Kind: captions

Language: en

00:00:02,610 --> 00:00:05,790

Prof: So we know

something about all these

00:00:05,790 --> 00:00:09,501

powerful tools that had been

developed: quantum mechanics

00:00:09,501 --> 00:00:12,961

around 1925, '26 actually;

and then all these much more

00:00:12,961 --> 00:00:14,958

modern things,

including scanning probe

00:00:14,958 --> 00:00:17,270

microscopy, which is really

quite recent.
6

00:00:17,270 --> 00:00:21,760

But the most powerful tool in

organic chemistry,

00:00:21,760 --> 00:00:25,180

for everyday practice,

and certainly for anybody who's

00:00:25,180 --> 00:00:29,181

not a professional chemist and

into quantum mechanics and stuff

00:00:29,181 --> 00:00:32,463

like that, is bonds;

this amazing invention of

10

00:00:32,463 --> 00:00:36,694

bonds, and how people knew what

things were like before any of

11
00:00:36,694 --> 00:00:38,566

these tools were dreamt of.

12

00:00:38,566 --> 00:00:39,260

Right?

13

00:00:39,260 --> 00:00:42,575

And, for that,

we go back in time and look at

14

00:00:42,575 --> 00:00:46,720

these guys in the nineteenth

century who invented it.

15

00:00:46,720 --> 00:00:51,580

And we begin with what's called

-- whoops -- we begin with --

16

00:00:51,580 --> 00:00:56,278

sorry, here we go again -- okay,

we begin with the Chemical

17

00:00:56,278 --> 00:00:57,169

Revolution.

18

00:00:57,169 --> 00:00:58,060

Right?

19

00:00:58,060 --> 00:01:01,976

That's a name that historians

of science have given this

20

00:01:01,976 --> 00:01:04,468

period, beginning with

Lavoisier.

21

00:01:04,468 --> 00:01:06,810

So really that's where we'll

start.
22

00:01:06,810 --> 00:01:10,540

But he didn't just spring from

nowhere.

23

00:01:10,540 --> 00:01:13,224

There was a long tradition of

some kinds of chemistry before

24

00:01:13,224 --> 00:01:15,819

that, and we're going to just

review that very briefly.

25

00:01:15,819 --> 00:01:21,049

There's a background in ancient

art and lore.

26

00:01:21,049 --> 00:01:21,819

Okay?

27

00:01:21,819 --> 00:01:24,470

So, for example,

here's a mosaic from Montreale,

28

00:01:24,470 --> 00:01:30,331

in Sicily, of Noah,

as making wine and then falling

29

00:01:30,331 --> 00:01:36,780

victim to it and having his

shame hidden by his sons.

30

00:01:36,780 --> 00:01:37,569

Okay?

31

00:01:37,569 --> 00:01:39,459

And here's his flask, right?

32

00:01:39,459 --> 00:01:41,110

Student: Oh no.
33

00:01:41,110 --> 00:01:44,900

Prof: This is like 3000

years ago.

34

00:01:44,900 --> 00:01:49,175

The mosaic is about 1000 years;

it's twelfth century,

35

00:01:49,175 --> 00:01:51,500

it's 800 or 900 hundred years

old.

36

00:01:51,500 --> 00:01:52,190

Okay?

37

00:01:52,190 --> 00:01:58,220

Here is a Roman glass perfume

vial, that's 2000 years old.

38
00:01:58,220 --> 00:02:01,956

So they made perfume,

obviously, and extracted the

39

00:02:01,956 --> 00:02:06,000

stuff from flowers and whatever

that would do that.

40

00:02:06,000 --> 00:02:07,310

Okay?

41

00:02:07,310 --> 00:02:11,593

There's the Chemical Research

Building when it was five days

42

00:02:11,593 --> 00:02:12,030

old.

43

00:02:12,030 --> 00:02:12,758

Okay?
44

00:02:12,758 --> 00:02:15,061

And we already saw Francis

Bacon who said:

45

00:02:15,061 --> 00:02:18,430

"All the philosophy of

nature which is now received,

46

00:02:18,430 --> 00:02:20,379

is either the philosophy of the

Grecians,

47

00:02:20,379 --> 00:02:22,169

or that of the alchemists."

48

00:02:22,169 --> 00:02:24,840

So the alchemists are in a

sense our ancestors.

49

00:02:24,840 --> 00:02:27,990

He didn't have a very high

opinion of them.

50

00:02:27,990 --> 00:02:30,824

He said: "The one is

gathered out of a few vulgar

51

00:02:30,824 --> 00:02:33,443

observations"

(that's the Greek philosophers)

52

00:02:33,443 --> 00:02:36,758

"and the other out of a few

experiments of a furnace.

53

00:02:36,758 --> 00:02:39,597

The one never faileth to

multiply words,

54

00:02:39,597 --> 00:02:43,378

and the other ever faileth to

multiply gold."

55

00:02:43,378 --> 00:02:46,732

So even at this time,

when science was beginning to

56

00:02:46,732 --> 00:02:48,609

get underway,

modern science,

57

00:02:48,609 --> 00:02:51,090

alchemy was already in

disrepute.

58

00:02:51,090 --> 00:02:53,690

But it did contribute some

things.

59

00:02:53,690 --> 00:02:57,728

It didn't contribute much to

theory, because the theory

60

00:02:57,728 --> 00:03:01,242

depended on Greek,

well on the Greek antecedents

61

00:03:01,242 --> 00:03:04,460

and authority,

rather than observation.

62

00:03:04,460 --> 00:03:06,650

But they did fiddle around.

63

00:03:06,650 --> 00:03:11,120

Here's a painting of an

alchemist from 1663.

64

00:03:11,120 --> 00:03:15,085

And remember,

Newton did more work in alchemy

65
00:03:15,085 --> 00:03:17,157

than he did in physics.

66

00:03:17,157 --> 00:03:17,970

Right?

67

00:03:17,970 --> 00:03:21,104

And he wrote an enormous amount

but never published anything

68

00:03:21,104 --> 00:03:21,688

about it.

69

00:03:21,688 --> 00:03:25,352

There's a great website now,

from the University of Indiana,

70

00:03:25,352 --> 00:03:29,139

of all Newton's alchemical

works, and you can look at them.

71

00:03:29,139 --> 00:03:32,120

But this was to be kept a

secret.

72

00:03:32,120 --> 00:03:37,520

That was the idea of alchemy,

that it was occult,

73

00:03:37,520 --> 00:03:39,319

it was hidden.

74

00:03:39,319 --> 00:03:40,000

Okay?

75

00:03:40,000 --> 00:03:43,458

And in fact there's a show

that's coming up on alchemy at

76

00:03:43,458 --> 00:03:47,764

the Beinecke Library,

in January, of their holdings

77

00:03:47,764 --> 00:03:50,804

in alchemy,

and the title of the show is

78

00:03:50,804 --> 00:03:52,831

"The Book of Secrets."

79

00:03:52,831 --> 00:03:53,340

Right?

80

00:03:53,340 --> 00:03:55,750

And that's Harry Potter

as well, right?

81

00:03:55,750 --> 00:03:56,660

>

82

00:03:56,660 --> 00:03:58,848

So here's one of the things

that's going to be shown.

83

00:03:58,848 --> 00:04:02,729

It's part of a really long

scroll, which is the Visio

84

00:04:02,729 --> 00:04:05,408

Mystica of Arnold of

Villanova,

85

00:04:05,408 --> 00:04:10,057

who was a thirteenth century

alchemist who was into medicine

86

00:04:10,057 --> 00:04:15,098

and was considered the greatest

medical authority of its time.

87

00:04:15,098 --> 00:04:18,209

This particular scroll was

written in England in 1570.

88

00:04:18,209 --> 00:04:20,259

So a lot of it's in English.

89

00:04:20,259 --> 00:04:24,983

It says, "the red sea,

the red lune ,

90

00:04:24,983 --> 00:04:27,173

the red sol ."

91

00:04:27,173 --> 00:04:28,209

Right?

92
00:04:28,209 --> 00:04:30,470

All sorts of mystical things.

93

00:04:30,470 --> 00:04:35,192

And then, and you see here is

the corpus, the body,

94

00:04:35,192 --> 00:04:39,029

which is earth;

and here's the soul,

95

00:04:39,029 --> 00:04:42,668

which is oil;

and here's the spirit or the

96

00:04:42,668 --> 00:04:45,120

air, the breath,

which is water.

97

00:04:45,120 --> 00:04:48,199

So there was -- everything was

a symbol for something else.

98

00:04:48,199 --> 00:04:52,495

Or if you look at the four

corners of this,

99

00:04:52,495 --> 00:04:55,666

on the bottom right we have

air.

100

00:04:55,666 --> 00:04:56,690

Right?

101

00:04:56,690 --> 00:04:58,632

"Eeyre",

it says, "is hott and

102

00:04:58,632 --> 00:04:59,250

moyst."
103

00:04:59,250 --> 00:04:59,870

Right?

104

00:04:59,870 --> 00:05:04,240

Or on the top left is earth,

which is cold and dry;

105

00:05:04,240 --> 00:05:05,959

the opposite of air.

106

00:05:05,959 --> 00:05:11,410

And down here is fire,

which is hot and dry.

107

00:05:11,410 --> 00:05:17,661

And up there is water,

which is cold and moist.

108

00:05:17,661 --> 00:05:18,750

Right?

109

00:05:18,750 --> 00:05:22,826

So this was supposed to be

something profound and

110

00:05:22,826 --> 00:05:23,930

mysterious.

111

00:05:23,930 --> 00:05:25,990

Another thing they're going to

show is this book,

112

00:05:25,990 --> 00:05:28,310

On the Philosopher's

Stone, which was written in

113

00:05:28,310 --> 00:05:29,470

the thirteenth century.

114

00:05:29,470 --> 00:05:32,459

The particular copy they have

is from 1571.

115

00:05:32,459 --> 00:05:35,254

But it looks like somebody's

organic chemistry text,

116

00:05:35,254 --> 00:05:38,490

after they've highlighted it in

preparation for the exam.

117

00:05:38,490 --> 00:05:40,139

Every word is underlined.

118

00:05:40,139 --> 00:05:41,050

>

119
00:05:41,050 --> 00:05:41,480

Right?

120

00:05:41,480 --> 00:05:45,285

And all in the margin are these

fingers pointing to important

121

00:05:45,285 --> 00:05:45,728

things.

122

00:05:45,728 --> 00:05:46,300

Right?

123

00:05:46,300 --> 00:05:49,879

And if you look there,

you'll see great words like

124

00:05:49,879 --> 00:05:53,240

alchemy there,
you see elixir.

125

00:05:53,240 --> 00:05:56,769

I forget, there are a lot of

key words.

126

00:05:56,769 --> 00:06:00,528

But fundamentally it's all

nonsense, all the theory.

127

00:06:00,528 --> 00:06:03,267

The reason people kept it

secret, really,

128

00:06:03,267 --> 00:06:06,144

was, I think,

not to keep other people from

129

00:06:06,144 --> 00:06:09,088

finding it out,

but to hide the fact that it

130

00:06:09,088 --> 00:06:10,389

was nonsense.

131

00:06:10,389 --> 00:06:13,620

That's just my own theory,

so maybe that's wrong.

132

00:06:13,620 --> 00:06:17,230

Okay, but Paracelsus,

in the early 1500s,

133

00:06:17,230 --> 00:06:20,490

was an alchemist,

a traveling physician,

134

00:06:20,490 --> 00:06:25,028

and he developed what had been

long before that,

135

00:06:25,028 --> 00:06:27,500

which was the Doctrine of

Sympathies,

136

00:06:27,500 --> 00:06:30,490

and one aspect of that was in

nature,

137

00:06:30,490 --> 00:06:35,807

antidotes for poisons are to be

found near the source of the

138

00:06:35,807 --> 00:06:36,528

illness.

139

00:06:36,528 --> 00:06:37,339

Right?

140

00:06:37,339 --> 00:06:40,019

So, for example,

you know what that is?

141

00:06:40,019 --> 00:06:43,620

Student: Poison ivy.

142

00:06:43,620 --> 00:06:45,660

Prof: Poison ivy. Right?

143

00:06:45,660 --> 00:06:50,069

But near poison ivy you're

likely to find jewelweed,

144

00:06:50,069 --> 00:06:53,095

which is an antidote for poison

ivy.

145

00:06:53,095 --> 00:06:53,959

Right?

146
00:06:53,959 --> 00:06:57,952

Or -- poison ivy is a New World

thing, so that didn't interest

147

00:06:57,952 --> 00:07:01,028

the alchemists -- but this one

certainly did.

148

00:07:01,028 --> 00:07:05,067

Willow -- Salix is the Latin

name for willow -- which is

149

00:07:05,067 --> 00:07:07,050

found in malarial swamps.

150

00:07:07,050 --> 00:07:09,528

So you go into a swamp,

you get malaria,

151

00:07:09,528 --> 00:07:11,879

but you also find the willow

there.

152

00:07:11,879 --> 00:07:15,249

And the willow bark,

extracting from the willow bark

153

00:07:15,249 --> 00:07:17,363

you can get Salicin,

a glycoside,

154

00:07:17,363 --> 00:07:20,336

which is a sugar plus an

aromatic thing there.

155

00:07:20,336 --> 00:07:21,129

Right?

156

00:07:21,129 --> 00:07:25,935

And if you hydrolyze that to

get the sugar off,

157

00:07:25,935 --> 00:07:30,322

and oxidize that to make a

carboxylic acid,

158

00:07:30,322 --> 00:07:32,100

you get this.

159

00:07:32,100 --> 00:07:33,440

What's that?

160

00:07:33,440 --> 00:07:34,250

Students:

Salicylic acid.

161

00:07:34,250 --> 00:07:34,940

Prof: Right.

162

00:07:34,940 --> 00:07:37,348

Salicylic acid,

from alix.

163

00:07:37,348 --> 00:07:38,120

Right?

164

00:07:38,120 --> 00:07:41,209

So it's good for fevers and so

on, for your malaria.

165

00:07:41,209 --> 00:07:44,079

Okay, so that's a theory.

166

00:07:44,079 --> 00:07:45,610

This is another thing they're

going to show,

167

00:07:45,610 --> 00:07:47,440

a Vade Mecum -- come

along with me --
168

00:07:47,440 --> 00:07:51,526

which is a lab manual that was

kept by Caspar Harttung vom

169

00:07:51,526 --> 00:07:54,199

Hoff,

in 1557, in Austria.

170

00:07:54,199 --> 00:07:56,800

So you can see he draws various

-- what he's,

171

00:07:56,800 --> 00:08:00,230

he's reading various things,

and writing extracts and notes

172

00:08:00,230 --> 00:08:01,649

to himself about it.

173
00:08:01,649 --> 00:08:04,012

It's like your pre-lab

preparation.

174

00:08:04,012 --> 00:08:04,569

Right?

175

00:08:04,569 --> 00:08:10,680

Okay, and you notice who he's

quoting up here?

176

00:08:10,680 --> 00:08:13,658

Arnold, that guy from the

thirteenth century who did the

177

00:08:13,658 --> 00:08:15,012

thing we've showed first.

178

00:08:15,012 --> 00:08:15,500

Right?
179

00:08:15,500 --> 00:08:17,740

Arnold of Villanova.

180

00:08:17,740 --> 00:08:20,740

Okay, but he shows distillation

apparatus.

181

00:08:20,740 --> 00:08:23,069

These things are called

pelicans.

182

00:08:23,069 --> 00:08:24,430

Isn't that interesting?

183

00:08:24,430 --> 00:08:27,379

And here's a lamp.

184

00:08:27,379 --> 00:08:30,105

And here's somebody,

he's filtering something

185

00:08:30,105 --> 00:08:32,830

through some kind of screen or

grid there.

186

00:08:32,830 --> 00:08:33,490

Okay?

187

00:08:33,490 --> 00:08:39,451

So they developed tools that

were of great use to chemistry,

188

00:08:39,451 --> 00:08:42,178

once chemistry got going.

189

00:08:42,178 --> 00:08:45,303

So there was a lot of -- even

though the theory was nonsense

190

00:08:45,303 --> 00:08:48,585

-- there was a lot of practical

background in preparing various

191

00:08:48,585 --> 00:08:49,750

elixirs and so on.

192

00:08:49,750 --> 00:08:51,440

So this was crucial.

193

00:08:51,440 --> 00:08:55,610

Now here is a lab that could

easily be mistaken for an

194

00:08:55,610 --> 00:08:59,309

alchemical laboratory,

but in fact it's an early

195

00:08:59,309 --> 00:09:01,200

chemical laboratory.

196

00:09:01,200 --> 00:09:02,990

And I'll show it to you here.

197

00:09:02,990 --> 00:09:08,440

It's this book,

it's this picture here from

198

00:09:08,440 --> 00:09:14,408

1777, from a book about Air

and Fire.

199

00:09:14,408 --> 00:09:18,129

And it reports the discovery of

a new element,

200
00:09:18,129 --> 00:09:19,370

in this book.

201

00:09:19,370 --> 00:09:27,600

And it's by Carl Wilhelm

Scheele, who was in Uppsala;

202

00:09:27,600 --> 00:09:30,158

"Upsala", in Sweden.

203

00:09:30,158 --> 00:09:34,807

What do you think he discovered

with light and fire -- or pardon

204

00:09:34,807 --> 00:09:38,250

me, with air and fire;

Luft und dem Feuer?

205

00:09:38,250 --> 00:09:39,190

Student: Oxygen.
206

00:09:39,190 --> 00:09:45,529

Prof: Ah ha, we'll see.

207

00:09:45,529 --> 00:09:48,017

So that's his laboratory,

Scheele's laboratory,

208

00:09:48,017 --> 00:09:50,450

or at least some artist's

impression of it.

209

00:09:50,450 --> 00:09:52,158

And here he is.

210

00:09:52,158 --> 00:09:55,163

He's before the Chemical

Revolution, but he's an

211

00:09:55,163 --> 00:09:57,337

important precedent,

as you'll see,

212

00:09:57,337 --> 00:09:59,320

to the Chemical Revolution.

213

00:09:59,320 --> 00:10:03,080

He was by practice a pharmacist

but he spent most of his time

214

00:10:03,080 --> 00:10:05,649

doing what is really chemical

research.

215

00:10:05,649 --> 00:10:09,865

Here's a picture of a stamp,

a Swedish stamp,

216

00:10:09,865 --> 00:10:11,590

showing Scheele.

217

00:10:11,590 --> 00:10:12,918

Except it's not Scheele.

218

00:10:12,918 --> 00:10:16,759

It turns out the costume he's

wearing wouldn't have been

219

00:10:16,759 --> 00:10:20,178

developed until forty years

after Scheele died.

220

00:10:20,178 --> 00:10:25,806

Okay, but he purified organic

compounds, that weren't easy to

221

00:10:25,806 --> 00:10:29,370

purify;

in particular, carboxylic acids.

222

00:10:29,370 --> 00:10:33,529

So he got an acid from -- that

he called lactic acid;

223

00:10:33,529 --> 00:10:35,110

which we now know has that

structure.

224

00:10:35,110 --> 00:10:36,000

Where did he get it?

225

00:10:36,000 --> 00:10:37,379

<<Students speak over one

another>>

226

00:10:37,379 --> 00:10:39,159

Prof: From sour milk.

227
00:10:39,159 --> 00:10:39,870

Okay?

228

00:10:39,870 --> 00:10:45,048

So here's his paper about that,

"On Milk and its

229

00:10:45,048 --> 00:10:47,340

Acid" from 1780.

230

00:10:47,340 --> 00:10:51,399

So he purified these acids as

salts that he could crystallize.

231

00:10:51,399 --> 00:10:53,139

That was the method of

purifying.

232

00:10:53,139 --> 00:10:56,429

So here's several reports in

that paper.

233

00:10:56,429 --> 00:10:59,618

Item 7: "Bismuth, cobalt,

antimony, tin,

234

00:10:59,618 --> 00:11:03,168

mercury, silver and gold were

attacked by lactic acid,

235

00:11:03,168 --> 00:11:06,057

either by digestion"

(that's just sitting there

236

00:11:06,057 --> 00:11:07,870

under it) "or by boiling.

237

00:11:07,870 --> 00:11:11,195

After standing over tin,

the acid caused a black

238

00:11:11,195 --> 00:11:14,662

precipitate to form in a

solution of gold and aqua

239

00:11:14,662 --> 00:11:16,288

regia." Right?

240

00:11:16,288 --> 00:11:19,403

So this is not mysterious

writing.

241

00:11:19,403 --> 00:11:20,158

Right?

242

00:11:20,158 --> 00:11:22,831

It's talking in language that

we can understand,

243

00:11:22,831 --> 00:11:25,220

even though it's translated

from German.

244

00:11:25,220 --> 00:11:29,154

Iron and zinc were dissolved

with a formation of flammable

245

00:11:29,154 --> 00:11:29,570

air.

246

00:11:29,570 --> 00:11:33,028

What do you suppose -- he

reacted acid with zinc and he

247

00:11:33,028 --> 00:11:34,309

got flammable air.

248

00:11:34,309 --> 00:11:36,090

What do you suppose that was?

249

00:11:36,090 --> 00:11:36,460

Student: Hydrogen gas.

250

00:11:36,460 --> 00:11:38,120

Prof: Hydrogen, right?

251

00:11:38,120 --> 00:11:41,441

"The iron solution was

brown and gave no

252

00:11:41,441 --> 00:11:44,232

crystallization,

but the zinc solution

253

00:11:44,232 --> 00:11:45,970

crystallized."

254
00:11:45,970 --> 00:11:47,548

Why was that important?

255

00:11:47,548 --> 00:11:50,908

Student: He could

purify it.

256

00:11:50,908 --> 00:11:53,648

Prof: Because he could

purify it if it crystallized,

257

00:11:53,648 --> 00:11:54,735

and get just that salt.

258

00:11:54,735 --> 00:11:55,158

Right?

259

00:11:55,158 --> 00:11:57,855

So that's how he got pure

samples of acids.

260

00:11:57,855 --> 00:11:58,370

Right?

261

00:11:58,370 --> 00:12:00,749

"With copper,

our solution first took on a

262

00:12:00,749 --> 00:12:02,870

blue color, then green,

finally dark blue,

263

00:12:02,870 --> 00:12:06,110

but did not crystallize";

unfortunately.

264

00:12:06,110 --> 00:12:09,129

And 10: "Lead dissolved

after several days of digestion.

265

00:12:09,129 --> 00:12:11,755

The solution acquired a sweet,

tart taste,"

266

00:12:11,755 --> 00:12:13,210

>

267

00:12:13,210 --> 00:12:15,033

"but did not

crystallize."

268

00:12:15,033 --> 00:12:15,450

Right?

269

00:12:15,450 --> 00:12:19,667

So what do you do when you

don't have IR and NMR,

270

00:12:19,667 --> 00:12:20,370

right?

