Construction and Building Materials 73 (2014) 544–550

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Mechanical properties of lightweight mortar modified with oil palm fruit

fibre and tire crumb
Farah Nora Aznieta Abd. Aziz ⇑, Sani Mohammed Bida, Noor Azline Mohd. Nasir, Mohd Saleh Jaafar
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Selangor, Malaysia

h i g h l i g h t s

 Mechanical properties of mortar with tire crumb replacement and OPFF addition.
 We examine changes of tire crumb from 0% to 40% replacement of fine aggregates.
 We examine changes of addition of OPFF from 1% to 1.5%.
 Increase compressive, split tensile and flexural strengths when 0.5% OPFF added.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This research use oil palm fruit fibre (OPFF) as a greener and more cost-effective approach to improve the
Received 2 May 2014 tire crumb mortar composite strengths. The mechanical properties of tire crumb and oil palm fruit fibre
Received in revised form 11 September 2014 lightweight mortar with addition of 0%, 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% OPFF and tire-crumb replacement of 0–40% by
Accepted 24 September 2014
volume of aggregate were studied. The composite mixtures were subjected to the compression, split ten-
Available online 21 October 2014
sile and flexural tests. The addition of 0.5% OPFF to the composite was found to improve the compressive
strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength of the mortar composites.
Keywords:
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Lightweight mortar
Lightweight concrete
Lightweight aggregate
Tire crumb
Oil palm fruit fibre
Fibre reinforced composites

1. Introduction
The benefits derived from the incorporation of lightweight
aggregate in concrete in the 20th century have led to the quest
for additional lightweight aggregate materials due to their low
density. Lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) material has a
low density and will subsequently reduce the total dead weight
on lower structural members, which reduces construction time
and overall construction cost [1]. LWAC has been used for over
2000 years, and its use has been widespread for the past 90 years.
Its structural efficacy has contributed to sustainable development
by optimisation of design and construction effectiveness, increased
durability of the products during their service life and reduced
transportation requirements [2]. Narayanan and Ramamurthy [3]
indicated that by employing suitable methods, lightweight con-
crete with a wide range of densities could be produced, which
would offer flexibility in the development of composite products
for numerous civil engineering applications.
Several attempts have been made to incorporate waste tire par-
ticles in the form of coarse, fine and a combination of both in con-
cretes and mortars for the past two decades and recently in the
form of ash. Improved efficiency in the performance of the com-
posite has been recorded, especially in terms of density, thermal
conductivity, electrical resistivity, ductility, etc. The substitution
of waste tire particles in concrete has shown good potential in
terms of toughness, ductility and energy dissipation capacity [4].
Khatib and Bayomy [5] reported that an increase in the waste tire
content could lower the density of concrete to as low as 75% of the
normal concrete weight. However, a reduction in the mechanical
properties of waste-tire-incorporated concretes has been reported
by many researchers. Reductions in compressive strength, split
tensile strength, flexural strength and elastic modulus have been
reported by [5–14].
2. Research background

