TRS cutichii@iok covers funda- Méal'al concepte In the analysis and deal gis ulwerogpach structures. It de- valops analytical ipols for Ihe pre: dictlon and adaesemont of structural behavior that are highly useful re- gordiaea of the field in which they are applled, Tha book makes readers aware af important factors to con- alder In the design of structural gomponents, Including basic olastic- ly relationships and material be havior and selection. A very current volurne, It offers @ working knowl- gage of both classieal and modern computer techniques used in struc- tural analysis, Included is a great deal of highly practical information, such a8 load analyses of flight vehi- les and the analysis and design of apedlfic fllght vehicle structural components. A great variety of analytlaat techniques ts covered, i cluding energy methods, the fi difference method, and the stiffness matrix methods in the deflection analyela of structures. The many it- fustrative examples In every section fopeatedly use theoretical cevolop- mante to solve practical problems. An oxdallent collection of stim- ulating supplementary problems offers readers extra holp in under- standing concepts. Tha naw edition foaturas oxionsive new rraterial ona varlaty of top inctuding thermal strons analy: {inte differences, matrix mathods, epargy metheds, and olastichy to latlonabipa. the book haw boon brought completaly up to-date, thanks le coverage of how mathods of etructital analysts for complex SHUEH FAs BL few Gotirenienti ia Hugig ter high apood Hight vaiictan THe odio hae tio boon revined to plete grader emphaale an tha tn POLL HEAT Integrating the conneptis fin, li and denignSI metric conversion factors Quantity To convert from To Multiply by Area square feet (ft?) square meter (m?) 0.0929 Bending moment (pound-force) (feet) newton-meters 1.356 or torque Degree (heat) Fahrenheit (°F) Celsius (°C) T =(F - 32) Force pound-force (Ibf) newton (N) 4448 kilogram-force (kgf) kyne Force per unit pound-force per feet newtons per meter 14,594 length (N/m) Length foot (ft) meters (m) 03048 inch (in) centimeter (em) 00254 Mass pound (Ibm) kilogram (kg) 0.4536 Mass density pound-mass per cubic kilogram per cubic 16.021 foot (lbm/ft*) meter (kg/m?) Stress pound-force per square —_ pascal (Pa) 6.894 x 10° (pressure) inch (Ibffin?) Velocity foot per second (ft/s) meter per second 0.3048 (m/s) Viscosity pound-force per inches newtons per meter to-3 centipoise (N/m) pound force second (Pa: s) 47.88 per square foot (Ibf + s/ft*)AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES Second Edition David J. Peery, pb.v. Late Professor of Aeronautical Engineering The Pennsylvania State University. J.J. Azar, pho. Professor of Petroleum and Mechanical Engineering University of Tulsa McGraw-Hill Book Company New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotit Hamburg Johannesburg London Madrid Mexico Montreal New Delhi Panama Paris Sio Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo TorontoTo THE MEMORY OF Dr. David Peery This book was sct in Times Roman by Santyy The editors were Diane D. Heiberg and J. W. Mai the production supervisor was Charles Hess. New drawings were done by J & R Services, Inc. The cover was designed by Kao & Kuo Associates. Halliday Lithograph Corporation printer and binder. Byrd. 13 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES: Copyright @ 1982 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. Copyright 1950 by McGraw-Hill, Inc, All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 234567890 HDID 89876543 ISBN O-0?-O491L9b-8 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Peery. David J. raft structures. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Airframes. I. Azar, Jamal J., date U. Title TLOTI.GP4 1982 629.1341 81-17196 ISBN 0-07-149196-8 AACR2CONTENTS Preface ix Chapter L_ Static Analysis of Structures 1 Lt Introduction 1 1.2 Structural System 1 4.3 Load Classification 2 1.4 Supports and Reactions 3 LS Equations of Static Equilibrium 5 1.6 Statically Determinate and Indeterminate Structures 6 1.7 Applications 7 Problems. 