BOUNDARY Vd ANALYSIS wh es Bo a a eeBOUNDARY LAYER ANALYSIS JOSEPH A. SCHETZ Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University A PRENTICE HALL, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Scher, Joseph A. Boundary layer analysis (Joseph A. Schetz Pp. em, Includes bibliographical reference and inden. ISBN 0-13-086885-x 1. Turbulent boundary layer. 2. Boundary element methods 1. Tite. ‘TA357.5.T87S34 1993 620,1'064—e20 9148202 7 op Acquisitions editor: Doug Humeaney Production editor: IRWIN ZUCKER Copy editor: BRIAN BAKER Prepress buyer: LINDA BEHRENS Manufacturing buyer: Davib Dickey Supplements editor: ALICE Dworkin (©1993 by Prentice-Hall, Ine. ‘A Simon & Schuster Company Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 9163 Ail rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, ‘without permission in writing from the publisher Printed in the United States of America 0987654321 ISBN O-13-086885-x ISBN O-13-08b885-xX Wi Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, $.A., Mexico Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo ‘Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd. Singapore Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Lida., Rio de Janeiro This book is dedicated to all those who have helped me greatly as mentors over the years. These include, in particular, my high school physics and chemistry teacher at Dwight School, Charles Myron; my undergraduate thesis advisor at Webb Institute, Jens Holm; my Ph.D. advisor at Princeton University, Roger Eichhorn; and my boss in my first professional position at General Applied Science Laboratory, Antonio FerriCONTENTS PREFACE xiii NOTATION xvii INTRODUCTION TO VISCOUS FLOWS 1-1 The Importance of Viscous Phenomena 1 1-2 Conditions at a Fluid/Solid Boundary 2 1-3 Laminar Transport Processes 3 1-4 The Boundary Layer Concept 9 1-5 The Navier-Stokes Equations 11 1-6 — Reduction of the Navier-Stokes to the Boundary Layer Equations 16 1-7 Separation and the Kutta Condition 19 1-8 Non-Newtonian Fluid Flow 22 1-9 Basic Notions of Turbulent Flow 23 Problems 28vi 2 INTEGRAL EQUATIONS AND SOLUTIONS FOR LAMINAR FLOW 2-1 Introduction 30 2-2 The Integral Momentum Equation 31 2-3 Solution of the Integral Momentum Equation 35 2-3-1 The Pohthausen Method, 35 2-3-2 The Thwaites-Walz Method, 38 2-33 Flows with Suction or Injection, 42 2-4 — The Integral Energy Equation 43 2-5 Solution of the Integral Energy Equation 45 2-5] Unheated Starting-Length Problem, 45 2-5-2 Nonuniform Wall Temperature, 48 2-6 — The Integral Species Conservation Equation 49 2-7 Solution of the Integral Species Conservation Equation 50 2-8 Relationship of Wall Friction, Heat Transfer, and Mass Transfer 51 2-9 — Non-Newtonian Fluids 52 2-9-1 Power Law Fluid over a Flat Plate, 52 2 Bingham Plastic Fluid over a Flat Plate, 53 . 2-10 Discussion 54 Problems 54 3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR LAMINAR FLOW 3-1 Introduction 57 342 Conservation of Mass: The Continuity Equation 58 3-3 Conservation of Momentum: The Momentum Equation 60 3-3-1 Modeling of the Laminar Shear Stress, 62 3-3-2 Forms of the Momentum Equation for Laminar Flow, 63 3-4 — Conservation of Energy: The Energy Equation 65 3-4-1 Modeling of the Laminar Heat Flux, 69 3-5 Conservation of Mass of Species: The Species Continuity Equation 70 3-S-1 Modeling of Laminar Diffusion, 70 3-5-2 Energy Transfer by Mass Transfer, 71 3-5-3. Physical Properties of Mixtures, 71 Contents 30 57 Contents vii 3-6 — Transformation to Two-Dimensional Form 73 3-7 Mathematical Overview 73 Problems 75 4 EXACT AND NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS FOR LAMINA| CONSTANT-PROPERTY, INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 76 4-1 Introduction 76 4-2 Parallel Flows 77 4-2-1 Steady Flow between Parallel Plates, 77 4-22 Unsteady Flow near an Infinite Plate, 78 4-3 Similar Solutions for the Velocity Field 79 4-3-1 Exact Solution for Flow over a Flat Plate, 81 4-3-2 Similar Solutions with Pressure Gradient, 85 4-4 Similar Solutions to the Low-Speed Energy Equation 87 4-5 Similar Solutions for Foreign Fluid Injection 89 4-6 — Similar Solutions for Non-Newtonian Fluids 92 4-6-1 Power Law Fluid over a Flat Plate, 92 4-6-2. Bingham Plastic Fluid over a Flat Plate, 92 4-7 Numerically Exact Solutions 93 4-7-1 Numerical Analysis of the Linear Model Equation, 97 4-7-2. An Explicit Method for the Boundary Layer Equations, 103 4-7-3 Implicit Methods for the Boundary Layer Equations, 110 4-7-4 Transformations and Other Matters, 114 4-7-5 Finite Element Method, 118 Problems 124 5 COMPRESSIBLE LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 127 5-1 Introduction 127 5-2 The Adiabatic Wall Temperature 128 5-3 The Reference Temperature Method 128 5-4 The Special Case of Prandtl Number Unity 129 5-5 The Recovery Factor for Nonunity Prandtl Number 132 5-6 Compressibility Transformations 134 $-6-1 Howarth-Dorodnitzin Transformation, 134 5-6-2. Crocco Transformation, 136 5-6-3 Levy-Lees Transformation, 136 5-7 Integral Method for Compressible Flow 137vill Contents 5-8 Exact Solutions for Compressible Flow over a Flat Plate 138 5-9 Exact Stagnation Point Solutions 142 5-10 Flows with Mass Transfer 144 5-10-1 The Special Case of Pr = Le = 1, 144 5-10-2 Foreign Gas Injection through a Porous Wall, 146 5-11 Numerical Solutions of Compressible, Laminar Boundary Layer Flows 149 5-12 Real Gas Effects 157 5-13. Pressure Gradients and Separation in High-Speed Flows 164 5=14 Interactions in Hypersonic Flows 169 Problems 174 TRANSITION TO TURBULENT FLOW 176 6-1 Introduction 176 6-2 A Simple Method Based on Ree 179 6-3 Hydrodynamic Stability Theory 179 6-4 The e™ Method 182 6-5 Other Prediction Methods 188 6-6 — Selected Empirical Information 188 1 The Nature of Transition, 188 Effects of Free Stream Turbulence, 190 3 Effects of Pressure Gradients, 191 4 Effects of Roughness, 192 5 Bluff Bodies at Low Speeds, 194 6 Density-Stratified Flows, 196 7 Supersonic Flow, 197 8 Non-Newtonian Fluids, 198 Problems 200 WALL-BOUNDED, INCOMPRESSIBLE TURBULENT FLOWS 202 7-1 Introduction 202 7-2 Engineering Requirements of Turbulent Analyses 202 7-3 Empirical Inform: for Analysis 204 7-3-1 Flow over a Flat Plate, 204 on the Mean Flow as a Basis Contents 7-3-2 Roughness Effects, 214 7-3-3. Injection and Suction through Porous Walls, 216 7-3-4 Flows with Axial Pressure Gradients, 220 7-4 — Selected Empirical Turbulence Information 224 5 The Central Problem of the Analysis of Turbulent Flows 233 7-6 Mean Flow Turbulent Transport Formulations 237 7-7 Mean Flow Integral Methods 239 7-8 Mean Flow Models for the Eddy Viscosity and the Mixing Length 246 7-8-1 Models for the Inner Region, 247 7-82 Models for the Outer Region, 256 7-8-3 Composite Model for the Whole Boundary Layer, 262 7-9 — Numerical Solution Methods for Mean Flow Formulations 264 7-10 Formulations Based on Turbulent Kinetic Energy 281 7-11 Formulations Based on Turbulent Kinetic Energy and a Length Scale 293 7-12 Formulations Based Directly on the Reynolds Stress 297 7-13 Direct Numerical Simulations 303 7-14 Boundary and Initial Conditions for Higher Order Models 304 7-15 Non-Newtonian Turbulent Flows 305 Problems 306 8 INTERNAL FLOWS 310 8-1 Introduction 310 8-2 Laminar Internal Flows 312 8-2-1 Fully-Developed Flows, 312 2 Entrance Region Flows, 317 82-3 General Channel Flows, 322 824 Non-Newtonian Fluids, 324 8-3 Transition to Turbulent Flow 327 8-4 Turbulent Flows 328 8-4-1 Fully-Developed Flows, 328 8-42 Entrance Region Flows, 341 8-4-3 General Channel Flows, 350 8-4-4 Non-Newtonian Fluids, 353i Contents 8-5 High-Speed Flows 355 Problems 357 9 FREE SHEAR FLOWS 359 9-1 Introduction 359 9-2 Laminar Free Shear Flows 361 9-2-1 The Simple Shear Layer, 361 9-2-2 Jets, 363 9-2-3 Wakes, 365 9-3 Mean Flow and Turbulence Data for a Round Jet in a Moving Stream 366 9-3-1 Introduction, 366 9-3-2 Constant-Density Flows, 366 9-3-3 Density Variations from Temperature Variations, 371 9-3-4 