R . D.
H o l t z ~
SI Units in Geotechnical Engineering
REFERENCE: Holtz, R. D., "SI Units in Geoteehnleal Engineering,"
Geotechnical Testing Journal, GTJODJ, Vol. 3, No. 2, June 1980, pp.
73-79.
ABSTRACT: A brief description is presented of the International
System of Units (SI) as it might be applied to geotechnical engineering.
Base as well as derived SI units that are of interest to geotechnical
engineers are described in detail, and conversion factors for units in
common usage are given. A few examples of conversions are also
presented.
KEY WORDS: units of measurement, metric system, symbols
Within the scientific and engineering community, there has
always been some confusion as to the proper system of units for
physical measurements and quantities. Many schemes have been
advanced throughout the past few centuries and some, such as the
Imperial or British Engineering system, the so-called metric
system, and a few hybrids, have achieved moderately wide popular
usage. Recently, with the growth of international cooperation and
trade, it has become increasingly apparent that one single, com-
monly accepted system of units would be not only convenient but
also of tremendous practical value.
Even though geotechnical engineering may not have the greatest
confusion of units, it undoubtedly ranks near the top of all fields in
the number of different systems in common usage. Laboratory
engineers, following their counterparts in the physical sciences,
have attempted to use some sort of metric system, usually the cgs
(centimetre-gram-second) system for the simpler laboratory tests.
But they also apply the mks (metre-kilogram-second) system to
measurements of pressure and stress in consolidation and triaxial
tests and use British Engineering units for compaction tests. As
any teacher of soil mechanics can testify, the confusion to the
uninitiated is tremendous. At least practicing geotechnical
engineers in North America have been somewhat consistent in the
use of the British Engineering system for laboratory and field den-
sities, stress measurements, and the like, although they commonly
alternate between pounds per square foot, kips per square foot,
tons per square foot, and pounds per square inch, depending on
how they or their clients feel about the subject. Fortunately, 1 ton-
force per square foot is within 2% of 1 kgf/cm 2, a common
laboratory unit for stress and pressure, and the foundation
engineer using consolidation test data can convert directly with lit-
tle error. Strictly speaking, the use of force as a basic unit is incor-
rect; mass should be the basic unit, with force derived according to
Newton's Second Law of Motion. Use of the kilogram as a unit of
force is one of the difficulties with the so-called metric system, a
modified version of the mks system that was common among con-
IAssociate professor, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University,
W. Lafayette, Ind. 47907. Member of ASTM.
© 1980 by the American Society for Testing and Materials
73
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tinental European engineers. At least they tried to keep the distinc-
tion between mass and force by calling the kilogram-force a "kilo-
pond" (kp).
A modernized version of the metric system has been developing
over the past 30 years. The system is known as SI, which stands for
le Syst~me International d'Unitds (The International System of
Units). It is described in detail in ASTM E 380, the Standard for
Metric Practice, available in the back of every part of the Annual
Book of A S T M Standards. The system may soon become the
common system in the United States and the few other countries
still using Imperial or British Engineering units. In fact, Great
Britain itself converted completely to SI in 1972, and Australia,
Canada, and New Zealand are presently well along the way to
conversion. Most European countries already have de facto
conversion to SI, especially in engineering practice.
The SI Metric System
The SI metric system is a fully coherent and rationalized system.
It is founded on seven basic units: for length (metre, m), mass
(kilogram, kg), time (second, s), electric current (ampere, A),
thermodynamic temperature (kelvin, K), luminous intensity
(candela, cd), and amount of substance (mole). All of these basic
units have precise definitions, names, and symbols. Units for all
other physical quantities can be derived in terms of these basic
units. Sometimes the derived quantities are given specific names,
such as the newton (N) for force and the watt (W) for power. The
derived unit of force replaces the kilogram-force (kgf) of the mks
system so that the name of the unit indicates that it is a unit of
force, not mass. A great advantage is that one and only one unit
exists for each physical quantity, and all other mechanical quan-
tities such as velocity, force, work, and so on can be derived from
the basic units. In addition, the SI units for force, energy, and
power are independent of the nature of the physical process,
whether mechanical, electrical, or chemical.
Another major advantage of SI is that it is a fully coherent system.
This means that a product or quotient of any two unit quantities is
a unit of the resulting quantity. For example, unit length squared
should be unit area, and unit force should be unit mass times unit
acceleration. Obviously, many of the engineering units in common
use (for example, acre, pound-force, or kilogram-force), are not
coherent units. Also, units that might be related to basic units by
powers of ten are not consistent within the SI system. A good ex-
ample is the litre (L), which is a cubic decimetrc. The equivalent
volume of the litre has been defined as exactly 10 - 3 m 3 (1000 cm3).
Additional advantages of SI include the use of unique and well-
defined symbols and abbreviations and the convenient decimal
relation between multiples and submultiples of the basic units.
0149-6115180/0006-0073500.40
74 GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL

Basle and Derived SI Metric Units TABLE 2--Prefixes for $I units.

Factor Prefix Symbol

Base Units
The three base units of interest to geotechnical engineers are 1018 exa E
1015 peta P
length, mass, and time. The SI units for these quantities are the 1012 tern T
metre, the kilogram, and the second. Temperature, which might 109 giga G
also be of interest, is expressed in kelvins, although the system does 106 mega M
allow for use of the degree Celsius (°C), which has the same inter- 103 kilo k
102 hecto h
val. Electric current is expressed in amperes. Supplementary units 101 deka da
include the radian (rad) and steradian (sr), the units of plane and 10- I deci d
solid angle, respectively. 10-2 centi c
As mentioned, these basic SI units have precise physical defini- 10-3 milli m
tions. For example, contrary to a popular misconception, the 10-6 micro /~
10-9 nano n
metre is not the distance between two bars in Paris, but rather has 10-12 pico p
been defined as being exactly equal to a certain number of wave- 10-15 femto f
lengths of radiation corresponding to a specific transition level in 10- Is atto a
krypton 86. The standard kilogram is equal to the mass of the in-
ternational prototype kilogram, a cylinder of platinum-iridium
alloy preserved in a vault at Le Bureau International des Poids et Law, F = Ma, where the mass M is in kilograms, and the accelera-
Mesures at S~vres, France. Similar standard kilograms can also be tion a is in m/s 2, all basic units. For derived combinational units
found at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards near Washington, such as pressure or stress (pascals or newtons per square metre),
D.C. The second has been defined as the duration of a certain multiples and submultiples of the basic metric units (in this case
number of periods of the radiation corresponding to a specific metres) should be avoided. For example, N/cm 2 and N/mm 2 are
transition state in cesium 133. wrong; the appropriate prefix should be used with the numerator
to indicate larger or smaller quantities, for example, kPa (kN/m 2)
or MPa (MN/m2).
Derived Units
Derived units geoteehnical engineers might use are listed in
SI Units of Interest to Geoteehnleal Engineers
Table 1. Prefixes are used to indicate multiples and submultiples
of the basic and derived units. SI prefixes are listed in Table 2. The
Length
prefixes should be applied to indicate orders of magnitude of the
basic or derived units and to reduce redundant zeros so that The SI unit for length, the metre, should already be familiar.
numerical values lie between 0.1 and 1000. They should not be ap- (By the way, metre, not meter, is the recommended ASTM spell-
plied to the denominator of compound units (kilogram is an excep- ing.) Useful SI length multiples and submultiples are the kilometre
tion since it is a basic unit in the SI system). Note that spaces, not (kin), millimetre (ram), micrometre (#m), and nanometre (nm).
commas, should be used to separate groups of zeros. (This latter Conversion factors for common British Engineering and mks units
item was a concession to the Europeans, so that they would stop are given in Table 3.
using a comma where Americans would use a decimal point.) Good SI practice suggests that multiple and submultiple metric
To maintain the coherence of the system, it is recommended that units be used in increments of 1000, for example, millimetre,
only basic units be used to form derived units. For example, the metre, and kilometre. Use of the centimetre, especially for lengths
unit of force, the newton, is derived according to Newton's Second under 300 mm, should be avoided.