⇑ Corresponding author. The decrease in the mechanical properties of waste-tire-

E-mail address: farah@upm.edu.my (F.N.A. Abd. Aziz). incorporated concrete called for the need to recoup these losses.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.09.100
0950-0618/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 F.N.A. Abd. Aziz et al. / Construction and Building Materials 73 (2014) 544–550
There have been on-going efforts to reverse or at least mitigate the
effects of the losses in mechanical properties of the resulting con-
crete. These have included pre-treating the waste tire particles
with chemicals, cement and additives. Pelisser et al. [15] investi-
gated the effect of waste-tire concrete formulated by pre-treating
the tire waste with sodium hydroxide (1 M NaOH) and silica fume
at 15% along with lignosulphonate admixture alkaline activation
and silica fume addition to improve the mechanical properties of
the concrete. Chou et al. [16] studied the influence of treating
waste tire aggregate with organic sulphur compounds from a
petroleum refining factory to modify the surface texture of waste
tire aggregate. Colom et al. [17] used tire waste treated with vari-
ous mineral acids, namely H2SO4, HNO3 and HClO4. These were
used in high-density polyethylene (HDPE) tire composites.
Segre and Joekes [18] attempted to improve the properties of
waste-tire-incorporated concrete by pre-treating the waste tire
particles with saturated NaOH aqueous solutions. In 1998, Li
et al. [9] investigated the effect of waste tire pre-treated with
cement paste and Methocel cellulose ethers in concrete. Lee et al.
[19] studied tire-added latex concrete (TALC) by incorporating
waste-tire particles in the concrete, and in 1996, Biel and Lee
[20] investigated the effect of Portland cement or magnesium oxy-
chloride cement as binders in waste-tire-incorporated concrete.
Some of these pre-treatment techniques yield substantial results;
however, the chemicals and additives used are quite expensive
and could increase the overall cost of the resulting concrete or
mortar produced. This paper presents a greener and cost-effective
alternative approach by employing oil palm fruit fibre (OPFF) in the
matrix, which could transfer its strength to the composite to
improve the mechanical performance of the composite. The OPFF
is fibre that is derived from oil palm fruit bunches that are dis-
posed of in landfills after the extraction of crude oil palm in the
refineries. These are obtained free of charge at present.
An incorporation of waste tire particles in concrete and mortars
had reported to produce low mechanical properties of the compos-
ite mixtures. Thus, chemicals and additives are introduced to
improve the strengths but the mixture become more expensive.
This research substitute chemicals with oil palm fruit fibre (OPFF)
as a greener and more cost effective approach to improve the com-
posite strengths. The mortar is studied as fulfilling the potential of
real applications such as bricks and precast lightweight wall.
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Materials
The fine aggregate used in this experiment consisted mainly of stone dust with
a maximum particle size passing a 4.75 mm sieve. This aggregate was supplied from
quarries around Malaysia and conforms to ASTM C33 (2004) [21]. The specific grav-
ity, density, fineness modulus and the absorption of the fine aggregate are 2.63,
1702 kg/m3, 0.9 and 3%, respectively.
Fig. 1. (a) Palm oil fruit bunch, (b) OPFF as obtained from factory and (c) OPFF after washing.
545
The tire crumb aggregate used in this experiment was supplied by Arajaya
Enterprise Sdn. Bhd Malaysia and was graded in the same particle size distribution
as the quarry dust passing sieve size 4.75 mm to enable convenient volumetric sub-
stitution. The tire crumb particles were observed to be clean as supplied, and the
compacted density and fineness modulus were measured to be 589 kg/m3 and
0.9, respectively.
The oil palm fruit fibre was obtained free of charge from Seri Ulu Langat Palm
Oil Mill Sdn. Bhd, Dengkil, Malaysia. The fibre was washed with water in a concrete
mixer by allowing the mixer to roll continuously while changing the water until
clean and colourless water was observed in the mixer. The fibre was then dried
and cut into 3–5 cm lengths and stored for use in the experiment. Fig. 1 shows
the oil palm fruit bunch and oil palm fruit fibre as received from the factory and
OPFF after washing before use in this study.
The mortar specimens were prepared from locally available Portland cement
Type II conforming to (ASTM C150, Type II) [22], and pipe-borne potable water avail-
able in the Universiti Putra Malaysia was used for all of the mixtures and curing.
3.2. Mix proportions
Twenty mix designs were prepared in this research work, and volumetric sub-
stitution of fine aggregate with tire crumb was carried out at 0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and
40% using a water–cement ratio of 0.485 and cement-to-aggregate ratio of 1:2.75 in
accordance with the requirement of ASTM C109-05 [23] for hydraulic cement mor-
tars. The oil palm fruit fibre was added to the mixtures at 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% by mass
of the cement content except the control, which does not contain the fibre. The
details of the mix proportions are shown in Table 1. Note that the water content sta-
ted in Table 1 is including 3% water absorption from fine aggregates.
3.3. Mixing procedure
The mixing was carried out by placing the fine aggregate, cement and the tire
crumb aggregate in the bowl mixer and allowing it to mix for 2 min. One-third
(1/3) of the water and the OPFF were added and allowed to mix for an additional
2 min. The remaining water was added for the final mixing until a consistent mix
was achieved throughout the mass. This procedure was used to prevent the balling
effect experienced using the conventional approach.
3.4. Test program
The workability test for the various mixes was carried out in accordance with
the standard test method for the flow of hydraulic cement mortar specified in ASTM
C1437 [24]. Flow table test apparatus used in this work is in line with the specifi-
cation of ASTM C230 [25].
The density and absorption test by immersion was conducted in this
experiment in accordance with ASTM C642 [26] by producing and curing 60 mortar
specimens of size 50  50  50 mm.
The compressive strength test was conducted by using 180 cubes of size
50  50  50 mm produced from hydraulic cement mortar in accordance with the
requirement of ASTM C109 [23]. The cube specimens were water cured and tested
in compression using a universal testing machine for curing periods of 3, 7 and
28-days under similar conditions at a loading rate of 0.75 kN/s.
The split tensile test was conducted by using the principles and procedure out-
lined in ASTM C 496 [27], and the specimens were water cured for 7 and 28-days
before testing. Cylindrical samples 100  200 mm in size were produced and tested
using a universal testing machine at a loading rate of 2.35 kN/s until failure.
The flexural test was conducted on 40 test specimens 40  40  160 mm in size
supported at 100 mm centre-to-centre in accordance with the requirement of ASTM
C348 [28], referred to as the third point method and tested at deflection rate of
0.5 mm/min until failure. The machine recorded automatically the load displace-
ment readings.
546 F.N.A. Abd. Aziz et al. / Construction and Building Materials 73 (2014) 544–550

