/HI hotwoon tho two
to cOllflil1or tho kinematic relations. AS:iIIwillg tho positioll of tho pistons (sec Fig. liA4), we way write
expansion piston or displacer at top dead centre as the origin for
measuring the angle of rotation, a, of the crankshaft, let us deter­ Yc = V:t- Yo- Yr. h (6.163)
284 CYCLES OF CRYOGENIC PLANTS 6(;, CYCLES FOR GAS REFRIGERATORS 285

.~

2 r
I "'--' I I 1
I "
I <~LJ
(n) T
10
T p
'5 {::~I./H20
701 I Pmax
(b)
Fig. 6.44. Idealized h"
monically moving p~~~n~~e wit~ har­
~Ispla-
cement diagram and (b) poi ar(a)diagram

-
TI \ ;-.J -......J

s
Pminl
(e) V
.. TWIN
o -
Fig. 6.43. Gas refrigerators operating by the reverse Stirling cycles: (a) through
(d) flow diagrams; (e) T-s and p-v diagrams
(a) with two compression pistons; (b) with one piston and a dlsplacer (two cylinders); (c) with
substance over the cycle; V o is the maximum volume of the expan­
one piston and a dlsplacer arranged coaxially; (d) with one compression piston and a moving sion cylinder; 6 is a dimensionless coefficient; e is the phase shift
dlsplacer-rE'generator (the dlsplaccr-regenerator may be arranl(ed coaxialIy as In "c"); 1 ­
compression cylinder; z-water (or air) high-pressure heat exchanger; J-regenerator; 4 ­ between l the maximum pressure and the minimum volume of tho
expansion piston or dlsplacer; 5-low-temperature heat exchanger expansion cylinder.
The phase shift is found from the equation
In machines with a displacer and a regenerator-displacel', the ta n 0 = (I) sin (p/(T + (t) cos q» (6.146)
compression piston and the displacer can be arranged coaxially in
a common cylinder (see Fig. 6.43c) or in two separate cylinders where (t) = (Vc,max - Vc,mln)/V o is the ratio of the change in the
(Fig. 6.43d). compression volume to the expansion yolume; q> is the phase shift
Each arrangement offers advantages of its own. For example, if between the maximum expansion and compression volumes (changes
the compression piston and the displacer are located separately and in the expansion volume leads changes in the compression volume
the displacer cylinder is an extension, as it were, to the piston cylin­ V c (Fig. 6.44) by the angle q»; 't = To/T is the ratio of the tempera­
der (although the two cylinders may differ in diameter), the arrange­ tures in the low- to the high-temperature heat exchangers.
merit is compact and has reduced dead volumes, but is more elaborate The dimensionless coefficient 6 is defined as
from the engineering point of view.
Assuming that the expansion and compression in the Stirling '6= ('t'+2'tcocOSIjl+co2)1/2 (6.147)
machine occur isothermally and that heat regeneration is ideal, 't+co+2a~
Schmidt has developed the following relation:
where ii~ is the total relative reduced dead volume (a dimension­
_ - 6sin 0 /, less quantity) defined as
q -npVo 1+(1- 62) 1/2 (G.115)
a2; = a~ (TolT av) (6.148)
where q is the capacity per cycle (for a refrigerator, this is the heat where T av = a~/lJ (a/T I) is the average temperature of the
transferred in the low-temperature heat exchanger; for a heat engine, working substance in the dead volume, and a~ is the sum of the
this is the work delivered); p-is the average pressure of the working relative dead volumes.
2R~ OYOT,US 011 CJlYOOl~N[C 1'I.AN'I':-! 4\.11. CYCI,I~R Iron OAR RlWmOlllnATonS 283

and the quantity of heat transferred to the working &ubstance dmillg load of the regenc.'ator (to a first approximation) is
<lxpansioll is
V +Vregen • •
q=R'Tln Vl-t
vs -
(6.134) Qregen = 1'-1 (P2- Pa) (6.14.3)

