Rockfall mitigation using simple drapery

system: design approach

Giorgio Giacchetti1, Alberto Grimod2

1 Alpigeo Sc – Belluno, Italy

2 Maccaferri Canada Ltd – Cambridge, Canada

Rockfall drapery systems are a fast and cheap measure against the rock falling
trajectories affecting very steep slopes. The system basically consists of a steel
mesh, which is held on the top edge with a longitudinal cable fixed by means of
a suitable number of anchors. The design of simple draperies requires the analy-
sis of several factors like the slope features, the geological and dynamic features,
the environmental condition, the installation problem and finally the performance
required. Finally the most problematic design-step is the choice of the suitable
mesh, the top longitudinal cable, and the top anchors type. Because of the highly
variable nature of rockfall behavior these structures have to be analyzed and de-
signed for each case. Maccaferri has developed a new software application (Ma-
cRO 2) has a practical tool to define the mesh and the related supporting struc-
ture composed by up-slope cable and anchors. The software allows designers to
verify the top longitudinal cable, the anchors, and the mesh drapery, and to plan
for maintenance procedures. Even if the method seems quite simple and rough, it
is effective and lets the designer correctly foresee the materials and the geome-
trical features to be used on the interventions. This paper analyses the condition
for the simple drapery installation, the main steps for the calculations, and it will
present a case study in a U.S. mine.

Keywords: rockfall protection, drapery system, MacRO 2.

1 Introduction

The natural processes of weathering exposes inhabitant areas and infrastructures

to a wide range of shallow instabilities shading from the erosion to the rockfall.
Despite they mostly cause small size falling, the shallow instabilities cannot be
underestimated because they happen with high frequency on wide areas, so that
they often determine accidents. In this situation, the designing must necessarily
guarantee the efficiency of the remedial solution in terms of high performance
and low maintenance costs. A very effective solution is the simple drapery sys-
tem that consists of a mesh covering the rock face like a curtain. The drapery is
suspended by longitudinal ropes and anchors at the crest (Rc). The mesh should
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be fixed as well at the bottom, so that the fallen debris can pile up into a pocket.
The anchors spacing on crest AC) and toe (AT) depends on the design and on
prevailing instability conditions at the site. In order to reduce the stress on the
mesh and the maintenance costs as well, the bottom of the mesh can be left
opened; in the case a trench is needed to collect the fallen debris.
In the proper sense the simple drapery is aimed at slowing down the falling veloc-
ity of small blocks and reducing the erosion process in the debris slopes. This
happens where the mesh lies close to or in contact with the ground surface (slopes
regular morphology), and the size of the falling material is relatively small (typi-
cally because of heavy jointed or thin layered rock masses, or of easily weathered
lithotypes). Often simple draperies do not need high dynamic or tensile resistance
is pretty low and geo-composite meshes like Steelgrid (wire mesh with cables in-
terwoven in the fabric) are largely effective. Actually, according to the Authors
(Muhunthan et al., 2005; Sasiharan et al. 2006), when vertical ropes are interwo-
ven and not simply applied at the job site, the stress concentration on the mesh is
reduced, because the drapery can transfer the loads directly to the top anchor sys-
tem. On contrary, where large blocks are unstable and the slope morphology is
uneven, the falling trajectories can almost freely develop relevant energy level,
and the drapery woks like a “dynamic shield”. The dynamic shields are usually
the remedial solution for high rocky slope, where the common secured drapery
systems are not cost-effective, or where the rockfall barriers and embankments
can not be conveniently installed. With high dynamic stress (dynamic shield) the
HEA cable panels should be applied because they perform very well in dynamic
conditions like on the attenuator systems (Arndt et al. 2009); finally, if the dynam-
ic impacts are extremely severe, the rings nets are needed.

2 Mesh design approach

The design of simple drapery depends of different variables related to the geome-
try of the slope, the type of the mesh and the hypothetical debris accumulation on
the toe of the system. At the present only the Washington State Department of
Transportation (Muhunthan et al. 2005) carried out a complete research on the de-
sign of the simple drapery system. Using these studies and the results obtained
from several laboratories and field tests, Maccaferri has developed a new software
(MacRo 2) fit for designing the mesh, the up-slope cable and the characteristic of
the up-slope anchors. This new formulation is quite simple and rough, but it give
reliable and fast results considering the low accuracy level of the input data. The
simple drapery system has to be designed by taking into account all the weights
able to transmit a stress on the mesh: (a) the proper weight of the chosen mesh;
(b) the weight of the debris accumulated at the toe of the mesh; (c) external
weight like the snow or ice accumulation on the drapery. The total load due to the
mesh (Wm) has to be defined:
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Wm = γm Hs / sinβ (sinβ – cos β tanδ) (1)

where γm = steel mesh unit weight; Hs = total height of the slope; β = inclination of
the slope; δ = friction angle between mesh and slope. It is possible to identify the
stress transmitted from the debris to the mesh (Wd) as follows:

Wd = ½ γdHd (1/tan Βd – 1/tanβ) (sinβ – cosβ tanϕd)

2
(2)

where γd = debris unit weight; Hd = debris accumulation height; ϕd = debris fric-

tion angle; Βd = debris external inclination value (Muhunthan equation):

Βd = arctan [Hd / (Td + Hd / tan β)] (3)

where Td = debris accumulation width. The last load acting on the mesh is due to
the snow thickness above the mesh (Ws).

Ws = γs ts Hs / sinβ (sinβ − cosβ tanϕs) (4)

where γs = snow unit weight; ts = snow thickness; ϕs = friction angle between soil
and snow. To design the drapery system at the limit equilibrium state, three safety
factors have to be introduced in the calculation to increase the acting forces and
decrease the resisting one:
γmts = safety coefficient that reduces the tensile strength of the mesh (usually 2.0).
γvl = safety coefficient for the variable loads, like the snow thickness and the de-
bris accumulation (according to Euro Code = 1.5). ;
γpl = safety coefficient for the permanent loads, like the drapery (suggested value
1.3)
The acting and resisting forces at the limit equilibrium state can be calculated in-
troducing the partial safety factor coefficients listed above. The total stress on the
revetment (S) will be:

Sw = (Wd + Ws) γvl + Wm γpl (5)

The Serviceability tensile strength of the mesh (Rm) is calculated as:

Rm = Tm / γmts (6)

where Tm = ultimate longitudinal tensile strength of the mesh (defined by labora-

tory tests). The design is satisfied if:

Rm - Sw ≥ 0 (7)

Thus, the safety coefficient of the mesh is equal to:

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FSmesh = Rm / Sw ≥ 1 (7.a)

3 Top cable design approach

The mesh is secured on the transversal up-slope cable, which is fixed to the crest
supports (anchors). Designer must know the maximum load acting on the drapery
(defined in the previous paragraph) and the spacing between the up-slope anchors
in order to calculate the deformation and the stress distribution within the rope.
This method uses the principle of the catenary to verify if the tensile strength of
the cable is sufficient to support the total weight of the system (Wm + Wd + Ws).
The cable is verified if the following equation is satisfied:

Tcbl / γcbl – Fcbl ≥ 0 (8)

where Tcbl = ultimate tensile strength of the designed rope (it depends on the steel
grade, the type of core and the diameter of the rope); γcbl = safety coefficient de-
creasing Tcbl (≥ 1.0); Twlc = cable working load limit:

Twlc = Tcbl / γcbl (9)

where Fcbl = maximum tensile strength acting on the cable (calculated with the ca-
tenary solution). Thus, the safety coefficient of the cable is:

FScable = Tvlc / Fcbl ≥ 1 (8.a)

Moreover, using this theory is possible to define the maximum length of the rope
and its maximum arrow between two anchors.