21 Chapter 2. Flight-Vehicle Imposed Loads 26 2.1 Introduction 26 2.2 General Considerations 26 2.3 Basic Flight Loading Conditions 27 2.4. Plight-Vehicle Aerodynamic Loads 31 2.5 Flight-Vehicle Inertia Loads 34 2.6 Load Factors for Translational Acceleration 37 2.7 Velocity-Load Factor Diagram 41 2.8 Gust Load Factors 4B 2.9 Examples 46 Problems 58 Chapter 3 Elasticity of Structures 62 3.1 Introduction 62 3.2. Stresses 62 3.3. Stress Equilibrium Equations in a Nonuniform Stress Field 65 3.4 Strains and Strain-Displacement Relationships 66 3.5. Compatibility Equations for Piane-Stress and Plane-Strain Problems 69 3.6 Boundary Conditions 70vi CONTENTS 37 38 Chapter 4 41 42 43 44 4S 46 47 Chapter 5 S.A 5.2 5.3 54 55 5.6 57 58 59 5.10 sat Chapter 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 68 69 6.10 611 6.12 Chapter 7 TA 12 Stress-Strain Relationships Transformation of Stresses and Strains Problems Behavior and Evaluation of Vehicle Material Tntroduction Mechanical Properties of Materials Equations for Stress-Strain Curve Idealization Fatigue Strength-Weight Comparisons of Materials Sandwich Construction Typical Design Data for Materials Problems Stress Analysis Introduction Force-Stress Relationships Normal Stresses in Beams Shear Stresses in Beams Shear Flow in Thin Webs Shear Center Torsion of Closed-Section Box Beams Shear Flow in Closed-Section Box Beams Spanwise Taper Effect Beams with Variable Stringer Areas Airy Stress Function Problems Deflection Analysis of Structural Systems Introduction Work and Complementary Work: Strain and Complementary Strain Energies Principle of Virtual Displacements and Related Theorems Principle of Virtual Forces and Related Theorems Linear Flastic Structural Systems Castigliano’s Second Theorem in Deflection Analysis of Structures Rayleigh-Ritz Method in Deflection Analysis of Structures Finite Difference Method in Deffection Analysis of Structures Redundant Structures dnd the Unit-Load Method Structures with Single Redundancy Structures with Multiple Redundancy Shear Lag Problems Finite Element Stiffness Method in Structural Analysis Introduction Mathematical Model of the Structure a 73 15 8 78 9 92 95 7 97 7 101 107 109 112, 113 Hg. 122 126 130 139 139 140 140 144 147 150 156 158 165 167 1733 181 186 190 190 19173 14 1S 16 11 78 19 7.10 TAL TAZ Chapter 8 81 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 Chapter 9 91 92 93 94 95 9.6 Chapter 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 CONTENTS vii Element Discretization Applications of Finite Element Matrix Method Coordinate System Forces, Displacements, and Their Sign Convention Stiffness Method Concept Formulation Procedures for Element Structural Relationships Element Shape Functions Flement Stiffness Matrices From Element {o System Formulations Global Stiffness Matrices for Special Beam Elements Problems Analysis of Typical Members of Semimonocoque Structures Introduction Distribution of Concentrated Loads to Thin Webs Loads on Fuselage Bulkheads Analysis of Wing Ribs Shear Flow in Tapered Webs Cutouts in Semimonocoque Structures Shearing Deformations Torsion of Box Beams Elastic Axis or Shear Center Warping of Beam Cross Sections Redundancy of Box Beams Torsion of Multicell Box Beams Beam Shear in Multicell Structures Problems Thermal Stresses Introduction ‘Thermal Stress Problem: Philosophy Formulation of Equations for Thermal Stress Analysis, Solution Methods for Thermoelastic Problems Thermal Stresses in Unrestrained Beams with Temperature Variation through the Depth Only Thermal Stresses in Built-up Structures Problems Design of Members in Tension, Bending, or Torsion Tension Members Plastic Bending Constant Bending Stress Trapezoidal Distribution of Bending Stress Curved Beams Torsion of Circular Shafts Torsion of a Noncircular Shaft 191 192 192 194 197 202 207 209 2ut 214 226 233 233 238 243 251 260 261 263 266 269 270 272 275 279 279 281 284 289 291 295 299 299 300 302 304 307 310 iLviii CONTENTS: 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 Chapter 11 Tt 112 113 14 ILS 16 17 18 ig 11.10 HU HZ 1ht3 Wd 1s 11.16 VAT 1B tar) Chapter 12 124 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 End Restraint of Torsion Members Torsional Stresses above the Elastic Limit Combined Stresses and Stress Ratios Failure Theories in Structural Design Problems Buckling Design of Structural Members Beam-Deflection Equations Long Columns Eccentrically Loaded