The coefficient of performance for the Stirling cycle is the same Clearance volumes are not objectionable in ideal engines, provided
as for the Carnot cycle: this does not lead to irreversible effects. In the special case of an
ideal Stirling machine, this condition is satisfied, the COP remains
EStr = qj~ W = T/(T 0 - T) = EO (6.135) equal to Ee , so for an ideal Stirling machine it may be assumed that
Vrl'gcn may and may not be zero. From Eqs. (6.142) and (6.143) it
The change ill internlll energy 011 compression (path 1-2) is is seen that when Vregen = 0, heat regeneration may be considered
6Ul - 2 = 6UTo = u1 - u2 = a (tlV2 - tlv!) (G.1:~G) to be isochoric.
Diagrammatically. the implementation of the reverse Stirling
The cooling capacity of an ideal Stirling refrigerator using a real cycle in a reciprocating machine is shown in Fig. 6.42. There are
working substance is greater than the work of expansion: two pistons moving in their respective cylinders intermittently with
a phase shirt ~. The two cylinders are separated by a heat regenera­
q = wexp + 6UTo (6.137) tor, orie" of the cylinders being referred to as warm (or compression)
This is so because regenerative heat exchange occurs at constant and the other as cold (or expansion). The temperature in the compress­
volume. ion cylinder is maintained constant at TobY removal of heat
For an isochoric process, qHsO through a high-temperature heat exchanger, and the tempera­
ture in the expansion cylinder is maintained constant at T by heat
dp = dT (8p/8T)v (6.138) q taken in by low-temperature heat exchanger. In practical Stirling
From Eq. (3.67) it follows that machines, of which there are several modifications, the pistons
move harmonically (Fig. 6.43).
(8p/8T)v = R'/(v - b) (6.13n) The Ericcson Cycle. This cycle consists of two isothermal and
two isobaric processes. As an alternative, it may be an open cycle.
Using Eq. (6.139), we can find the change in pressure during heat With an ideal gas, the COP is the same as for the Carnot cycle, but
!l'egeneration (paths 2-3 and 4-1): this is not so with a real gas, because there occurs an irreversible
R' increase in entropy during heat regeneration which proceeds at
P2-P3= Vs­ b (To-T) constant pressure.
R' (6.140) The cooling capacity (heat load) of the cycle is
Pl-P4= V l - b (To-T)
q=wexp-r6hTo (6.144)
Lot us write a heat balance and detormino the heat load of the Usc of the Stirling and Ericcson Cycles in Machines with Harmo­
regenerator: nically Moving Pistons. As is seen from the piston displacement
U! - U4 = U2 - Us (6.141) diagrams (see Figs. 6.42 and 6.44), the intermittent movement of
V
tho pistons can be replaced by their harmonic motion. The harmonic
Qregen = '\' -1 (P2 - ]J3) (6.142) motioll of tho pistons ill an idoal machine does not introduce any
additional irrevorsibilities, and its COP remains equal to that of
where V is the volume of compressed gas displaced through the the Carnot cycle.
regenerator. Refrigerators of this type can be arranged in anyone of the follow­
If tho regonorator woro oxtornal t.o -tho worldng spaco of tho J'oft'i­ ing ways:
gOl'lltoJ', hoat rogonoratiOIl would he rigOI'OIlHly hwchoric, nlld -witJl two comprossion pistons (Fig. G..13a);
Eqs. (6.137) through (6.14.2) would apply. Actually, however, the -with one compression piston and a displacer (not loaded by pres­
regenerator is usually built inside the working space and has a sure in an ideal machine, Fig. 6.43b, c and d);
clearance ("dead") volume of its own. Because of this, heat rege­ -with one compression piston and a movable regenerator which
neration at constant totl\l volumo is not isochoric, ilnd tho hOilt also acttl as a displacer (Fig. 6.43d).
280 CYCLES OF CRYOGENIC PLANTS 0.0. CYCLES FOR GAS REFRIGERATORS
28'
The above arrangemont with air throttlillg is very simph" but Ql120
it is limited to small plants bocauso of low efficiency. Large-capaci­ p
2
ty plants employ more elaborate, but more efficient arrallg'l'lllOlIts PmnJ
incorporating reciprocating and turbine expanders. There nre high­
pressure plants with a capacity of over 1 000 kg per hour in which
the work requirements are as high as 3.6 to 3.96 MJ per kilogram of I
liquid oxygen. Such plants operate on a multi-product basis, addi­
tionally turning out gaseous nitrogen, oxygen, argon and a neon­ Pmin I I '""'¢
helium mixture. Liquid oxygen and liquid nitrogen are also produ­
V2 Y, V
ced by medium-capacity units built around turboexpanders [16, 441.
Their arrangement substantially differs from that examined above.
In the USSR, there are several types of high-capacity, low-pres­ T
sure turboexpander units operating on a multi-product basis and
delivering the final products in the gaseous state. The air pressure Tof-------9-rifoo
in such units is about 0.64 MPa. The capacity in terms of gaseous
oxygen is up to 35 000 m 3 h -1 with a work requirement of about
1.5 MJ per cubic metre of oxygen. In the last decade, tho trend has
been toward building large-capacity units with an output of up to T~
100 000 cubic metres of oxygen per hour along with the production
of dry pure nitrogen, argon, a krypton-xenon and a neon-helium s
mixture. Work is under way to enhance the efficiency and reliability (0) (6)
of equipment and to cut down work requirements through the use
F'i~. li.12. S\.irlill~ cyelr
of a reduced pressure in the fractionating column and high-efficiency (a) p-v and 1"-, diagrams; (b) affan/.:ement using a r~clllrocating machine With two pistons.
expanders [16, 441. regenerator n. hl/.:h-lelTl!leralure heat pxchanger, and low-temperature heat exchanger;
qH 0 Is the heat rejected by the high-temperature beat exchanger to the surroundings;
The thermodynamic efficiency of a liquid-oxygen (LOX) plant
is found from the equation q i; the heat absorbed by the low-temperature heat exchanger and transferred to the expan­
sion space