Density Variations from Composition Variations, 375 9-4 — Mean Flow Turbulent Analyses 379 9-4-1 Similarity Analyses, 379 9-4-2 Analyses Based on Eddy Viscosity or Mixing-Length Models 386 9-5 Analyses Based on Turbulent Kinetic Energy 399 9-6 Analyses Based on Equations for Turbulent Kinetic Energy and a Length Scale 403 9-7 Analyses Based on the Reynolds Stress 408 9-8 — Direct Numerical Simulations 411 9-9 Comments on the Use of Higher-Order Models for Free Mixing Flows 412 Problems 412 10 WALL-BOUNDED TURBULENT FLOWS WITH VARIABLE DENSITY AND HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 414 10-1 Introduction 414 10-2 Experimental Information 414 10-2-1 Mean Flow Data, 414 10-22 Turbulence Data, 426 10-3 Analysis 430 10-3-1 Boundary Layer Equations of Motion 430 10-3-2 Mean Flow Models for the Eddy Viscosity and Mixing Length, 433 10-3-3 Methods Based on Models for the Turbulent Kinetic Energy, 445 Contents 1 10-34 Methods Based on Models for Turbulent Kinetic Energy and a Length Scale, 445 10-3-5 Methods Based Directly on the Reynolds Stress, 49 10-36 Direct Numerical Simulations, 454 10-4 High-Speed Flows with Chemical Reactions 454 10-4-1 Approximate Solutions for Special Cases, 455 10-5 Viscous-Inviscid Interactions 457 Problems 460 THREE-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL BOUNDARY LAYER FLOWS 11-1 Introduction 462 II-I-1 Separation of Three-Dimensional Boundary Layers, 465 11-2 Laminar Three-Dimensional Boundary Layers 467 11-2-1 Boundary Layer Equations in Three Dimensions, 467 11-2-2 Special Cases, 470 11-2-3 Integral Methods, 475 11-24 Numerical Solution Techniques, 476 11-3 Transition to Turbulent Flow 480 11-4 Turbulent Three-Dimensional Boundary Layers 482 II-A-I Introduction, 482 1-4-2. Mean Flow Observations, 487 1-4-3 Turbulence Data, 492 11-44 Integral Analyses, 495 11-4-5. Differential Methods, 499 11-4-6 High-Speed Flows, 502 11-5 Three-Dimensional Turbulent Jets 506 11-5-1 Introduction, 506 11-S-2. Experimental Data, 506 11-5-3 Analysis with a Mean Flow Turbulence Model, 509 11-5-4 Analysis with a Ke Turbulence Model, 508 Problems 510 APPENDIX A: LAMINAR THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SELECTED FLUIDS APPENDIX B: COMPUTER CODES FOR STUDENTS REFERENCES INDEX xi 462 512 516 558 580PREFACE This book is intended as a text for courses in viscous fluid flow at high Reynolds numbers for advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate engineering students. Numerous homework problems ranging from the simple, but instructive, to the chal- enging are included. The emphasis is on understanding and analyzing flows of engi- neering interest. Thus, turbulent flows receive primary coverage, and a modem un- derstanding of the physics of turbulent shear flows and turbulence models is discussed in detail. Further, the accurate analysis of practical flow problems, espe- cially those involving turblence, requires the use of computerized methods, so numerical methods for the boundary layer equations are also treated in depth. Com- puter codes for a PC suitable for solving homework problems, including the use of turbulence models, are provided. Coverage of the older analytical methods is also included, to aid in developing understanding and because such methods are still widely used in preliminary design, especially for design optimization studies ‘A second major theme of this volume is a concurrent treatment of the transfer of momentum, heat, and mass. This is primarily a book on viscous fluid dynamics, but the processes of convective heat and mass transfer are so closely connected to momentum transfer, that a unified presentation was deemed valuable, Such a pre- sentation allows the scope of the book to span the entire range from low-speed to hy- personic flows. In addition, including mass transfer permits a discussion of viscous flows with chemical reactions.xiv Preface An introductory coverage of simple non-Newtonian fluids of the power law and Bingham plastic types is also provided to orient the student to some of the im- portant differences found with such fluids, compared to the more usual Newtonian fluids. Chapter 1 is devoted to an introduction to the subject of viscous flow and why it is important to the engineer. The relevant physical phenomena and properties and dimensionless numbers are discussed. Then, the exact equations of motion for a con- stant-density fluid and the boundary layer assumptions are derived. The phenomena of flow separation and the Kutta condition are described next. The last section intro- duces the basic ideas associated with turbulent flows. The subject matter of Chapter 2 is the approximate solution to laminar boundary layer problems, including heat and mass transfer, based on the integral forms of the equations. Worked examples and a computer code for the Thwaites- Walz method are presented. Chapter 3 is concerned with the derivation of the boundary layer equations ex- pressing conservation of total mass, momentum, energy, and mass of species, in- cluding variable density and properties. The coverage in Chapter 4 begins with a few of the exact solutions for special cases of laminar flow. Then, similar solutions are discussed. The remainder of the chapter deals with numerical solutions of boundary layer problems using the finite difference method and the finite element method. Worked examples and computer codes are included Chapter 5 discusses high-speed laminar flows. Viscous heating, compressibil- ity transformations, numerical solutions, and viscous-inviscid interactions are cov- ered. Again, worked examples and a computer code are given. Transition to turbulent flow is treated in Chapter 6. Hydrodynamic stability and the e” method are described. Finally, selected empirical information is pre- sented to illustrate the influence of roughness, pressure gradients, injection or suc- tion, supersonic flow, and the like. A detailed discussion of the nature of turbulent, wall-bounded flows and mod- ern turbulence models is the focus of Chapter 7. The discussion is limited to con- stant-density flows for clarity, The problems of analyzing turbulent flow problems are emphasized. Integral and numerical methods are discussed, and extensive com- parisons of predictions with experiment are provided. Worked examples and com- puter codes are presented, The important subject of laminar and turbulent internal flows has been high- lighted by devoting a separate chapter (Chapter 8) to that topic alone Chapter 9 covers free shear flows, such as wakes, jets, and shear layers. Both laminar and turbulent cases are considered over the range from low to high speeds. Worked examples and a computer code are provided. Wall-bounded turbulent flows of variable density and properties are discussed in Chapter 10. Both low- and high-speed cases are included. The last chapter (Chapter 11) contains a detailed presentation of current knowl- edge for truly three-dimensional boundary layer flows. Preface xv Throughout the book, separating, but not separated, flows are discussed, be- cause the analysis of the latter cannot be handled with the usual boundary layer equations. Lastly, unsteady flows are not covered, and that is justified by the obser- vation that those phenomena are usually omitted in courses at the level intended tee The goal of this effort was to write a book appropriate for mechanical, aerospace, civil, ocean, and chemical engineering students. The treatment assumes that the student has taken at least one general undergraduate course in fluid mechan- ies and one in mathematics with partial differential equations. It also assumes that the student is computer literate, The simple codes included with the book are written in Fortran, and they are designed for use on PC's of the IBM PS/2 class. A course that would encompass the bulk of the material in this volume would likely be a two- semester graduate course. A good one-semester course at the undergraduate or grad- uate Ievel can be formed with a judicious selection of all the material supplied. The selection of topics to be covered in a given course will clearly be strongly influenced by the subject area of the students. It is suggested, however, that all students receive some coverage of numerical solution techniques and turbulence models, A number of people helped with the preparation of this volume and/or pro- vided helpful suggestions. In particular, Ming Situ, Stanley Favin, Bernard Gross- man, and Evangelos Hytopoulos helped greatly with the computer codes for the homework problems. Dr. Ephraim Sparrow provided many helpful suggestions. Fi- nally, students in classes in which my earlier text and notes that formed the basis of this book were used have always been open with helpful comments. I thank them all. I also thank Frederick Billig and the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hop- kins University, as well as various government agencies that have supported my per- sonal research in the boundary layer field. Joseph A. Schetz Blacksburg, VAa A bin B,, Br, B':, B's Bra GQ Ci, Ca, Cy, ete. & NOTATION Speed of sound and amplification factor Area or constant Half-width Constants Injection/suction parameters ‘Average speed of molecules Fluctuating value of species concentration Species concentration Mean value of species concentration Constants Specific heat at constant pressure Specific heat at constant volume Real and imaginary parts of the phase velocity Skin friction coefficient Average skin friction coefficient Pressure coefficient Drag coefficient Diameter and minor axis in three-dimensional jets Drag Hydraulic diameter xviiNotation Binary diffusion coefficient Turbulent diffusion coefficient Internal energy Kinetic energy of axial fluctuations at wave number k, Friction factor Function of (+) Body force vector Factors in Ke model Element force vector Acceleration of gravity, Clauser similarity variable, Johnson-King variable, and G/(1 ~ Gy) Stagnation enthalpy ratio Enthalpy Film coefficient Film coefficient for diffusion Metric coefficients Stagnation enthalpy Shape factor Index Integrated momentum flux Thermal conductivity and average roughness size Crocco-Lees mixing constant Turbulent thermal conductivity Wave number of fluctuations Turbulent kinetic energy Equilibrium constant Constants and geodesic curvatures Element stiffness matrix Turbulent length scale and arc length Mixing length Major axis in three-dimensional jets Length scale in Johnson-King model Lewis number Turbulent Lewis number Index along surface Diffusive mass flux of species i Maximum value of index m and Mach number Convective Mach number Mach number in compressibility correction Index across layer, frequency, and transverse streamline coordinate y component of normal vector to surface Maximum value of index n Notation Nu Nupier Nu Nn Pr, Pr, Pr Stor S(A) Tes: xix Nusselt number Nusselt number for diffusion Hedstrom number Plasticity number Pressure and exponent for power law fluids Partial pressure of species i Fluctuating pressure ; Mean pressure, scaled pressure, and perimeter Total pressure Power law decay exponents Prandt! number Turbulent Prandt] number Production of turbulent kinetic energy Heat flux vector ‘Turbulent heat flux Wall heat transfer rate Friction velocity in three-dimensional flows Total velocity in three-dimensional flows Radial coordinate, recovery factor, and element coordinate Body radius Half-radius Pipe radius, gas constant, and radius of curvature Richardson number Reynolds number Body nose radius of curvature Turbulent Reynolds number ‘Transformed streamwise and streamline coordinate and element coordinate Schmidt number Turbulent Schmidt number Stanton number Stanton number for diffusion Shear parameter Time Static temperature Surface force vector Bulk temperature Reference temperature Total (stagnation) temperature Time period Mean temperature Fluctuating temperature Heat transfer temperaure