Columns Short Columns Column End Fixity Empirical Formulas for Short Columns Dimensionless Form of Tangent Modulus Curves Buckling of Isotropic Flat Plates in Compression Ultimate Compressive Strength of Isotropic Flat Sheet Plastic Buckling of Flat Sheet Nondimensional Buckling Curves Columns Subject to Local Crippling Failure Needham and Gerard Methods for Determining Crippling Stresses Curved Sheet in Compression Elastic Shear Buckling of Flat Plates Elastic Buckling of Curved Rectangular Plates Pure Tension Field Beams Angle of Diagonal Tension in Web Semitension Field Beams Problems Joints and Fittings Introduction Bolted or Riveted Joints Accuracy of Fitting Analysis Eccentrically Loaded Connections Welded Joints Problems Appendixes Moments of Inertia and Mohr’s Circle Matrix Algebra References Index 316 37 320 325 327 328 328 330 331 332 334 339 342 344 349 353 357 358 362 364 368 370 373 377 380 387 389 389 390 395 401 408 409 434 446 430PREFACE ‘The purpose of this book is (wofuld: (1) to provide the reader with fundamental concepts in the analysis and design of flight structures, and (2) to develop unified analytical tools for the prediction and assessment of structural behavior re- gardless of field application. The text is written in a manner which allows the reader to develop a work- ing knowledge in both the classical and the modern computer techniques of structural analysis. In addition, it helps the reader develop a thorough under- standing of the important factors which must be considered in the design of structural components. The scope covers areas that the authors feel are essential fundamentals from which the reader may progress to the analysis and design of more complex and larger structural systems. The definitions of structural systems and its con- stiluents, loads, supports and reactions, the concepts in statics, and the funda- mental principles of mechanics are covered in the first portion of the book. The basic elasticity relations (stress-strain, strain displacements, etc), and material behavior and selection’ are discussed. Load analysis of flight vehicles and the analysis and design of specific flight-vehicle structural components are presented. Fatigue analysis, thermal stress analysis, and instability analysis of structures are also included. Energy methods, finite-difference methods, and the stiffness matrix metliods in the deflection analysis of structures are provided. Numerous examples are solved in every section of the book to close the gap between the theoretical developments and its application in solving practical problems. The book is written for a first course in structural analysis and design. It is intended for senior-level students. The essential prerequisites are strength of ma- terials and a basic course in calculus. The book also serves as an excellent reference for the practicing engineer. J.J. Azar ixCHAPTER ONE STATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 11. INTRODUCTION The full understanding of both the terminology in statics and the fundamental principles of mechanics is an essential prerequisite to the analysis and design of structures. Therefore, this chapter is devoted to the presentation and the appli- cation of these fundamentals. 1.2 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM Any deformable solid body which is capable of carrying loads and transmitting these loads to other parts of the body is referred to as a structural system. The constituents of such systems are beams, plates, shells, or a combination of the three. Bar elements, such as shown in Fig, 1.1, are one-dimensional structural mem- bers which are capable of carrying and transmitting bending, shearing, torsional, and axial loads or a combination of all four. Bars which are capable of carrying only axial loads are referred to as axial rods or two-force members. Structural systems constructed cntircly out of axial rods are called rrusses and frequently are used in many atmospheric, sea, and land-based structures, since simple tension or compression members are usually the lightest for transmitting forces. Plate elements, such as shown in Fig. 1.2, are two-dimensional extensions of bar elements. Plates made to carry only in-plane axial loads are called mem-2 AMCRAET STRUCTURES @ 1 Hee Ss . ow ( A» sx —__ - ___.. __(|_ (-_- 4 Figure 1.1 Bar elements. (a) Gen- A eral bar: (b) axial rod; (e} tor- © sional rod. branes. Those which are capable of carrying only in-plane shearing loads are referred to as shear panels; frequently these are found in missile fins, aircraft wings, and tail surfaces. Shells are curved plate clements which occupy a space. Fusclages, building domes, pressure vessels, etc., are typical examples of shells. 