Rajaraja I, born Arulmoḷi Varman[3][4] (also transliterated as Arulmozhi Varman[5]), was a Chola

emperor from present day south India who ruled over the Chola kingdom of medieval Tamil Nadu
(parts of southern India), parts of northern India, two thirds of Sri Lankan territory, Maldives and
parts of East Asia, between 985 and 1014 CE. During his reign, the Cholas expanded beyond
the Kaveridelta[6][7] with their domains stretching from Sri Lanka in the south to Kalinga (modern-
day Odisha) in the north. Rajaraja also launched several naval campaigns on the ports of Malabar
Coast (Kerala), Maldives and Sri Lanka.[8][9]
Rajaraja built the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur, one of the largest Hindu temples.[10] During his
reign, the texts of the Tamil poets Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar were collected and edited into
one compilation called Thirumurai.[7][11] He initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment
in 1000 CE which led to the reorganisation of the country into individual units known
as valanadus.[12][13] Rajaraja died in 1014 CE and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola.

Contents

 1Early life
 2Military conquests
o 2.1Against Cheras and Pandyas
o 2.2Conquest of Sri Lanka
o 2.3Chalukyan conflict
o 2.4Kalinga conquest
o 2.5Burning of Udagai and Conquest of Malainaadu
o 2.6Naval expedition
 3Personal life
 4Administration
 5Officials
 6Religious policy
 7Arts and architecture
o 7.1Brihadisvara Temple
 8Coins
 9Inscriptions
 10In popular culture
 11See also
 12References
 13Bibliography
 14External links

Early life[edit]

Brihadisvara Temple inscription reading "Rajaraja"

According to the Thiruvalangadu copper-plate inscription, Rajaraja's original name was Arulmoḷi
(also transliterated as Arulmozhi) Varman, literally "blessed tongued".[3][5] He was born around 947
CE in the Aipassi month, on the day of Sadhayam star.[14] He was a son of the Chola king Parantaka
II (alias Sundara) and queen Vanavan Mahadevi.[15] He had an elder brother - Aditya II,[4] and an
elder sister - Kundavai.[16]
Rajaraja's ascension ended a period of rival claims to the throne, following the death of his
grandfather Parantaka I. After Parantaka I, his son Gandaraditya ascended the throne. When
Gandaraditya died, his son Uttama was a minor, so the throne passed on to Parantaka I's younger
son Arinjaya. Arinjaya died soon, and was succeeded by his son Parantaka II. It was decided that
the throne would pass on to Uttama after Parantaka II: this decision was most probably that of
Parantaka II, although the Thiruvalangadu inscription of Rajaraja's son Rajendra I claims that it was
made by Rajaraja.[4]
Rajaraja's elder brother died before him, and after the death of Uttama, Rajaraja ascended the
throne in June-July 985.[4] Known as Arumoḷi Varman until this point, he adopted the name Rajaraja,
which literally means "King among Kings".[17] He also called himself Shivapada Shekhara (IAST:
Śivapada Śekhara), literally, "the one who places his crown at the feet of Shiva".[18]

Chola empire during the reign of Rajaraja I

Military conquests[edit]
Rajaraja inherited a kingdom whose boundaries were limited to the traditional Chola territory centred
around Thanjavur-Tiruchirappalliregion.[3] At the time of his ascension, the Chola kingdom was
relatively small, and was still recovering from the Rashtrakuta invasions in the preceding years.
Rajaraja turned it into an efficiently-administered empire which possessed a powerful army and a
strong navy. During his reign, the northern kingdom of Vengi became a Chola protectorate, and the
Chola influence on the eastern coast extended as far as Kalinga in the north.[4]
A number of regiments are mentioned in the Thanjavur inscriptions.[19][20] These regiments were
divided into elephant troops, cavalry and infantry and each of these regiments had its own autonomy
and was free to endow benefactions or build temples.[19]

Against Cheras and Pandyas[edit]

The first known Chola raids in Malai Nadu, the mountainous region of Kerala, can be dated as early
as 998 CE.[9] The earliest of Rajaraja's campaign appears to have been an invasion of the Chera
kingdom: the inscriptions issued during his fourth regnal year (989 CE) call him "the one who
destroyed ships at Kandalur-Salai" (Kandalur-Salaik-kalamarutta).[21] Kandalur (or Kanthalur) is
identified with present-day Valiasala in Kerala;[22] the Salai (or "shala", a centre of learning) there
apparently specialized in military training.[23]The Salai originally belonged to the Ay vassals of the
Pandya king, but was under the influence of the Chera kings of Kodungallurduring Rajaraja's time.
The engagement seemed to be an effort of the Chola navy or a combined effort of the navy and the
army.[9] A Tamil language prashasti (eulogy) inscription on a 999 CE hero stone, discovered in 2009
at Chengam, mentions that Rajaraja beheaded the Malai Alargal, the Chera warriors of Kandalur-
Salai. It also states that Rajaraja built split into two a royal Chera naval vessel, destroyed several
boats, and built a mandapa at Kandalur Salai.[22] Historian K. A. Nilakanta Sastri theorizes that the
contemporary Chera ruler was Bhaskara Ravi Varman Tiruvadi.[21]
The Chola army also attacked Vilinda (or Vilinam; present-day Vizhinjam), a maritime fortress and
port near Kandalur Salai.[24] After Rajaraja's death, in c. 1018 CE, the Chera kingdom eventually
became a tributary to the Cholas.[9]
A 1005 CE inscription of Rajaraja states that he destroyed the Pandya capital Madurai; conquered
the "haughty kings" of Kollam, Kolla-desham, and Kodungallur in present-day Kerala; and that the
"kings of the sea" waited on him. The 1014 CE Thanjavur inscriptions credit him with victories over
the Chera and the Pandya rulers in the mountainous region on the western coast (malai-nadu).[25]
After defeating the Pandyas, Rajaraja adopted the title Pandya-Kulashani ("thunderbolt to the race of
the Pandyas"), and the Pandya country came to be known as "Rajaraja-mandalam" or "Rajaraja-
Pandinadu" after him.[25] While describing the Rajaraja's campaign against the Pandyas,
the Thiruvalangadu inscription of Rajendra I states that he defeated Amarabhujanga. Several
scholars theorize that Amarabhujanga was the name of a Pandya king, but it is possible that he was
a general of the Pandya king: Kongu Desa Rajakkal, a chronicle of the Kongu Nadu region, suggests
that this general later shifted his allegiance to Rajaraja, and performed the Chola
king's kanakabhisheka ceremony.[26]
After consolidating his rule in the south, Rajaraja assumed the title Mummudi Chola ("the Chola who
wears three crowns"), a reference to his control over the three Tamil kingdoms of the Cholas, the
Pandyas, and the Cheras.[3]

Conquest of Sri Lanka[edit]

See also: Chola occupation of Sri Lanka (993-1077)
Mahinda V was the king of the Sinhalese. In 991 CE, Mahinda’s army mutinied with help from
mercenaries from Kerala with Mahinda seeking refuge in the southern region of Ruhuna. Rajaraja
invaded Sri Lanka in 993 CE. The Thiruvalangadu copper-plate inscriptions mention that Rajaraja’s
army crossed the ocean by ships and destroyed Anuradhapura, the 1400-year-old capital of Sri
Lanka. Cholas made the city of Polonnaruwa the capital and renamed it Jananathamangalam.
Rajaraja built a Siva temple in Pollonaruwa to commemorate the victory.[27] Rajaraja captured only
the northern part of Sri Lanka while the southern part remained independent. His son Rajendra
Chola captured the island in 1017 CE and the Chola reign in Sri Lanka was ended by Vijayabahu I in
1070 CE.[28][29]
Comparing Rajaraja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama, the
Thiruvalangadu inscription states:[3]
Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of
Lanka by means of sharp edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this King whose powerful army crossed the
ocean by ships and burnt up the King of Lanka.
Thiruvalangadu copper plates[3]

Chalukyan conflict[edit]
In 998 CE, Rajaraja captured the regions of Gangapadi, Nolambapadi and Tadigaipadi (present
day Karnataka).[30] Raja Chola extinguished the Nolambas, who were the feudatories of Ganga while
conquering and annexing Nolambapadi.[31] The conquered provinces were originally feudatories of
the Rashtrakutas.[32][33] In 973 CE, the Rashtrakutas were defeated by the Western Chalukyas leading
to direct conflict with Cholas.[34] An inscription of Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar describes
him as a vassal of the Western Chalukyas and acknowledges the Chola onslaught.[35] In the same
inscription, he accuses Rajendra of having arrived with a force of 955,000 and of having gone on
rampage in Donuwara thereby blurring the moralities of war as laid out in the
Dharmasastras.[36] Historians like James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn conclude that this
confrontation displayed the degree of animosity on a personal level between the rulers of the Chola
and the Chalukya kingdoms drawing a parallel between the enmity between
the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi.[37][38]
There were encounters between the Cholas and the Hoysalas, who were vassals of the Western
Chalukyas. An inscription from the Gopalakrishna temple at Narasipur dated to 1006 records that
Rajaraja's general Aprameya killed minister Naganna and other generals of the Hoysalas.[39] A
similar inscription in Channapatna also describes Rajaraja defeating the Hoysalas.[40] Vengi kingdom
was ruled by Jata Choda Bhima of the Eastern Chalukyas dynasty.[34] Jata Choda Bhima was
defeated by Rajaraja and Saktivarman was placed on the throne of Vengi as a viceroy of the Chola
Dynasty.[34][41] After the withdrawal of the Chola army, Bhima captured Kanchi in 1001 CE. Rajaraja
expelled and killed the Andhra king called Bhima before re-establishing Saktivarman I on the throne
of Vengi again.[42] Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to his next viceroy of Vengi
Vimaladitya which brought about the union of the Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya
Kingdom and which also ensured that the descendants of Rajaraja would rule the Eastern Chalukya
kingdom in the future.[41]

Statue of Rajaraja, Tamil Nadu, 20th century

Kalinga conquest[edit]
This section needs
expansion. You can help
by adding to it. (December 2015)

The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi.[43]

Burning of Udagai and Conquest of Malainaadu[edit]

Sometime before 1008 A.D, Rajaraja sacked the fortress of Udagai in the Western Ghats and
conquered Kudamalai nadu.[44] The word Kudagumalai-nadu is substituted in place of Kudamalai-
nadu in some of his inscriptions found in Karnataka and this region has been identified with the
kingdom of Coorg.[45] The Tamil literary works Kalingathupparani and Kulottungacholan
Ula composed after his time and during the reign of Kulottunga I mention the storming of Udagai by
Rajaraja Chola.[46] He is said to have decapitated eighteen princes and set fire to the fortress of
Udagai in retaliation to the insult meted out to his envoy.[47][48][49]

Naval expedition[edit]
One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the islands of Maldives ("the Old
Islands of the Sea Numbering 1200").[50][51][page needed] The control of the island of Maldives, up to this
day, remain strategically crucial for any state with economic interests in the Indian Ocean trade. The
naval campaign was also a demonstration of the Chola naval power in the Indian Ocean.[9]
The Cholas controlled the area around of Bay of Bengal with Nagapattinam as the main port.
The Chola Navy also had played a major role in the invasion of Sri Lanka.[52] The success of Rajaraja
allowed his son Rajendra Chola to lead the Chola invasion of Srivijaya, carrying out naval raids in
South-East Asia and briefly occupying Kadaram.[6][53]

Personal life[edit]
Rajaraja had at least four queens including Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Ulaga Madeviyar and
Panchavan Madeviyar[54][55][56] and at least three daughters. He had a son Rajendra with Thiripuvāna
Mādēviyār.[57][58][59] He had his first daughter Kundavai with Ulaga Madeviyar. Kundavai
married Chalukya prince Vimaladithan. He had two other daughters named Mathevadigal[citation
needed]
and Ģangamādevi or Arumozhi Chandramalli.[56] Rajaraja died in 1014 CE in the Tamil month of
Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I.[60]

Administration[edit]

Mural depicting Rajaraja and his guru Karuvuruvar found in the Brihadisvara temple, Tamil Nadu, 11th
century.[61][62][63]

Before the reign of Rajaraja I, parts of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes
who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers.[64]Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and
assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganization of the empire into units known as
valanadus.[12][13]From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133 CE, the
hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials.[64] This led
to the king exercising a closer control over the different parts of the empire.[64] Rajaraja strengthened
the local self-government and installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies
and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy.[65][66][67] To promote trade,
he sent the first Chola mission to China.[68]
His elder sister Kundavai assisted him in administration and management of temples.[69]

Officials[edit]
Rajendra Chola I was made a co-regent during the last years of Rajaraja’s rule. He was the supreme
commander of the northern and north-western dominions. During the reign of Raja Chola, there was
an expansion of the administrative structure leading to the increase in the number of offices and
officials in the Chola records than during earlier periods.[12] Villavan Muvendavelan, one of the top
officials of Rajaraja figures in many of his inscriptions.[70] The other names of officials found in the
inscriptions are the Bana prince Narasimhavarman, a general Senapathi Krishnan Raman, the
Samantha chief Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and
Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys.[71]

Religious policy[edit]
Rajaraja was a follower of Shaivism but he was tolerant towards other faiths and had several
temples for Vishnu constructed and encouraged the construction of the Buddhist Chudamani
Vihara at the request of the Srivijaya king Sri Maravijayatungavarman. Rajaraja dedicated the
proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara.[72]

Arts and architecture[edit]

Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts of Thevaram in
his court.[73] He sought the help of Nambi Andar Nambi.[74] It is believed that by divine intervention
Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a
chamber inside the second precinct in Thillai Nataraja Temple,
Chidambaram.[75][74] The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja
intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of
Chidambaram.[75][76] Rajaraja thus became to be known as Tirumurai Kanda Cholan meaning one
who saved the Tirumurai. Thus far Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent
of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple.[76] Nambi arranged
the hymns of three saint poets Sambandar, Appar and Sundarar as the first seven
books, Manickavasagar's Tirukovayar and Tiruvacakam as the 8th book, the 28 hymns of nine other
saints as the 9th book, the Tirumandiram of Tirumular as the 10th book, 40 hymns by 12 other poets
as the 10th book, Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi - the sacred anthathi of the labours of the 63 nayanar
saints and added his own hymns as the 11th book.[77] The first seven books were later called
as Tevaram, and the whole Saiva canon, to which was added, as the 12th book, Sekkizhar's Periya
Puranam(1135) is wholly known as Tirumurai, the holy book. Thus Saiva literature which covers
about 600 years of religious, philosophical and literary development.[77]

Brihadisvara Temple[edit]
Brihadisvara Temple built by Rajaraja I, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Main article: Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur

In 1010 CE, Rajaraja built the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur dedicated to Lord Shiva. The
temple and the capital acted as a center of both religious and economic activity.[78] It is also known
as Periya Kovil, RajaRajeswara Temple and Rajarajeswaram.[79][80] It is one of the largest temples in
India and is an example of Dravidian architecture during the Chola period.[81] The temple turned 1000
years old in 2010.[82] The temple is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the "Great
Living Chola Temples", with the other two being the Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Airavatesvara
temple.[83]
The vimanam (temple tower) is 216 ft (66 m) high and is the tallest in the world. The Kumbam (the
apex or the bulbous structure on the top) of the temple is carved out of a single rock and weighs
around 80 tons.[84] There is a big statue of Nandi (sacred bull), carved out of a single rock measuring
about 16 feet long and 13 feet high at the entrance. The entire temple structure is made out
of granite, the nearest sources of which are about 60 km to the west of temple. The temple is one of
the most visited tourist attractions in Tamil Nadu.[85]

Coins[edit]
Before the reign of Rajaraja the Chola coins had on the obverse the tiger emblem and the fish and
bow emblems of the Pandya and Chera Dynasties and on the reverse the name of the King. But
during the reign of Rajaraja appeared a new type of coins. The new coins had on the obverse the
figure of the standing king and on the reverse the seated goddess.[86]The coins spread over a great
part of South India and were also copied by the kings of Sri Lanka.[87]

Inscriptions[edit]

A typical lithic inscription of the Chola period

Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his
life in stones. An inscription in Tamil from Mulbagal in Karnataka shows his accomplishments as
early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such a Meikeerthi, an inscription recording great
accomplishments, follows:[88]
 ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ
“ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸ
ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ
ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ
ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ
ஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ
ஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ
ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ
ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ ஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸஸ
ஸஸஸஸஸ[89][not in citation given] ”
[90][not in citation given]