TABLE 1--Derived SI units.

Quantity Unit Symbol Formula

acceleration metre per second square m/s 2 ...

area square metre m2
area hectare ha hm2 '104 m2
density kilogram per cubic metre kg/m 3 ...
force newton N kg- m/s2
frequency hertz Hz 1/s
moment or torque newton metre N" m kg. m2/s 2
power watt W J/s
pressure pascal Pa N/m 2
stress pascal Pa N/m 2
unit weight newton per cubic metre N/m3 kg/s 2- m2
velocity metre per second m/s . ..
voltage volt V W/A
volume cubic metre m3
volume litre L dm3 =" 10-3 m3
work (energy) joule J N"m

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TABLE 3--Conversion factors for units of length.
Unit Sl Equivalent
1 inch 25.4 mm = 0.0254 m
1 foot 0.3048 m
1 yard 0.9144 m
1 mile (U.S. statute) 1.609 × 103 m : 1.609 km
1 mile (nautical) 1.852 × 103 m = 1.852 km
1 angstrom 1 X 10- I ° m = 0 . 1 n m
1 mil 2.54 × 10- s m = 0.0254 m m = 25.4/~m
Mass
It will be recalled from physics that the inertia or mass of a
physical object, for which the SI unit is the kilogram, is a measure
of the property that controls the response of that object to an ap-
plied force. It is convenient to measure the mass in terms of the ac-
celeration of an object produced by a unit force, as related by
Newton's Second Law of Motion. Thus, a unit force causes a 1-kg
mass to accelerate at 1 m/s 2. The mass then is an appropriate
measure of the amount of matter an object contains. The mass re-
mains the same even if the object's temperature, shape, or other
physical attributes change. Unlike weight, which will be discussed
later, the mass of an object does not depend on the local gravita-
tional attraction, and thus it is also independent of the object's
location in the universe.
Among all the SI units, the kilogram is the only one whose
name, for historical reasons, contains a prefix. The names of
multiples and submultiples of the kilogram are formed by at-
taching prefixes to the word "gram" rather than to "kilogram." In
other words, 10 - 6 kg is not a microkilogram, but a milligram,
10 - 3 g. Similarly, 1000 kg is not 1 kilokilogram but is equivalent
to 1 megagram (Mg); 1000 kg is also the metric ton, sometimes
spelled "tonne" to avoid confusion with the British ton, which is
equal to 2000 lb. ASTM recommends that metric ton be restricted
to commercial usage, and that the term tonne be avoided
altogether. Practical units of mass in engineering practice are the
megagram, and in laboratory work, the kilogram and gram.
Some useful relationships and conversion factors for units of
mass are given in Table 4.
Time
Although the second is the basic SI time unit, minutes (min),
hours (h), days, and the like may be used where convenient, even
though they are not decimally related. (Maybe some day we will
even have a decimal time system; see Carrigan [1].)
Force
As mentioned, the SI unit of force is derived from F = Ma, and
it is called the newton, equal to 1 kg-m/s 2. Conversion factors for
common engineering force units are given in Table 5.
TABLE 4--Conversion factors for units of mass.
Un~ SI Equivalent
1 pound mass (avoirdupois) 0.4536 kg
1 British (short) ton (2000 Ibm) 907.2 kg
1 gram 10-3 kg
1 metric ton 103kg = 106g = 1Mg
1 slug (1 lb-force per ft/s 2) 14.59 kg
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HOLTZ ON 81 UNITS 75
TABLE 5--Conversion factors for units of force.
Unit SI Equivalent
1 lb-force 4.448 N
1 British ton-force 8.896 × 103 N = 8.896 kN
1 kg-force (kp) 9.807 N
1 kip (1000 lb-force) 4.448 × 103 N = 4.448 kN
1 metric ton-force (1000 kg-force) 9.807 × 103 N = 9.807 kN
1 dyne (g'cm/s 2) 10- s N = 10/~N
It is obvious that the numbers in newtons for such items as col-
umn loads would be very large indeed and consequently somewhat
awkward. Therefore, consistent with the rules for application of
prefixes, it is simple to adjust these rather large numbers to more
manageable quantities for engineering work. The common prefixes
would be kilo-, mega-, and giga-, so that engineering forces would
be expressed in kilonewtons, kN, meganewtons, MN, and