13 LOAD CLASSIFICATION Loads which act on a structural system may be gencrally classified in accordance with their causes. Those which are produced by surface contact are called surface loads. Dynamic and/or static pressures are examples of surface loads. If the area of contact is very small, then the load is said to be concentrated; otherwise, it is called a distributed load. (Sec Fig. 1.3.) Loads which depend on body volume are called body loads, Inertial, mag- netic, and gravitational forces are typical examples. Generally, these loads are assumed to be distributed over the entire volume of the body. Loads also may be categorized as dynamic, static, or thermal. Dynamic loads are time-dependent, whereas static loads are independent of time. Thermal loads are created on a restrained structure by a uniform and/or nonuniform temper- ature change. Regardless of the classification of the externally imposed loads, a structural member, in general, resists these loads internally in the form of bending, axial, shear, and torsional actions or a combination of the four. In order to present definitions for internal loads, pass a hypothetical plane soSTATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 3. a + Figure 1.2 Plate elements. (a) ‘ee General plate clement; (6) mem- © brane element; (c) shear panel. that it cuts the face of a structural member perpendicular to the member axis, as shown in Fig. 1.4. Thus, a bending moment may be defined as a force whose vector representation lies in and parallel to the plane of the cut, while a torque is a force whose vector representation is normal to that cut. On the other hand, shear load is a force which lies in and is parallel to the planc of the cut, while axial load is a force which acts normal to the plane of the cut. 1.4 SUPPORTS AND REACTIONS The primary function of supports is to provide, at some points of a structural system, physical restraints that limit the freedom of movement to only that4 AIRCRAFT: STRUCTURES Wy és it "Y KS ‘J R @ . ny 7a) Figure 1.3 Concentrated and distributed loads. (a) Actual loads: (h) idealized loads; (c) wing pressure load. intended in the design. The types of supports that occur in ordinary practice are shown in Fig, 1.5. The forces induced at points of support are called reactions. For example, a hinge support is designed to allow only rotation at the point of connection, and Figure 1.4 = axial load, Ib; M, = T = torque, Ib-in; Mf,. M,= bending moment(s), Ib-in; ¥,, shear loads, 1b.STATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 5 Pi " Pin a = Ko Koller s Re Ry Knife edge Ao, ee — |—— Knife edge . y R,| ay @ M, . ye Fo — 5 -R, 5 ° Tk, - af @ © Figure 1.5 Support types. (a) Hinge support; (h) hinge-roller support; (c) fixed support; (d) fixed-roller support. thus reactive forces (reactions) are developed in the other directions where move- ments are not allowed. Likewise, a hinge-roller support allows rotation and a translation in only the x direction, and hence there exists one reactive force (reaction) in the y direction. A fixed support normally is designed to provide restraints against rotation and allstranslations; therefore, reactive forces and moments (reactions) are developed along the directions where movements are not permitted. 