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French Revolution
French Revolution
Conditions in France were vastly different from those in the New World, but many of the same
revolutionary ideas were at work. The French Revolution, however, was more world-shaking
than the American. It became a widespread upheaval over which no one could remain neutral.
Third Estate
The rest of the people of France were called the Third Estate. They were the common people and
numbered about 95 per cent of the total population. People of the Third Estate were the
unprivileged people. However, there were many differences in their wealth and style of living.
The Peasants
The largest section of ‘the Third Estate consisted of the peasants, almost 80 per cent of
the total population of France. The lives of this vast class were wretched. Most of the
peasants were free, unlike the serfs in the Middle Ages, and unlike the serfs in eastern
Europe in the 18th century. Many owned their own lands. But a great majority of the
French peasants were landless or had very small holdings.
They could earn hardly enough for subsistence. The plight of the tenants and share-
croppers was worse. After rents, the peasant’s share was reduced to one-third or one-
fourth of what he produced. The people who worked on land for wages lived on even
less.
Certain changes in agriculture in the 18th century France further worsened the condition
of the peasant. He could no longer take wood from the forests or graze’ his flocks on
uncultivated land. The burden of taxation was intolerable. Besides taxes, there was also
‘forced labour’ which had been a feudal privilege of the lord and which was more and
more resorted to for public works. There were taxes for local roads and bridges, the
church, and other needs of the community. A bad harvest under these conditions
inevitably led to starvation and unrest.
The Monarchy
At the head of the French state stood the king, an absolute monarch. Louis XVI was the
king of France when the revolution broke out.
He was a man of mediocre intelligence, obstinate and indifferent to the work of the
government. Brain work, it is said, depressed him.
His beautiful but ‘empty-headed’ wife, Marie Antoinette, squandered money on
festivities and interfered in state appointments in order to promote her favorites. Louis,
too, showered favours and pensions upon his friends.
The state was always faced by financial troubles as one would expect. Keeping huge
armies and waging wars made matters worse. Finally, it brought the state to bankruptcy.
Napoleonic Wars
From 1792 to 1815, France was engaged in war almost continuously. It was a war
between France and other states. Some historians have termed it as an international civil
war because it was fought between revolutionary France and countries upholding the old
order. In this war, France was alone.
However, until Napoleon became emperor, almost every enlightened person in the world
sympathized with the French Revolution.
Between 1793 and 1796 French armies conquered almost all of western Europe. When
Napoleon pressed on to Malta, Egypt and Syria (1797-99), the French were ousted from
Italy.
After Napoleon seized power, France recovered the territories she had lost and defeated
Austria in 1805, Prussia in 1806, and Russia in 1807. On the sea the French could not
score against the stronger British navy.
Finally, an alliance of almost all Europe defeated France at Leipzig in 1813. These allied
forces later occupied Paris, and Napoleon was defeated. His attempt at recovery was
foiled at the battle of Waterloo in June 1815. The peace settlement, which involved all
Europe, took place at the Congress of Vienna.
After the defeat of Napoleon, the old ruling dynasty of France was restored to power.
However, within a few years, in 1830, there was another outbreak of revolution.
In 1848, the monarchy was again overthrown though it soon reappeared.
Finally, in 1871, the Republic was again proclaimed.