giganewtons, GN. (The symbol for mega is M to avoid confusion
with the symbol for milli, m.) Thus, since 1 ton-force is 8.9 kN,
1000 ton-force would be 8.9 MN. Some useful relationships using
these prefixes are: 2
1 kilonewton (kN) = 103 newton
1 meganewton (MN) = 106 newton : 103 kN
1 figanewton (FN) = 108 newton = 105 kN = 102 MN
1 giganewton (GN) = 109 newton = 106 kN = 103 MN
3 giganewtons = 30 figanewtons = 1 boxafiganewtons3
14.4 giganewtons = 1 grossafiganewtons
The correct unit to express the weight of an object is the newton,
since weight is the gravitational force that causes a downward ac-
celeration of that object. This can be expressed by saying that
weight W equals Mg, where M is the mass of the object and g is the
acceleration of gravity. It will be recalled that the acceleration of
gravity varies with latitude and elevation; thus SI recommends that
weight be avoided and that mass be used instead. If weight must be
used, it is suggested that the location and gravitational accelera-
tion also be stated. However, for most ordinary engineering pur-
poses, the difference in acceleration (about 0.5%) can be
neglected, and as long as we express the weight in newtons, the
units will be consistent.
Another problem with weight is that it is commonly used when
we really mean the mass of an object. For example, in the
laboratory when we "weigh" an object on a laboratory balance, we
really are comparing two masses, that of the unknown object with
that of an object of known mass. Even scales or balances that
displace linear springs are calibrated against objects of known
mass.
Further ambiguity occurs of course because common units of
mass, such as the pound or kilogram, are often used in engineering
practice as a unit of force. If pound is used as a unit of force, then
depending on the resulting accelerations, different mass units are
defined. For example, if t lbf causes an acceleration of 1 ft/s 2,
then the mass is 1 lbf's2/ft, which is called a slug. In other words,
1 lbf = 1 slug X 1 ft/s 2. Using slugs as units of mass avoids the
confusion with pounds as mass, and this unit has been commonly
used in aerodynamics and fluid mechanics.
2Kovacs, W. D., "Conversion factors for kilonewtons per square meter
and common engineering stress units," Purdue University, 1974 (un-
published).
3This unit is only a constant before the box is opened.
76 GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL
If we wanted instead to use a pound-mass system, we would
define a unit of force called the poundal, where 1 poundal = 1 lb-
mass × 1 ft/s 2. Poundals are apparently only found in physics
books.
Some examples illustrating conversion between different mass
units are given in the Appendix to this paper.
Stress and Pressure
The SI unit for stress and pressure is the pascal (Pa), which is
exactly equal to 1 N/m 2. There has been some objection, especially
in Europe, to the use of the pascal as the basic unit of stress and
pressure, because it is so small. The Germans and French, for ex-
ample, often use the bar, which is exactly 105 Pa. However, the
pascal is more logical since it is a coherent unit; that is to say,
equations involving the pascal with other SI units can be written
without coefficients of proportionality being required. Conversion
factors for some common engineering units for stress and pressure
are given in Table 6.
It is obvious that the pascal is a small unit, but, as with SI units
of force, it is easy to add prefixes to make the large numbers more
manageable. Thus, 1 psi in the above table is more conveniently
expressed as 6.9 kPa than as 6.9 × 103 Pa. For ordinary triaxial
testing of soils, for example, hydrostatic cell pressures rarely ex-
ceed 200 or 300 psi (1379 kPa or 2068 kPa). Or, if all the pressures
in a test series are in this range, it might be convenient to use 1.4
MPa or 2.1 MPa. And, as with other systems of units, a rounded or
even interval may be more convenient; in this case, 1.5 MPa and
2.0 MPa.
Similar examples could be given for engineering stresses. Either
kilopaseals or megapascals, kPa or MPa, will become commonly