1]t = W~ln/Wo
The Stirling Cycle. The ideal Stirling cycle consists of two iso­
where W~ln is the total minimum work required to separate the choric and two isothermal processes (Fig. 6.42). Heat is rejected
feed air into products [( and A nnd subsequontly to liquefy pro­ from tho cycle to the Rurroundings at To during compression, nnd
duct [( (per mole of product [(), as found from Eq. (5.32). In determ­ tho matorial beillg cooled transfers its heat to tho cycle at T during
ining the minimum work requirement for air separation, use may expansion. Theoretically, heat regeneration occurs during a constant­
be made of Eqs. (5.28) and (5.30) in which the terms M" and M a volume process. If the working substance is a van del' Waals gas,
should .be read as [( and A, respectively. then:
The values of minimum work required for the complete separn­ -the work of compression (path 1-2) is
tion of air into liquid nitrogen and oxygen are given in Table 5.2.
wcomp =, WS-2 = R 'T 0 1n -Vl­
vs-b
-b a (1/vl-1/v 2 ) (6.131)

-tlit, wod, of OX(llIlISioll ((Il1th 3-4) is

6.6. Cycles for Gas Refrigerators
Wexp = Wa-4 Vl-~
= R'T In Vs- -a (1/v2 - 1!Vl) (6.132)
Gas refrigerators have found a broad field of application owing
to their efficiency and compactness. There exist several types of The quantity of heat rejected to the surroundings is
reciprocating gas refrigerators. The most popular ones are those
operating by the reverse Stirling cycle, the Gifford-McMahon cycle, b
and the Vuilleumier-Tnconis cycle.
qH I 0 = R'T0 1n V2-
--, (6.103)