Table 1
Mix proportions of mortar samples used in the experiment.

Designation Cement (kg/m3) Fine aggregate (kg/m3) Tire crumb aggregate (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Fibre (kg/m3)
F0 740 2035.0 0.0 420 –
F0CR10 740 1831.5 70.4 414 –
F0CR20 740 1628.0 140.8 408 –
F0CR30 740 1424.5 211.3 402 –
F0CR40 740 1221.0 281.7 396 –
F5 740 2035.0 0.0 420 3.7
F5CR10 740 1831.5 70.4 414 3.7
F5CR20 740 1628.0 140.8 408 3.7
F5CR30 740 1424.5 211.3 402 3.7
F5CR40 740 1221.0 281.7 396 3.7
F10 740 2035.0 0.0 420 7.4
F10CR10 740 1831.5 70.4 414 7.4
F10CR20 740 1628.0 140.8 408 7.4
F10CR30 740 1424.5 211.3 402 7.4
F10CR40 740 1221.0 281.7 396 7.4
F15 740 2035.0 0.0 420 11.1
F15CR10 740 1831.5 70.4 414 11.1
F15CR20 740 1628.0 140.8 408 11.1
F15CR30 740 1424.5 211.3 402 11.1
F15CR40 740 1221.0 281.7 396 11.1