used for foundation stresses, lateral earth pressures, allowable
bearing values, and the like. In the laboratory, force is measured
by a proving ring or load cell and then converted to stress (for ex-
ample, in the unconfined compression or direct shear tests), so the
computational process will be no more complicated than it is now.
Similarly, with electrical pressure transducers, a calibration factor
must be used to convert millivolts (mV) of output to pressure in
whatever units are used.
A convenient approximation, part of which is already in use in
geotechnical engineering practice, is the following:
1 British ton-force/ft2 = 1 kgf/cm 2 = 1 atm
= 10 metric ton-force/m 2 = 100 kPa
The error involved is between 2 and 4% which is certainly less than
ordinary engineering accuracy requirements.
TABLE 6--Conversion factors for units of pressure and stress.
Unit SI Equivalent
1 psi (lb-force/in. 2) 6.895 × 103 Pa or 6.895 kPa
1 arm at STPa 1.013 × 105 Pa or 101.3 kPa
1 kg-foree/cm2 9.807 × 104 Pa or 98.07 kPa
1 metric ton-force/m 2 9.807 × 103 Pa or 9.807 kPa
1 bar 1 × 10s Paor 100kPa
1 ksi (kip/in.2) 6.895 × 106 Pa or 6.895 MPa
1 British ton-foree/ft 2 95.76 × 103 Pa or 95.76 kPa
1 lb-force/ft2 47.88 Pa
aStandard temperature and pressure, not a motor oil additive or Soil
Test Probe.
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Density and Unit Weight
Density is defined in physics as mass per unit volume. Its units
in the SI system are kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3). In many
cases in geotechnical engineering, it may be more convenient to ex-
press density in megagrams per cubic metre. Conversions from the
common laboratory and field densities are:
1 lb-mass/ft3 = 16.018 kg/m 3
1 g/cm 3 = 103 kg/m 3 ---- 1 Mg/m 3
It will be recalled that the density of water Pw is exactly 1.000
g/cm 3 at 4°C, and the variation is relatively small over the range of
temperatures encountered in ordinary engineering practice.
Therefore, it is usually sufficiently accurate to take Pw = 103
kg/m 3 = 1 Mg/m 3, which considerably simplifies phase computa-
tions, for example. It is also useful to know that 1000 kg/m 3 is
equal to 62.4 lb-mass/ft3.
Typical densities that might be encountered in geotechnical
practice are 1.2 Mg/m 3 (74.8 lb/ft3), 1.6 Mg/m 3 (100 lb/ft3), and
2.0 Mg/m 3 (125 lb/ft3). The commonly used density for concrete,
150 lb/ft 3, is almost exactly 2.4 Mg/m 3.
Note that all mass and volume ratios common in geotechnical
engineering practice are not affected by the use of SI units. For ex-
ample, void ratio or water content of any given soil still has the
same numerical value.
So far, unit weight or weight per unit volume has been the com-
mon measurement in geotechnical engineering. Since weight
should be avoided in technical work for all the reasons discussed
earlier, then unit weight also should be avoided. For this reason,
ASTM Committee D-18 on Soil and Rock recently voted to replace
the standard definitions for unit weight with the appropriate
definitions of density in ASTM D 653, Definitions of Terms and
Symbols Relating to Soil and Rock Mechanics. If density must be
converted to unit weight, then simply use 3' = Pg. Thus the ap-
propriate value for the acceleration of gravity will have to be con-
sidered. The "standard" value of g is 9.807 m/s 2 (32.17 ft/s2),
which can be used with sufficient accuracy for ordinary engineer-
ing work on the earth. If work is to be carried out on the moon or
some other planet, then the local value for g must be used.
For computations of geostatic stresses, the unit weights of the
various soil layers can be easily replaced by the pg of the layers.
The usual formula
n
ffv = i~=l'Yigi
then becomes
av --'~i=
~=1pigzi
where
ov = total vertical stress at some depth
Pl = density of each layer
zi = thickness of each layer
If pg is a constant throughout the depth h, then
o v = pgh
By analogy, computation of the static pore water pressure u o at
some depth h w below the ground water table is
Uo = pwghw
 HOLTZ ON SI UNITS 77