1.5 EQUATIONS OF STATIC EQUILIBRIUM One of the first steps in the design of a structural system is the determination of internal loads acting on each system member. Any solid body in space or any part cut out of the body is said to be in a state of stable static equilibrium if it simultaneously satisfies: (i =x, y, 2) (Al) where & F; = 0 implics that the vector sum of all forces acting on the system or on part of it must add to zero in any one direction along a chosen set of system axes x, y, and z; likewise, £ M; = 0 means that the vector sum of all moments at6 MRCRAFT STRUCTURES: any presclected point must add to zero around any one of the chosen set of axes x, yyand z. While Faq. (1-1) applics for general space structures, for the case of planar- type structures it reduces to (=x) (1.2) Note that only six independent equations exist for any free body in space and three independent equations exist for a coplanar free body. If, for cxample, an attempt is made to find four unknown forces in a coplanar free body by using the two force equations and moment equations at two sclected points, the four equations cannot be solved because they are not independent (ie., one of the equations can be derived from the other three). The following equations cannot be solved for the numerical values of the three unknowns because they are not independent: Fi + F,+F3=3 Fy + Fy 42Fy=4 2F,+2F,4+3F,;=7 In matrix form these are as follows. riaiyfAy=f3 112] ]F, 4 223} Le%J=L7 The third equation may be obtained by adding the first two equations, and consequently it does not represent an independent condition. The dependence of these equations is more readily established if an attempt is made to find the inverse of the 3 x 3 matrix of coefficients. It can be shown casily that the deter- minant of the matrix is zero; hence equation dependence does, in fact, exist. A matrix whose determinant is zero is said to be sinytdar and therefore cannot be inverted. 1.6 STATICALLY DETERMINATE AN’ INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES A structure is said to be determinate if all its external reactions and the internal loads on its members can be obtained by utilizing only the static equa- tions of equilibrium, Otherwise the structure is said to be statically indeterminate. In the latter, or what is commonly referred to as a redundant structure, there are more unknown forces than the number of independent equations of statics which can be utilized. The additional equations required for the analysis of redundant structures can be obtained by considering the deformations (displacements) in theSTATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 7 Figure 1.6 Indeterminate structures. structure. This is studied in detail in later chapters. External reactions, internal loads, or a combination of both may cause a structural system to be statically redundant. The number of redundancies in a structure is governed by the number of external reactions and/or the number of members that may be taken out without the stability of the structure being affected. For example, in Fig. 1.6c if member 1-3 and/or reaction Rg, is removed, then the structure becomes stati- cally determinate and maintains its stability. Likewise, in Fig. 1.6b if members 2-4 and 2-6 and either reaction Rp, or R3, are removed, then the structure becomes determinate and stable. If, on the other hand, additional members such as 3-5 and 1-5 are removed, then the structure becomes a mechanism or un- stable. Mechanisms cannot resist loads and therefore are not used as structural systems. 1.7 APPLICATIONS While the set of [Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2)] is simple and well known, it is very important for a student to acquire proficiency in the application of these equa- tions to various types of structural systems. Several typical structural systems are_ analyzed as illustrative examples. Example 1.1 Find the internal toads acting on each member of the structure shown in Fig, 1.7. SOLUTION First, disassemble the structure as shown in Fig. 1.8 and make a free-body diagram for each member. Since members 1-2 and 4-6 are two- force members (axial rods), the forces acting on them are along the line joining the pin joints of these members. All directions of forces are chosen arbitrarily and must be reversed if a negative value is obtained; that is, F, is assumed to act to the right on the horizontal member and therefore must act to the lefi since its magnitude came to be negative.8 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES 1000 tb Figure 1.7 For the pulley EM, =0(4+0) 1000 x 2—2T =0 T = 1000 1b ZF, =0(+) Figure £.8 Disassembled structure.STATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 9 Fz, — 1000 =0 Fy, = 1000 Ib EF, =0(+1) F;,— 1000 =0 Fy, = 1000 Ib For member 3-6-7, =M;=0(+) 1000 x 7—24F, =0 Fy = 2915 Ib =0(*%) F3, + 2915 cos 36.9° — 1000 = 0 Fy, = —1335 Ib ZF, =0(+ 1) Fy, + 2915 sin 36.9° — 1000 = 0 Fy, = —750 Ib Since the magnitudes of F, and F3, came to be negative, the assumed direc- tion must be reversed. A common practice is to cross out (rather than erase) the original arrows. For member 2-3-4-5, IMs =0(+ 7) 1335 x 5 — 2915 x 2 cos 36.9° — 4F, = 0 F, = 500 Ib EF, =0( 45) Fs, — 2915 cos 36.9° + 1335 — 500 cos 60° = 0 Fs, — 1250 Ib EF, = 06+) ‘sy — 2915 sin 36.9" + 750 — 500 sin 60° = 0 Fs, = 1433 Id Now all internal loads have been obtained without the use of the entire structure as a free body. The solution is checked by applying the three10 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES equations of equilibrium to the entire structure: =F, =0(+) 1250 — 1000 — 500 cos 60° = 0 EF, =0(+1) 1433 — 1000 — 500 sin 60° = 0 =IMs=0(+0) 1000 x 9 — 1000 x 7— 500 x 4=0 This equilibrium check should be made wherever possible to detect any errors that might have occurred during the analysis. Example 1.2 Find the internal load in member 5 of the coplanar truss struc- ture shown in Fig, 1.9, SOLUTION Several methods are available for analyzing truss structures; two are discussed and applied in solving this example. (a) Method of joints. In the analysis of a truss by the method of joints, the two equations of static equilibrium, ZF, = 0 and ZF, = 0, are applied for each joint as a free body. Two unknown forces may be obtained for each joint. Since each member is an axial rod (two-force member), it exerts equal and opposite forces on the joints at its ends. The joints of a truss must be analyzed in sequence by starting at a joint which has only two members meeting with unknown forces. Then the joints are analyzed in the proper sequence until all joints have been considered, if necessary. To find the unknown reactions, consider the entire structure as a free body. EM, =0(+.0) 2000 x 10 + 4000 x 10 + 1000 x 30 — 20R., = 0 Reg = 4500 Ib 4000 1b 10 in—+}+—10 ae in—+| Rey| Figure 1.9 Truss structure.STATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES IT EF, =0(+) 2000 — Ray Ray = 2000 Ib EF,=0(+9) Ra, — 4000 ~ 1000 + 4500 = 0 Ra, = 500 Ib The directions of unknown forces in each member are assumed, as in the previous example, and vectors are changed on the skeich when they are found to be negative. (Sec Fig. 1.10) Isolating joint 4, we have IF, =0(+ +) F, — 2000 =0 F, = 2000 Ib =F, =0(+1) 500 — F, =0 F, = 500 Ib Isolating joint 1 gives EF, =0(+1) 500 — Fy sin 45° = 0 Fy = 707 Ib 500) fs IF, =0(+ +) 2000 + 707 cos 45" — Fy = 0 Fy = 2500 Ib Figure 1.1012 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES 1000 1» Finally, isolating joint 5 to obtain the load in member 5, we get =F, =0(+1) 707 707 sin 45° — Fs = 0 Fs = 500 Ib Fe Arrows acting toward a joint indicate that a member is in com- pression, and arrows acting away from a joint indicate tension. (b) Method of sections. As in this example, often it is desirable to find the internal loads in certain selected members of a truss without analyzing the entire truss. Usually the method of joints is cumbersome in this case, since the loads in all the members to the left or right of any member must be obtained before the force is found in that particular member. An analysis by the method of sections will yield the internal load in any preselected member by a single operation, without the necessity of finding loads in the other members. Instead of considering the joints as free bodies, a cross section is taken through the truss and the part of the truss on either side is considered as a free body. The cross section is chosen so that it culs the members for which the forces are desired and preferably only three members. In our example, the internal load in member 5 is desired; the free body is as shown in Fig. 1.11. The load in member 5 may be found by summing forces in the y direction on either part of the cut truss. Con- sidering the left part as a free body, we get ZF,=0(+ 1) 500 — Fs, =0 F, = 500 Ib Example 1.3 Analyze the structural system shown in Fig. 1.12. SOLUTION Quite often, structural systems are made up largely of axial rods but contain some members which are loaded laterally, as shown in Fig. 1.12.