4. Results and discussion 4.2. Density

4.1. Workability Fig. 3 shows the result of density by immersion of tire-

The result for the workability of tire-crumb-incorporated mor-
tars is shown in Fig. 2. This revealed a decrease in the workability
with an increase in tire crumb content. The flow increased by
approximately 7% at 10% tire crumb content as compare to the con-
trol sample before it gradually decreased as the tire crumb content
increased. The increase in workability at 10% tire crumb content is
due to the volume of the mineral aggregate which dominates the
sample and permits water to flow between it grains leading to
the increments. The reduction in workability with increase tire
crumb content is due to the nature of tire crumb particles which
repels water. This is in agreement and consistent with the finding
by researchers such as Khatib and Bayomy [5], Cairns and Kenny
[11], Guneyisi et al. [29] and Khaloo et al. [13].
The addition of oil palm fruit fibre (OPFF) in the matrix further
reduces the workability for all of the tire-crumb-incorporated
mixes. The decrease in workability due to addition of OPFF is as
a result of the high water absorption nature of OPFF, which tends
to absorb the available water during mixing. The decrease in work-
ability becomes more pronounced at higher tire crumb content.
The behaviour exhibited by the samples containing tire crumb
moves towards zero slump at a 50% tire crumb content and this
is similar to results by Khatib and Bayomy [5], Cairns and Kenny
[11], and Guneyisi et al. [29].
crumb-incorporated mortars containing OPFF at 0%, 0.5%, 1% and
1.5%. It was observed that the density decreases with an increase
in tire crumb content due to the low density of the tire crumb
aggregate used, which was approximately 1/3 of the density of
normal weight aggregate. It could be observed that the density
decreased by 0–17% for tire crumb substitution of 0–40% by vol-
ume of aggregate. The addition of the fibre does not affect the den-
sity of the resulting hardened mortar specimen significantly. This
is due to the nature of the fibre, as it has a variable thickness along
its length and hence a variation in density in the volumetric quan-
tity of the space occupied by the fibre in the matrix, resulting in a
negligible differences in density for the same mix design.
4.3. Water absorption
The results for water absorption of mortar mixes are shown in
Fig. 4. It was discovered that the water absorption of the control
mortar specimen reaches its peak absorption of 10.3% at approxi-
mately 20% tire crumb content, which similar to result obtained
by Bravo and de Brito [30] for specimens with 0–20% tire crumb
content. This shows that 20% tire crumb mortar can achieve
9.57% higher water absorption than the normal mortar due to
the pores created by the tire particles during hydration in the hard-
ened mortar. Further substitution of tire crumb above 20% leads to

180 2100
160 2000
Oven dry density (kg/m3)

140
1900
120
Flow (mm)

100 0% fibre 1800 F0

80 0.5% fibre 1700 F5
60 1% fibre F10
1600
40 1.5% fibre F15
1500
20
0 1400
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Tire crumb content by volume (%) Tire crumb content by volume (%)

Fig. 2. Workability of tire crumb samples containing 0–1.5% OPFF. Fig. 3. Density of waste tire and OPFF composite mortars.
 F.N.A. Abd. Aziz et al. / Construction and Building Materials 73 (2014) 544–550 547

11.0 50.00

45.00

Compressive strength (MPa)

10.5
Water absorpon (%)

40.00
F0
10.0 35.00
F0 F5
30.00
F5 F5CR10
9.5
F10 25.00
F5CR20
F15 20.00
9.0 F5CR30
15.00 F5CR40
8.5 10.00
0 10 20 30 40
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Tire crumb content by volume (%)
Time (days)
Fig. 4. Water absorption by immersion of tire-crumb-incorporated mortars.
Fig. 6. Compressive strength of tire-crumb-incorporated mortars containing 0.5%
OPFF.

45.00
45.00
Compressive strength (MPa)

40.00
40.00

Compressive strength (MPa)

35.00 35.00
F0 F0
30.00 30.00
F0CR10 F10
25.00
25.00
F0CR20 F10CR10
20.00
20.00 F0CR30 15.00 F10CR20
15.00 F0CR40 10.00 F10CR30

10.00 5.00 F10CR40

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0.00
Time (days) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (days)
Fig. 5. Compressive strength of tire-crumb-incorporated mortar samples without
OPFF. Fig. 7. Compressive strength of tire-crumb-incorporated mortars containing 1%
OPFF.

a reduction in water absorption due to the fact that tire crumb does
not absorb water and only the hydrated parts of the matrix retain 45.00
water.
40.00
Compressive strength (MPa)

The addition of OPFF to the matrix result in an increase in the

35.00
water absorption value for all fibre contents except at 0.5% OPFF
30.00 F0
which maintains an average of the same absorption at all tire
crumb content except at 40%. The increase in absorption when 25.00 F15
OPFF are added is due to the high void content of the fibre causing 20.00 F15CR10
more absorption of water during hydration. The best absorption 15.00 F15CR20
recorded at 0.5% is due to the fact that the quantity of the fibre 10.00 F15CR30
is insignificant in the matrix and hence does not affect the 5.00 F15CR40
hydration.
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
4.4. Compressive strength Time (days)

Fig. 8. Compressive strength of tire-crumb-incorporated mortars containing 1.5%

The compressive strength results are shown in Figs. 5–8. Fig. 5
shows the compressive strength of tire-crumb-incorporated
mortars without fibre, which revealed the general reduction in
compressive strength with an increase in tire crumb content sim-
ilar to most research reports on the compressive strength of
waste-tire-incorporated concretes and mortars [6,31–34]. A com-
pressive strength loss of 15.8–51.9% was recorded between tire
crumb substitution of 10–40% at a 28-day curing period, which is
lower than the losses recorded by [32] at the same percentages
of waste tire substitution. The losses in compression recorded is
due to compressible nature of tire crumb particles giving room
for early failure and the smaller particles sizes of the aggregates
used in this research work leads to lower losses than the [32] ear-
lier mentioned.
The addition of OPFF at 0%, 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% in the matrix
exhibited different behaviour compared with the samples contain-
ing the tire waste only without the OPFF. Fig. 6 shows the result of
OPFF.
the addition of OPFF at 0.5% in the matrix when no tire crumbs was
added. In which, an improvement in the compressive strength by
4.2% at 28 days was measured. However, when tire crumbs were
added, the strength drops drastically except when 0.5% OPFF was
added to 10% tire crumb, in which the drop is 14%, while without
OPFF the addition of 10% tire crumb gives about 17% drop in
strength as compare to control sample. This result proofed a bond
strength improvement with addition of OPFF that interconnecting
the matrix in the composites. However, no improvement in com-
pressive strength was observed in the 20–40% tire crumb samples
containing OPFF at 0.5%. Figs. 7 and 8 show the result obtained
with an OPFF addition of 1% and 1.5%, respectively, at a tire crumb
content of 0–40%. This also did not improve the compressive
strength of the composite. This reduction in compressive strength
548 F.N.A. Abd. Aziz et al. / Construction and Building Materials 73 (2014) 544–550

3.0 3500
Split Tensile strength (MPa)

2.5 3000

2500

Flexure Load (N)

2.0
Control
No fibre 2000
1.5 CR10
0.5% fibre 1500
CR20
1.0 1% fibre
1000 CR30
1.5% fibre
0.5 500 CR40

0.0 0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Tire crumb content by volume (%) Deflecon (mm)

Fig. 9. Split tensile strength of tire-crumb-incorporated mortars at 7 days. Fig. 11. Flexural strength of tire crumb mortars without OPFF at 28 day curing
period.

3.5
Split Tensile strength (MPa)

3.0

2.5

2.0 No fibre

1.5 0.5% fibre

1% fibre
1.0
1.5% fibre
0.5

0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0
Tire crumb content by volume (%)

Fig. 10. Split tensile strength of tire-crumb-incorporated mortars at 28 days.

at a higher volume of the OPFF is due to a higher void volume con-
tent within the fibres themselves, which leaves room for more
compressibility of the samples and results in early failure of the
specimens.
4.5. Split tensile test
The results for the split tensile tests for 7 and 28 days are shown
in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. It was observed that substitution of
tire crumb in mortar reduces its tensile strength and that the
reduction in strength is proportional to the volume of tire crumb
substituted. A reduction in the split tensile strength with increas-
ing tire crumb content was observed in the control sample, and
the addition of OPFF was found to influence this behaviour [33].
However, not much improvement was observed early in curing
at an age of 7 days as shown in Fig. 9. On the other hand, Fig. 10
revealed the split tensile test result for 28 days, which shows an
increase in the split tensile strength at 0.5% OPFF content for all tire
crumb substitutions showing a better bond strength between the
fibre and the mortar matrix, which due to resistance of OPFF to
early crack. An insufficient bond strength between the fibre and
the matrix could result in slippage, leading to lower split tensile
strength. The addition of OPFF more than 0.5% does not improve
the split tensile strength of the specimens because a higher void
volume in the matrix and results in easy slippage between the con-
gested fibre materials.
4.6. Flexural strength test
Figs. 11–16 show the results obtained for the flexural strength
tests carried out on mortars containing tire crumb and OPFF. In
all cases the reduction in stiffness was observed in the mixes
showing the impact of low density mixtures as compare to the
Fig. 12. Flexural strength of plain mortars without tire crumb at the 28-day curing
period.
normal weight specimens that demonstrated by the concave
upward curve in all figures. Apart from that, all composite mixes
specimens have achieved larger deflection than the normal weight
mortars specimens presenting more ductile behaviour due to tire
crumb and oil palm fruit fibre additions.
The effect of tire crumbs on the flexural behaviour of mortars is
shown in Fig. 11. The decreases in flexural strengths were recorded
as the percentages of tire crumbs is increasing due to internal fric-
tions between the tire crumbs aggregate as a result of less interfa-
cial bond in the composite matrix. Similar finding was reported by
Aiello and Leuzzi [31]. However, increased ductility was observed,
which makes room for more flexure before failure and this is in
contrast to the brittle behaviour of plain mortars [35].
In contrary, Fig. 12 shows the flexural behaviour of a plain mor-
tar specimen reinforced with OPFF, which revealed an increase in
both flexural strength and ductility with an increase in OPFF con-
tent between 0.5% and 1% OPFF. When the OPFF was increased to
1.5%, only the ductility was improved. This reduced the flexural
strength slightly below the control. The improvement in flexural
strength and ductility is due the reinforcement of the mortar com-
posite with OPFF which transfer its tensile strength to the compos-
ite thereby resisting more tensile stress. This behaviour prevents
sudden failure and improves the peak load capacity of the compos-
ite under tension.
Figs. 13–16 show the results obtained for the addition of OPFF
(0–1.5%) in tire-crumb-incorporated mortars 10–40% by volume
of aggregate. It was discovered that the flexural strength and duc-
tility tire crumb mortar at 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% by volume were
improved for all OPFF additions, however, at 20% tire crumb, only
the ductility was improved by the addition of the OPFF compared
 F.N.A. Abd. Aziz et al. / Construction and Building Materials 73 (2014) 544–550 549

3000 with the control at each level of tire crumb substitution. An

improvement of over 20% was achieved at 1.5% OPFF content as
2500
shown in Fig. 15. The improvement recorded was due to the inter-
Flexural Load (N)

2000
woven nature and the tensile strength of the OPFF which help to
resist early failure. It also bridges the interface between the tire
F0
1500 crumb and the mortar matrix that is usually weak which result
F5
to better performance. The flexural strength and ductility behav-
1000 F10 iour observed in these results are similar to the result reported
F15 by Sukontasukkul and Chaikaew [35] and Ling [36].
500

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 5. Conclusions and recommendations
Deflecon (mm)
In this research, the mechanical properties of tire crumb and oil
Fig. 13. Flexural strength of 10% tire crumb mortars at the 28-day curing period. palm fruit fibre lightweight mortar with addition of 0%, 0.5%, 1%
and 1.5% OPFF and tire-crumb replacement of 0–40% by volume
of aggregate were studied. The addition of OPFF to the matrix
2500 result in an increase in the water absorption value due to the high
void content of the fibre causing more absorption of water during
2000 hydration. The best absorption recorded at 0.5% OPFF showing
insignificant influence of fibres matrix. The 28 days compressive
Flexure Load (N)

1500 strength of samples with tire crumbs and more than 0.5% OPFF
F0
dropped drastically as compare to control specimen. However
F5 when 0.5% OPFF was added to 10% tire crumb, the improvement
1000
F10 of 5% was recorded as compare to tire crumb sample without OPFF.
500 F15 This result proofed a bond strength improvement with addition of
OPFF that interconnecting the matrix in the composites. The split
0
tensile test shows an increase in the strength at 0.5% OPFF content
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 for all tire crumb which due to good resistance of OPFF to early
Deflecon (mm) crack. The flexural performance of tire crumb-incorporated mor-
tars was improved by the addition of OPFF at 0.5–1.5% by weight
Fig. 14. Flexural strength of 20% tire crumb mortars at the 28-day curing period.
of cement content. Both the flexural peak load capacity and ductil-
ity of the mortars were increased significantly.

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