Similarly, to obtain the effective vertical overburden stress, the ef-
fective orbuoyant density p ' for each layer below the ground water
table can be used, or perhaps more simply, O'vo = Ovo -- uo.
Dimensional analysis of these equations for stress shows that if
the densities are expressed in Mg/m 3, then stresses automatically
come out in kPa. Or
(Mg/m3)(m/s2)m = 1000(kg.m)/(s2-m 2) = 1000 N/m 2 = 1 kPa
An example of geostatic stress computations using SI units can be
found in the Appendix.
Summary
The SI system is a fully coherent and rational system of units,
well suited to the measurements ordinarily made in geotechnical
engineering practice. The basic units in the system have precise
names, definitions, and symbols, and the units for all other physi-
cal quantities can be derived in terms of these basic units. Products
or quotients of any two unit quantities are also units of the
resulting quantity. Use of prefixes to indicate multiples and sub-
multiples of units helps to make the numbers more manageable.
One fact of particular interest to geotechnical engineers is that the
SI units of force, stress, and pressure have independent and
precisely defined names and symbols. Use of density instead of
unit weight is not only more correct physically, but also has the ad-
vantage that the density of water is unity (in Mg/m3). The only
minor disadvantage to the use of SI units in geotechnical engineer-
ing practice is that a constant value for the acceleration of gravity
must be included in the computations of geostatic stresses.
Since 1 slug = 14.59 kg, his mass is 68.03 kg. Another way to
calculate his mass is to convert his weight to newtons; then divide
by g:
W = 150 lbf(4.448 N/1 lbf) = 667.20 N or 667.2(kg-m)/s 2
M = W / g = (667.2 kg. m/s2)/(9.807 m/s 2) = 68.03 kg
Next, we have to either ask an astronomer or look up in the
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics the gravitational acceleration
on the surface of the moon. We find that gmoon ~ 1.67 m/s 2.
Thus,
Wmoon : Mgmoon : 68.03 kg (1.67 m/s 2) = 1t3.62 N
Or, since 4.448 N = 1 lbf,
Wraoon = 113.62 N (1 1bf/4.448 N) = 25.54 lbf
Check: On earth,
667 N(1.67/9.81) = 113.6 N on the moon
Example 2
Given: The density of water Pw = 1 Mg/m 3.
Required: Calculate the density of water in (a) g/cm 3 and (b)
lb/ft 3.
Solution: Set up an equation as follows for Part a.

1 Mg/m 3 -----1 Mg/m 3" (106 g / 1 Mg)(1 m/100 era) 3 = 1 g/cm 3

Acknowledgments
This article has been adapted by permission from an appendix For Part b:
to an introductory textbook on geotechnical engineering by R. D.
Holtz and W. D. Kovacs, which will be published in 1981 by 1 Mg/m 3 = 1 Mg/m 3- (103 kg/1 Mg)
Prentice-Hall, Inc. The original version was written in 1969 while
(1 1bm/0.4536 kg)(0.3048 m/1 ft) 3 = 62.43 lbm/ft 3
the author was a graduate student at Northwestern University. The
support and encouragement of Prof. R. J. Krizek is gratefully
acknowledged. The text was typed by Catherine Minth and the where Ibm = pound-mass.
drawings were made by Margaret McFarren. Another way to solve Part b is to recall that 1 ibm/ft 3 = 16.018
kg/m3; so
Reference
1 Mg/m 3 = 1 Mg/m 3. (103 kg/1 Mg)
[1] Carrigan, R. A., "Decimal Time," American Scientist, Vol. 66, No. 3,
May-June 1978, pp. 305-313. × (1 lbm/ft3/16.018 kg/m 3) = 62.43 lbm/ft 3

APPENDIX Example 3
Computations and Conversions That Use SI
Given: The density of water Pw = 1 Mg/m 3.
UnRs Required: Convert this density to unit weight in (a) SI and (b)
Example 1 British Engineering units.
Solution: (a) SI units: We know that 3' = Pg; so
Given: Neff Armstrong weighs 150 lb on earth.
Required: How much does he weigh on the surface of the
moon? 3' = 1 Mg/m 3" (103 kg/1 Mg). 9.807 m/s 2
Solution: First, we have to calculate Mr. Armstrong's mass = 9807(kg. m)/(m 3- s2)
on earth. Unless he had health problems during the voyage, his
mass will be the same on the moon.
Since 1 N = 1 kg. m/s 2, then
M = W / g = (1501bf)/(32.17 ft/s 2)
= 4.66(lbf-s2)/ft = 4.66 slugs = 9807 N/m 3 = 9.807 kN/m 3

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78 GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL

(b) British Engineering units: From Example 2 we know that 1 For the sand below the water table:
M g / m 3 = 62.43 l b m / f t 3. Therefore,
Psat = (Ps + pwe)/(1 + e)
7 = 62.43 lbm/ft 3. 32.17 f t / s 2 = 2008(lbm-ft)/(s2-ft 3) = (2.65 + 1.0-0.5)/(1 + 0.5) = 2.10 M g / m 3

= 2008 poundals/ft 3
where Psat = saturated density. For the clay:

If lbf are used, from Part a, Psat = [Ps( 1 + w)]/(1 + e) =

[2.7(1 + 0.37)]/(1 + 1.0) = 1.85 M g / m 3
7 = 9.807 k N / m 3- (1000 N/lkN)(1 1bf/4.448 N)

x (0.3048 m/1 ft) 3 = 62.43 lbf/ft 3 l)ep~,m

0
This is of course the familiar value for the unit weight of water. ~Jn: 6 %

-2 V
.--4-
Ps = 2.65 Mg/m 3
Example 4
SAND •n = 19%
Given: The soil profile shown in Fig. 1.
e:O.5
Required: Compute and plot the total, neutral, and effective
vertical stresses with depth. -6
Solution: First, calculate the approximate soil densities. For the
sand above the water table:
= 2.7 Mg/m 3

Pd = Ps/( 1 + e) = 2.65/(1 + 0.5) = 1.77 M g / m 3 ¢~n: 3 7 %

CLAY
e:l.O
p = Pd(1 4- w) = 1.77(1.06) = 1.87 M g / m 3

where

Pd : dry density,
Ps = density of soil solids, -I 4//~y/X~X//~)F/
e = void ratio, and
w = water content. FIG. 1--Soil profile for Example 4.

Depth,m Total Vertical Stress, O'vo , kPa Neutral Stress, ¢./-o,RPa Effective Vertical Stress, cr~to, k Pa
0 I00 200 0 I00 0 leO 200
0 I I i I i

-2 37

-4

-6

-8

-I0

-12

-14 264 118 146

FIG. 2--Total neutral, and effective vertical stress profiles for Example 4.

Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Fri Apr 1 08:46:32 EDT 2011
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 HOTTZ ON SI UNITS 79

Second, calculate the total vertical stress ovo at a few convenient
points in the profile. At --2 m:
o ~ = p g z = (1.87 Mg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)2 m =
36.69(Mg • m)/(s 2. m 2)
Recall that 1 k g . m / s 2 = 1 N and 1 N / m 2 = 1 Pa. So 1
(Mg-m)/(s2"m 2) --- 1 kPa. Therefore, 36.69(Mg'm)/(s2.m 2) =
36.69 kPa or 37 kPa. Note that if densities are expressed in
M g / m 3, vertical stress comes out automatically in kPa. At --6 m:
Ovo = 37 kPa + ( 2 . 1 ) ( 9 . 8 1 ) ( 4 ) = 119 kPa, and so on. Pore water
pressures are calculated using u o = p w g h w . For example, at
--6 m:
uo = (1 Mg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)(4 m) = 39 kPa
The complete total, neutral, and effective vertical stress profiles
are shown in Fig. 2.

Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Fri Apr 1 08:46:32 EDT 2011
Downloaded/printed by
Universidade de Braslia pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorized.