139 CHAPTER 5. HEAT AND WATER VAPOR FLOW THRU STRUCTURES This chapter presents the methods and data for determining the sensible and latent heat gain or loss thru the outdoor structures of a building or thru a structure surrounding a space within the" building, Italso presents data for determining and preventing water vapor condensation on the enclosure surfaces or within the structure materials. Heat flows from one point to another whenever a temperature difference exists between the two points; the direction of flow is always towards the lower tem- perature. Water vapor also flows from one point to another whenever a difference in vapor pressure ‘exists between the two points; the direction of flow is, towards the point of low vapor pressure, The rate at which the heat or water vapor will flow varies with the resistance to flow between the two points in the ‘material. If the temperature and vapor pressure of the water vapor correspond to saturation conditions ‘at any point, condensation occurs, HEAT FLOW THRU BUILDING STRUCTURES Heat gain thru the exterior construction (walls and roof) is normally calculated at the time of greatest heat flow. It is caused by solar heat being absorbed at the exterior surface and by the tem- perature difference between the outdoor and indoor air. Both heat sources are highly variable thruout any one day and, therefore, result in unsteady state heat flow thru the exterior construction. This un- steady state flow is difficult to evaluate for each in- dividual situation; however, it can be handled best by means of an equivalent temperature difference across the structure. ‘The equivalent temperature difference is that tem- perature difference which results in the total heat flow thru the structure as caused by the variable solar radiation and outdoor temperature. The equiv- alent temperature difference across the structure must take into account the different types of con- struction and exposures, time of day, location of the building (latitude), and design conditions. The heat flow thru the structure may then be calculated, using the steady state heat flow equation with the equiv- alent temperature difference. = UAat, where q = heat flow, Buu/hr u ransmission coefficient, Buu/ (hr) (oq f(deg F temp diff A = area of surface, sq ft at, = equiv temp diff F Heat loss thru the exterior construction (walls and roof) is normally calculated at the time of greatest ‘heat flow. This occurs early in the morning after a few hours of very low outdoor temperatures. This approaches steady state heat flow conditions, and for all practical purposes may be assumed as such. Heat flow thru the interior construction (floors, ceilings and partitions) is caused by a difference in temperature of the air on both sides of the structure. This temperature difference is essentially constant thruout the day and, therefore, the heat flow can be determined from the steady state heat flow equation, using the actual temperatures on either side. EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE — SUNLIT AND SHADED WALLS AND ROOFS ‘The process of transferring heat thru a wall under indicated unsteady state conditions may be visu- alized by picturing a 12-inch brick wall sliced into 12 oneinch sections. Assume that temperatures in cach slice are all equal at the beginning, and that the indoor and outdoor temperatures remain constant, When the sun shines on this wall, most of the solar heat is absorbed in the first slice, Fig. 22. This raises the temperature of the first slice above that of the outdoor air and the second slice, causing heat to flow to the outdoor air and also to the second slice, Fig. 23. The amount of heat ffowing in either direc- tion depends on the resistance to heat flow within the wall and thru the outdoor air film. The heat flow into the second slice, in turn, raises its temperature, causing heat to-flow into the third slice, Fig. 24. ‘This process of absorbing heat and passing some on to the next slice continues thru the wall to the last or 12th slice where the remaining heat is transferred to the inside by convection and radiation. For this particular wall, it takes approximately 7 hours for1-60 PART 1. LOAD ESTIMATING Fic. 22 — Soar Heat Ansoanep In Finst SLicE Fic, 28 — Brnavior oF Ansornen Soar Heat DURING SECOND TIM INTERVAL Fic, 24— Benavior oF AnsorneD Sotar HEAT DURING THIRD TIME INTERVAL solar heat to pass thru the wall into the room. Because each slice must absorb some heat before passing it on, the magnitude of heat released to inside space would be reduced to about 10% of that absorbed in the slice exposed to the sun. These diagrams do not account for possible changes in solar intensity or outdoor temperature. Fic, 25—Brnavion oF Assonsep SOLAR HEAT DURING SeBox Tite INTERVAL PLUS ADDITIONAL SOLAR Heat ApsonpeD DURING THIS INTERVAL be Ss Fic, 26—Benavior oF Ansonnep SOLAR HEAT DURING Tump Time INTERVAL PLUS ADDITIONAL SOLAK EAT ‘AnsornED DURING THIS INTERVAL ‘The solar heat absorbed at each time interval.by the outdoor surface of the wall throughout the day goes thru this same process. Figs. 25 and 26 show the total solar heat flow during the second and third time intervals. A rise in outdoor temperature reduces the amount of absorbed heat going to the outdoors and more flows thru the wall. This same process occurs with any type of wall construction to a greater or lesser degree, depending on the resistance to heat flow thru the wall and the thermal capacity of the wall,CHAPTER 5. HEAT AND WATER VAPOR FLOW THRU STRUCTURES 1-61 NOTE: The thermal capacity of a wall or roof is the density of the material in the wall or roof, times the specific heat of the material, times the volume. This progression of heat gain to the interior may occur over the full 24-hour period, and may result in a heat gain to the space during-the night. If the ‘equipment is operated less than 24 hours, i. either skipping the peak load requirement or as a routine procedure, the nighttime radiation to the sky and the lowering of the outdoor temperature may de- crease the transmission gain and often may reverse it. Therefore, the hieat gain estimate (sun and trans- mission thry the roof and outdoor walls), even with equipment operating less than 24 hours, may be evaluated by the use of the equivalent temperature data presented in Tables 19 and 20. Basis of Tobles 19 and 20 = Equivalent Temperature Difference for Sunlit ond Shoded Walls ond Roofs Tables 19 and 20 are analogue computer calcula- ions using Schmidt’ method based on the following- 1. Solar heat in July at 40° North latitude. 2 Outdoor daily range of dry-bulb temperatures, 20 deg F. 5. Maximum outdoor temperature of 95 F db and a design indoor temperature of 80 F db, i.e. a design difference of 15 deg F. A, Dark color walls and roofs with absor of 0.90. For light color, absorptivity is 0: for medium color, 0.70. 5. Sun time. ‘The specific heat of most construction materials is approximately 0.20 Btu/(Ib)(deg F); the thermal capacity of typical walls or roofs is proportional to the weight per sq ft; this permits easy interpolation. ity Use of Tables 19 ond 20 = Equivalent Temperature ‘Shaded Walls and Roofs ‘The equivalent temperature differences in Tables 19 and 20 are multiplied by the transmission coeff cients listed in Tables 21 thru 33 to determine the heat gain thru walls and roofs per sq ft of area dur- ing the summer. The total weight per sq ft of walls and roofs is obtained by adding the weights per sq It of each component of a given structure. These weights are shown in italics and parentheses in Tables 21 thru 33. Difference for Sunlit and Example 1 — Equivalent Temperature Difference, Roof Given: ‘A fat roof exposed to the sun, with built-up roofing. 1}4 Jn, insulation, $ in. wood deck and suspended acoustical tite ceiling. ‘Room design temperature = 80 F dby ‘Ouudoor design temperature = 98 F db Daily range = 20 deg F Find: Equivalent temperature difference at 4 pam. July. Solution: ‘Wijag ft = 8-42-42 = 12 tbjag te (Table 27, page 71) Equivalent temperature diflerence ‘= 43 deg F (Table 20, interpolated) Example 2 — oily Ronge ond Design Temperoture Diference Correction [At times the daily range may be more or lest than 20 deg. Fs the difference between outdoor and room design temperatures smay be more or lew than 15 deg F. The corrections to be applied to the equivalent temperature difference for combina tions of these two variables ate listed in the notes following Tables 19 and 2. Given: “The same root as in Example 1 Room design temperature = 78 F db Outdoor design temperature = 95 F db Daily range = 26 deg F Find: aquivalent temperature difference under changed conditions Solation: Design temperature diflerence = 17 deg F Daily range = 26 deg F Correction to equivalent temperature difference = =I deg F (Table 204, interpolated) Equivalent temperature diffrence = 48— 1 = 42 deg F Example 3 — Other Months ond Latitudes ‘Occasionally the heat gain thru a wall or roof raust be known for months abd latitudes other than those listed in Note 3 following Table 20. This equivalent temperature diference is determined from the equation in Note 3. This equation ad just the equivalent ternperature difference for solar radiation only. Additional correction may have to be made for difler- fences herween outdoor and indoor design temperatures other than 15 deg F. Refer to Tables 19 and 20, pages 62 and 63, and to the correction Table 204, Corrections for these difer. ences must be made frst; then the corrected equivalent temperature differences for both sun and shade must be applied in corrections for latitude. Given: 12 in, common Yorick wall facing west, with no interior finish, located in New Orleans, 80° North latitude. Find: [Equivalent temperature difference in November at 12 noon. ‘Solution: ‘The correction for design temperature diflerence is as follows: