28 —Chopter 2 Tonsttvens in Wostewotor 27 2-8 2-9 Total and Soluble Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD and SCOD) 93 Total and Dissolved Organic Carbon (TOC and DTOC) 94 UV-Absorbing Organic Constituents 95 Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) 96 Interrelationships between BOD; COD, and TOC 96 Oil and Grease 98 Surfactants 98 INDIVIDUAL ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 99 Priority Pollutants 99 Analysis of Individual Organic Compounds 100 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 100 Disinfection Byproducls 102 Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals 102 Emerging Organic Compounds 102 BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS 104 Microorganisms Found in Surface Waters and Wastewater 104 Pathogenic Organisms 109 Use of Indicator Organisms 115 Enumeration and Identification of Bacteria 118 Enumeration and Identification of Viruses 126 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 129 Development of Microorganisms Typing Techniques © 130 New and Reemerging Microorganisms 130 TOXICITY TESTS 130 Toxicity:Terminology 131 Toxicity Testing 133 Analysis of Toxicity Test Results 134 Application of Toxicity Test Resulls 136 Identification of Toxicity Components 137 PROBLEMS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS 139 REFERENCES 148 An understanding of the nature of wastewater is essential in the design and operation of collection, treatment, and reuse facilities, and in the engineering management of envi- ronmental quality. To promote this understanding, the information in this chapter is pre- sented in nine sections dealing with (1) an introduction to the constituents found in ‘wastewater, (2) sampling and analytical procedures, (3) physical characteristics, (4) inor- ganic nonmetallic constituents, (5) metallic constituents, (6) aggregate organic con- stituents, (7) individual organic constituents and compounds, (8) biological character- istics, and (9) toxicity tests. The material in this chapter has been organized in a manner similar to that used in Standard Methods (1998), the standard reference work for the characterization of wastewater in the field of environmental engineering.2-2 242 Sampling and Analytical Procedures. 29 ‘WASTEWATER CONSTITUENTS ‘The physical, chemical, and biological constituents found in wastewater and the con- stituents of concern in wastewater are introduced briefly in the following discussion. Constituents Found in Wastewater Wastewater is characterized in terms of its physical, chemical, and biological composi- tion. The principal physical properties and the chemical and biological constituents of wastewater, and their sources, are reported in Table 2-1. It should be noted that many of the physical properties and chemical and biological characteristics listed in Table 2-1 are interrelated. For example, temperature, a physical property, affects both the amounts of gases dissolved in the wastewater and the biological activity in the wastewater. Constituents of Concern in Wastewater Treatment ‘The important constituents of concem in wastewater treatment are listed in Table 2-2. Secondary treatment standards for wastewater are concemed with the removal of biodegradable organics, total suspended solids, and pathogens. Many of the more strin- gent standards that have been developed recently deal with the removal of nutrients, heavy metals, and priority pollutants. When wastewater is to be reused, standards nor- mally include additional requirements for the removal of refractory organics, heavy metals, and in some cases, dissolved inorganic solids. SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES Proper sampling and analytical techniques are of fundamental importance in the char- acterization of wastewater. Sampling techniques, the methods of analysis, the units of measurement for chemical constituents, and some useful concepts from chemistry are considered below. ‘Sampling ‘Sampling programs are undertaken for a variety of reasons such as to obtain (1) routine operating data on overall plant performance, (2) data that can be used to document the performance of a given treatment operation or process, (3) data that can be used to iplement proposed new programs, and (4) data needed for reporting regulatory com- pliance. To meet the goals of the sampling program, the data collected must be: 1. Representative. The data must represent the wastewater or environment being sampled, 2. Reproducible. The data obtained must be reproducible by others following the same sampling and analytical protocols. 3. Defensible. Documentation must be available to validate the sampling proce- dures. The data must have a known degree of accuracy and precision, 4, Useful. The data can be used to meet the objectives of the monitoring plan (Pep- per etal., 1996) Because the data from the analysis of the samples will ultimately serve as a basis for implementing wastewater management facilities and programs, the techniques used in ‘a wastewater sampling program must be such that representative samples are obtained.