4 Top anchors design approach

The first design step considers the sheared load transmitted from the drapery and
allows designing the anchor diameter. The second one defines the minimum anc-
hor length that depends on the soil characteristics. With the catenary theory ap-
plied on the top longitudinal cable is possible to determinate the maximum force
acting on the intermediate and lateral anchors. These two forces have to be related
to the working shear resistance of the designed anchors:

Sbar(j) – N(j) ≥ 1 (10)

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where Sbar(j) = working shear resistance of the anchor j:

Sbar(j) = (Ybar(j) / γst) 3-1/2
(11)

Ybar(j) = yield load of the steel bar j:

Ybar(j) = ESS(j) σadm(j) (12)

ESS(j) = effective area of the steel bar j:

ESS(j) = π / 4 {[fe(j) – 2 fc(j)]2 – fi(j)2} (13)

Where σαδµ(ϕ) = yield stress of the steel of the bar j; fe(j) = external diameter of
the steel bar j; fc(j) = thickness of corrosion on the external crown of the steel bar
j; fi(j) = internal diameter of the steel bar j; γst = safety coefficient for the steel
strength of the bar (> 1.0); N(j) = force that the cable and the mesh develop on the
anchor j (calculated with the catenary solution); j = position of the anchor: inter-
mediate or lateral. Thus, the safety coefficient of the different cable may be calcu-
lated as follows:

FSanchor(j) = Sbar(j) / N(j) ≥ 1 (10.a)

The minimum theoretical length is derived by the equation:

Lt(j) = Ls(j) + Lp (14)

Assuming:
Ls = minimum foundation length:

Ls = P / (π φdrill τlim / γgt) (15)

Lp = length of hole with plasticity phenomena in firm part of the rock mass.
with φdrill = diameter of the drill-hole; τlim = adherence tension between grout and
rock; γgt = safety coefficient of the adhesion grout – rock; P = maximum pullout
force (calculated with the catenary theory). The length of the nail at this point has
a preliminary value. The final suitable length of the bars has to be evaluated dur-
ing drilling in order to verify the exact nature of the soil and confirmed with pull
out tests.

5 Conclusion

Simple drapery is a cost effective remedial measure against the rockfall risk: it is
successfully used in several environments (mining industry, road and infrastruc-
6

ture protection), even in severe condition for the application (example: slope
height up to 100-150 m, installation time very short).
Based on the researches done by Muhunthan et al. (2005) and the in-situ and la-
boratory tests, Maccaferri has developed a calculation approach (Macro 2) fit to
optimize all the basic components of the drapery system, and evaluate the requie-
redmaintenance. Further advancing are needed a better estimation of the dynamic
behavior of the draperies.

6 References

− Arndt B., Ortiz T., Turner A., 2009. Colorado’s Full-Scale Field Testing of
Rockfall Attenuator Systems. Transportation Research Circular EC141,
Oct, 2009.
− Bertolo P., Oggeri C., Peila D., 2009, Full-scale testing of draped nets for
rock fall protection, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 46, pp.306–317
− Bonati A., Galimberti, V., 2004, La valutazione sperimentale di sistemi di
difesa attiva dalla caduta massi. In Peila (ed). Bonifica di versanti rocciosi
per la protezione del territorio, GEAM, Torino, pp.177-189
− Bustamante M., Doix B., 1985, Une méthode pour le calcul des tirants et
des micropieux injectés, Bull. Liasion Labo. Ponts et Chausséss, Paris, N.
149
− Geldsetzer T., Jamieson B., 2000, Estimating dry snow density from grain
form and hand hardness. Proceedings ISSW 2000. Big Sky, Montana,
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− Giacchetti G., Bertolo P., 2010, Approccio al calcolo dei sistemi di reti con
chiodi per il consolidamento delle pareti rocciose, Geoingegneria Ambien-
tale e Mineraria, XLVII (1), pp. 33-43
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venti e dimensionamento. GEAM, Quaderni di studio e di documentazione,
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− Muhunthan, B., Shu, S., Sasiharan, N., Hattamleh, O. A., Badger, T. C.,
Lowell, S. M., Duffy, J. D., 2005, Analysis and design of wire/mesh cable
net slope protection - Final Research Report. Washington State Transpor-
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− Sasiharan N., Muhunthan B., Badger T.C., Shu S., Carradine D.M. , 2006,
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protection systems, Engineering Geology 88 (2006) 121–132 - Elsevier
− UNI EN 1991, 2004 – Eurocode 1 – Actions on structures Part 1-3: Gener-
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− UNI EN 11211-4 – 2012 – Rockfall protective measures: definitive and
executive design (in Italian).