271

00:12:20,370 --> 00:12:21,159

Student: Eat.

272

00:12:21,159 --> 00:12:21,940

Student: Taste.

273

00:12:21,940 --> 00:12:22,379

Prof: Sure.

274

00:12:22,379 --> 00:12:24,909

So he tasted all these things.

275

00:12:24,909 --> 00:12:27,649

Cyanide too.
276

00:12:27,649 --> 00:12:29,549

Okay, so he got citric acid.

277

00:12:29,549 --> 00:12:31,279

Where did he get that?

278

00:12:31,279 --> 00:12:32,049

Student: Lemons.

279

00:12:32,049 --> 00:12:34,759

Prof: From lemons, okay?

280

00:12:34,759 --> 00:12:39,789

And he got uric acid;

obvious.

281
00:12:39,789 --> 00:12:42,120

He got tartaric acid.

282

00:12:42,120 --> 00:12:44,514

Tartaric acid,

his discovery,

283

00:12:44,514 --> 00:12:48,529

turns out to one of the --

probably the single most

284

00:12:48,529 --> 00:12:50,129

important,

maybe the second,

285

00:12:50,129 --> 00:12:52,731

no probably the most important

compound in the nineteenth

286

00:12:52,731 --> 00:12:55,159

century,
as you'll see.

287

00:12:55,159 --> 00:12:55,548

Okay?

288

00:12:55,548 --> 00:12:58,971

That comes from tartar,

which is the deposit on the

289

00:12:58,971 --> 00:13:02,529

inside of wine casks,

after you've fermented wine.

290

00:13:02,529 --> 00:13:03,048

Okay?

291

00:13:03,048 --> 00:13:09,046

Benzoic acid came from gum

benzoin, a product of the Far

292

00:13:09,046 --> 00:13:09,809

East.

293

00:13:09,809 --> 00:13:10,710

Okay?

294

00:13:10,710 --> 00:13:12,350

And oxalic acid.

295

00:13:12,350 --> 00:13:18,389

Where do you think that came

from?

296

00:13:18,389 --> 00:13:21,590

It came from rhubarb.

297

00:13:21,590 --> 00:13:25,330

Now why oxalic;

why oxy?

298

00:13:25,330 --> 00:13:28,009

Oxy means sharp.

299

00:13:28,009 --> 00:13:36,798

So what does sharp have to do

with it, with rhubarb?

300

00:13:36,798 --> 00:13:38,029

Student: It has a sharp

taste?

301

00:13:38,029 --> 00:13:41,235

Prof: Yes,

so you know oxy as a

302

00:13:41,235 --> 00:13:42,840

root, meaning sharp.

303

00:13:42,840 --> 00:13:46,418

Oxymoron doesn't mean a stupid

ox.

304

00:13:46,418 --> 00:13:50,700

What it means is sharp,

and moron means dull.

305

00:13:50,700 --> 00:13:53,658

So it's a sharp dullness,

is an oxymoron.

306

00:13:53,658 --> 00:13:56,825

It's a self-contradictory word.

307

00:13:56,825 --> 00:13:57,539

Right?

308
00:13:57,539 --> 00:14:01,840

So what's sharp about rhubarb?

309

00:14:01,840 --> 00:14:02,600

Student: Its taste.

310

00:14:02,600 --> 00:14:04,379

Prof: Its taste;

it tastes acidic.

311

00:14:04,379 --> 00:14:07,538

In fact, the word acidic

comes from the Latin

312

00:14:07,538 --> 00:14:09,957

acidus;

which comes from acre,

313

00:14:09,957 --> 00:14:11,384

to be sour;
which comes from,

314

00:14:11,384 --> 00:14:13,450

the root is ac,

which means sharp.

315

00:14:13,450 --> 00:14:17,110

So it's the same thing,

acid and oxy.

316

00:14:17,110 --> 00:14:17,250

Okay?

317

00:14:17,250 --> 00:14:19,059

So look at all these things.

318

00:14:19,059 --> 00:14:22,090

They have what?

319

00:14:22,090 --> 00:14:24,746

The carboxylate group,

which makes them acidic.

320

00:14:24,746 --> 00:14:25,210

Right?

321

00:14:25,210 --> 00:14:26,668

And we know why it makes it

acidic;

322

00:14:26,668 --> 00:14:29,509

this is a review from last

time, this functional group.

323

00:14:29,509 --> 00:14:33,990

It's not a carbonyl alcohol,

it's a carboxylic acid.

324

00:14:33,990 --> 00:14:37,210

The high HOMO is stabilized in

the acid.

325

00:14:37,210 --> 00:14:40,172

But it's even more stabilized

when it's an anion,

326

00:14:40,172 --> 00:14:42,210

because you have a higher HOMO.

327

00:14:42,210 --> 00:14:47,102

So it changes the acidity,

the ease of dissociation of

328

00:14:47,102 --> 00:14:49,687

H^+, by a factor of 10^11th.

329

00:14:49,687 --> 00:14:50,519

Right?
330

00:14:50,519 --> 00:14:54,830

Which depends on the energy

difference between those two.

331

00:14:54,830 --> 00:14:58,860

So if you more stabilize the

anion product than you stabilize

332

00:14:58,860 --> 00:15:02,150

the starting material,

then you shift the reaction

333

00:15:02,150 --> 00:15:04,232

toward product,

here by 10^11th;

334

00:15:04,232 --> 00:15:05,509

a big change.

335
00:15:05,509 --> 00:15:06,940

Okay?

336

00:15:06,940 --> 00:15:09,832

But actually there's more to it

than just that resonance,

337

00:15:09,832 --> 00:15:11,590

just that HOMO/LUMO

interaction.

338

00:15:11,590 --> 00:15:14,491

There's a thing called

"inductive effects"

339

00:15:14,491 --> 00:15:16,370

that we'll talk about later on.

340

00:15:16,370 --> 00:15:19,298

But a large part of it is due

to that.

341

00:15:19,298 --> 00:15:21,940

Okay, but you notice there's

one exception here.

342

00:15:21,940 --> 00:15:33,649

Uric acid doesn't have a

carboxylate group in it.

343

00:15:33,649 --> 00:15:35,529

So there's what it has.

344

00:15:35,529 --> 00:15:40,058

And notice that it has an

unshared-pair on nitrogen.

345

00:15:40,058 --> 00:15:43,070

Like an amide,

it's stabilized by a carbonyl;

346

00:15:43,070 --> 00:15:48,077

in fact, it's stabilized by two

carbonyls, two adjacent LUMOs to

347

00:15:48,077 --> 00:15:49,269

stabilize it.

348

00:15:49,269 --> 00:15:53,625

Now if that were just stable,

it wouldn't be a reason to get

349

00:15:53,625 --> 00:15:55,840

rid of it, to lose a proton.

350

00:15:55,840 --> 00:15:59,174

But the anion that you get if

you lose the proton from

351

00:15:59,174 --> 00:16:01,000

nitrogen has a higher HOMO.

352

00:16:01,000 --> 00:16:03,139

So it's even more stabilized.

353

00:16:03,139 --> 00:16:06,653

The same trick as in carboxylic

acid, but even more so,

354

00:16:06,653 --> 00:16:08,019

as you'll see here.

355

00:16:08,019 --> 00:16:11,580

The pK_a of this compound is

5.8.

356

00:16:11,580 --> 00:16:13,389

It's pretty acidic. Right?

357

00:16:13,389 --> 00:16:18,208

But a normal amine,

like ammonia losing a proton,

358

00:16:18,208 --> 00:16:19,916

has a pK_a of 38.

359

00:16:19,916 --> 00:16:20,820

Right?

360

00:16:20,820 --> 00:16:24,426

So this is thirty-two powers of

ten helped out,

361

00:16:24,426 --> 00:16:28,110

because it has such a high HOMO

on the nitrogen,

362
00:16:28,110 --> 00:16:31,090

and two carbonyls to stabilize

it.

363

00:16:31,090 --> 00:16:36,490

Okay, so uric acid is indeed an

acid, like carboxylic acids.

364

00:16:36,490 --> 00:16:40,009

Okay, now Scheele not only did

these organic acids,

365

00:16:40,009 --> 00:16:42,542

he also discovered,

or co-discovered,

366

00:16:42,542 --> 00:16:43,879

seven elements.

367

00:16:43,879 --> 00:16:46,500

They're listed here according

to what row of the periodic

368

00:16:46,500 --> 00:16:47,389

table they're in.

369

00:16:47,389 --> 00:16:51,452

Notice down at the bottom here

you have tungsten.

370

00:16:51,452 --> 00:16:52,129

Right?

371

00:16:52,129 --> 00:16:53,909

Tungsten comes from Swedish.

372

00:16:53,909 --> 00:16:54,759

He was Swedish.
373

00:16:54,759 --> 00:16:56,206

It's "tung"

"sten",

374

00:16:56,206 --> 00:16:56,740

heavy stone.

375

00:16:56,740 --> 00:16:59,870

Being way down,

it's got lots of protons and

376

00:16:59,870 --> 00:17:02,201

neutrons and is very,

very dense.

377

00:17:02,201 --> 00:17:02,928

Right?

378

00:17:02,928 --> 00:17:05,808

So it's heavy -- the stones

that it comes from are very

379

00:17:05,808 --> 00:17:06,130

heavy.

380

00:17:06,130 --> 00:17:06,608

Right?

381

00:17:06,608 --> 00:17:10,828

But by contrast,

these up here are gases.

382

00:17:10,828 --> 00:17:15,970

And in fact that's what got the

19th Century chemistry going.

383

00:17:15,970 --> 00:17:18,695

That's what launched the

Chemical Revolution,
384

00:17:18,695 --> 00:17:20,990

was the ability to work with

gases.

385

00:17:20,990 --> 00:17:24,775

Because to be a gas,

something has to be a small

386

00:17:24,775 --> 00:17:29,848

molecule and therefore simple,

or at least relatively simple.

387

00:17:29,848 --> 00:17:33,490

So you had to start with simple

things before you could get the

388

00:17:33,490 --> 00:17:35,428

complex ones,

like salicylic acid,

389
00:17:35,428 --> 00:17:37,190

in terms of understanding.

390

00:17:37,190 --> 00:17:40,499

Now Scheele,

in 1771, had heated silver

391

00:17:40,499 --> 00:17:45,288

carbonate, and he found that he

got CO_2 out of them;

392

00:17:45,288 --> 00:17:48,799

he didn't know it was CO_2,

but the gas came out.

393

00:17:48,799 --> 00:17:50,509

Okay?

394

00:17:50,509 --> 00:17:55,249

And if you heated that still

more, greater than 340 Celsius,

395

00:17:55,249 --> 00:17:58,864

then you get silver,

and oxygen comes out from

396

00:17:58,864 --> 00:18:02,355

silver oxide;

this gas, this

397

00:18:02,355 --> 00:18:06,609

feuerluft,

fire air.

398

00:18:06,609 --> 00:18:08,599

That's what the book is about.

399

00:18:08,599 --> 00:18:09,440

Okay?
400

00:18:09,440 --> 00:18:12,750

So he wrote the book.

401

00:18:12,750 --> 00:18:17,868

But the book starts,

as I'll show you here --

402

00:18:17,868 --> 00:18:21,108

sorry, there we go -- the book

starts with an introduction,

403

00:18:21,108 --> 00:18:26,690

"vorbericht",

404

00:18:26,690 --> 00:18:29,440

which is translated,

it says, from Swedish.

405

00:18:29,440 --> 00:18:31,858

And let's see where it says

here.

406

00:18:31,858 --> 00:18:36,348

And it's by Torbern Bergman,

written in 1777.

407

00:18:36,348 --> 00:18:40,779

He had this book written for

two years, waiting for this

408

00:18:40,779 --> 00:18:42,230

preface to come.

409

00:18:42,230 --> 00:18:45,029

Bergman was a busy guy. Right?

410

00:18:45,029 --> 00:18:47,980

And during the time that this

book was sitting,

411

00:18:47,980 --> 00:18:51,382

ready, the manuscript was

sitting ready to be printed,

412

00:18:51,382 --> 00:18:54,269

Priestley, in England,

discovered oxygen.

413

00:18:54,269 --> 00:18:56,568

So this book came out after

Priestley.

414

00:18:56,568 --> 00:19:01,952

But there's no doubt that

Scheele had discovered it

415

00:19:01,952 --> 00:19:03,029

earlier.

416
00:19:03,029 --> 00:19:05,269

His lab books from 1771 show it.

417

00:19:05,269 --> 00:19:10,757

And here, in 1774,

is his draft of a letter that

418

00:19:10,757 --> 00:19:13,210

he wrote to France.

419

00:19:13,210 --> 00:19:16,424

And it begins -- or it actually

begins with a couple of words on

420

00:19:16,424 --> 00:19:18,174

the previous sheet --

but it says:

421

00:19:18,174 --> 00:19:20,670

"…since I have no
large burning glass,

422

00:19:20,670 --> 00:19:22,568

I beg you to try with

yours..."

423

00:19:22,568 --> 00:19:25,511

Because he had to do this by

heating things in an oven,

424

00:19:25,511 --> 00:19:28,400

at a really high temperature,

which was hard to do.

425

00:19:28,400 --> 00:19:31,631

But if you could do it with a

focused light of the sun to heat

426

00:19:31,631 --> 00:19:33,910

it, then it would be much more

practical.
427

00:19:33,910 --> 00:19:38,071

And, in France,

they had such a big magnifying

428

00:19:38,071 --> 00:19:41,308

glass, that would allow to do

it.

429

00:19:41,308 --> 00:19:43,970

But that letter,

although it was sent,

430

00:19:43,970 --> 00:19:45,480

was never answered.

431

00:19:45,480 --> 00:19:50,078

And you know who it was sent

to, presumably.

432

00:19:50,078 --> 00:19:53,755

Lavoisier, the founder of the

Chemical Revolution,

433

00:19:53,755 --> 00:19:56,380

and another discoverer of

oxygen.

434

00:19:56,380 --> 00:19:57,818

Okay?

435

00:19:57,818 --> 00:20:01,516

Okay, so now we're going to

talk about Lavoisier,

436

00:20:01,516 --> 00:20:05,980

who was -- wasn't a perfect

person, but he was really very,

437

00:20:05,980 --> 00:20:07,058

very good.
438

00:20:07,058 --> 00:20:09,660

Okay, now the Chemical

Revolution.

439

00:20:09,660 --> 00:20:14,210

You can say it started in 1789,

the Chemical Revolution.

440

00:20:14,210 --> 00:20:17,351

And that's not the only

revolution that started in

441

00:20:17,351 --> 00:20:18,313

France in 1789.

442

00:20:18,313 --> 00:20:18,890

Right?

443
00:20:18,890 --> 00:20:20,579

Do you know what this is?

444

00:20:20,579 --> 00:20:21,950

What?

445

00:20:21,950 --> 00:20:22,710

Student: Tennis Court

Oath.

446

00:20:22,710 --> 00:20:23,750

Prof: It's the Tennis

Court Oath,

447

00:20:23,750 --> 00:20:28,228

when the legislators,

so to say, gathered to say that

448

00:20:28,228 --> 00:20:33,051

they wouldn't disband until the

king granted them certain

449

00:20:33,051 --> 00:20:35,675

things;

and you know what that led to,

450

00:20:35,675 --> 00:20:36,180

in 1789.

451

00:20:36,180 --> 00:20:40,529

The only guy that didn't agree

was this guy here.

452

00:20:40,529 --> 00:20:43,430

He's the only one that didn't

sign it.

453

00:20:43,430 --> 00:20:48,029

But at any rate, it was radical.

454

00:20:48,029 --> 00:20:51,536

Now there's an Indo-European

word, that's the root of many

455

00:20:51,536 --> 00:20:55,234

words, called Werad;

and it gives words in all sorts

456

00:20:55,234 --> 00:20:56,099

of languages.

457

00:20:56,099 --> 00:20:59,339

Like it means root.

458

00:20:59,339 --> 00:21:01,118

Okay?

459

00:21:01,118 --> 00:21:03,720

And Wurzel,

in German, means root;

460

00:21:03,720 --> 00:21:05,242

and wort,

like St.

461

00:21:05,242 --> 00:21:06,829

John's wort,

is a root.

462

00:21:06,829 --> 00:21:09,876

Licorice;

glukos rhiza,

463

00:21:09,876 --> 00:21:12,910

Greek, the rhiza is

root;

464

00:21:12,910 --> 00:21:14,069

sweet root it means.

465

00:21:14,069 --> 00:21:14,599

Okay?

466

00:21:14,599 --> 00:21:18,935

Race;

razza in Italian is the

467

00:21:18,935 --> 00:21:20,788

root of your being.

468

00:21:20,788 --> 00:21:21,569

Right?

469

00:21:21,569 --> 00:21:23,910

Rutabaga.

470
00:21:23,910 --> 00:21:29,022

Radix in Latin;

and you know lots of words come

471

00:21:29,022 --> 00:21:31,630

from radix,

like radish is a root.

472

00:21:31,630 --> 00:21:36,358

Or eradicate,

what does that mean?

473

00:21:36,358 --> 00:21:38,670

Prof: It means to pull

it out by the roots.

474

00:21:38,670 --> 00:21:39,589

Okay?

475

00:21:39,589 --> 00:21:42,654

Or radical;
something that's radical is

476

00:21:42,654 --> 00:21:45,958

something that goes right to the

root, back to the very origin of

477

00:21:45,958 --> 00:21:46,630

something.

478

00:21:46,630 --> 00:21:48,766

And that word,

used in that way,

479

00:21:48,766 --> 00:21:51,797

if you look in the Oxford

English Dictionary,

480

00:21:51,797 --> 00:21:55,450

it was coined in mathematics in

the 16th Century.

481

00:21:55,450 --> 00:21:57,828

The root of a number is its

origin.

482

00:21:57,828 --> 00:21:58,390

Right?

483

00:21:58,390 --> 00:22:01,576

If you take the square root of

a number, and multiply it by

484

00:22:01,576 --> 00:22:03,170

itself, you get the number.

485

00:22:03,170 --> 00:22:06,868

So it's the root of the number;

the radical. Right?

486

00:22:06,868 --> 00:22:09,263

Or in politics,

it was used in 18th Century in

487

00:22:09,263 --> 00:22:10,836

England,

and in chemistry,

488

00:22:10,836 --> 00:22:14,009

in 18th Century in France,

the idea of radical as the root

489

00:22:14,009 --> 00:22:15,910

of things,

began to be used;

490

00:22:15,910 --> 00:22:16,920

which we'll see.

491

00:22:16,920 --> 00:22:19,622

Okay, so 1787,

radical was introduced as a

492

00:22:19,622 --> 00:22:22,653

political term,

according to the Oxford English

493

00:22:22,653 --> 00:22:25,619

Dictionary, by J. Jebb,

whoever he was;

494

00:22:25,619 --> 00:22:28,338

presumably a politician.

495

00:22:28,338 --> 00:22:31,085

Or in 1787, there was this

radical document,

496

00:22:31,085 --> 00:22:32,744

"We the People."

497
00:22:32,744 --> 00:22:33,318

Right?

498

00:22:33,318 --> 00:22:37,828

But that same year,

1787, radical was introduced as

499

00:22:37,828 --> 00:22:41,616

a chemical term,

by Louis Bernard Guyton de

500

00:22:41,616 --> 00:22:42,700

Morveau.

501

00:22:42,700 --> 00:22:48,502

And it was in the context of

developing nomenclature for

502

00:22:48,502 --> 00:22:49,769

chemistry.
503

00:22:49,769 --> 00:22:52,693

So he, together with Berthollet

and Fourcroy,

504

00:22:52,693 --> 00:22:56,349

developed a new method for

nomenclature in chemistry.

505

00:22:56,349 --> 00:22:58,058

And here's a book.

506

00:22:58,058 --> 00:23:01,358

This is not the original

French, but it's the first

507

00:23:01,358 --> 00:23:04,526

English translation,

which you see comes from the

508

00:23:04,526 --> 00:23:07,099

Yale University Library,

back when.

509

00:23:07,099 --> 00:23:10,950

It's from 1788.

510

00:23:10,950 --> 00:23:11,410

Okay?

511

00:23:11,410 --> 00:23:14,786

So A Method of Chemical

Nomenclature,

512

00:23:14,786 --> 00:23:18,398

by Guyton de Morveau,

Lavoisier, Berthollet and

513

00:23:18,398 --> 00:23:19,420

Fourcroy.

514

00:23:19,420 --> 00:23:25,194

So the fourth author of this

new method of chemical

515

00:23:25,194 --> 00:23:28,430

nomenclature is Lavoisier.

516

00:23:28,430 --> 00:23:29,950

So there's Lavoisier with his

wife.

517

00:23:29,950 --> 00:23:33,606

This is part of an enormous

picture that's in the

518

00:23:33,606 --> 00:23:34,750

Metropolitan.
519

00:23:34,750 --> 00:23:38,030

It was commissioned by

Lavoisier and his wife,

520

00:23:38,030 --> 00:23:41,240

who hired Jacques-Louis David

to paint it.

521

00:23:41,240 --> 00:23:44,990

And they paid 7000 pounds,

to the artist to paint it;

522

00:23:44,990 --> 00:23:48,380

which is the equivalent of

$300,000 today.

523

00:23:48,380 --> 00:23:50,240

They were quite well-to-do.

524
00:23:50,240 --> 00:23:52,592

They had an income of the order

of a million dollars a year,

525

00:23:52,592 --> 00:23:55,309

or the equivalent;

it depends on how you translate

526

00:23:55,309 --> 00:23:56,549

numbers, of course.

527

00:23:56,549 --> 00:23:57,618

It's hard.

528

00:23:57,618 --> 00:24:02,288

So here he is at the age of 45,

in 1789,

529

00:24:02,288 --> 00:24:05,118

and he's working on drafting --

so these guys,

530

00:24:05,118 --> 00:24:06,690

when they had their portraits

painted,

531

00:24:06,690 --> 00:24:09,309

always put something important

in it.

532

00:24:09,309 --> 00:24:11,019

So what did he choose to have?

533

00:24:11,019 --> 00:24:15,656

He chose to be working on a

manuscript, and the manuscript

534

00:24:15,656 --> 00:24:19,400

he's working on is the

manuscript of this book,

535

00:24:19,400 --> 00:24:20,538

from 1789.

536

00:24:20,538 --> 00:24:23,144

It's called Traité

Élémentaire de

537

00:24:23,144 --> 00:24:26,405

Chimie;

the Elementary Treatise on

538

00:24:26,405 --> 00:24:27,778

Chemistry.

539

00:24:27,778 --> 00:24:34,603

And the other stuff he put in

the picture is the equipment he

540

00:24:34,603 --> 00:24:35,400

used.

541

00:24:35,400 --> 00:24:39,525

So here you see various

equipment from one of the plates

542

00:24:39,525 --> 00:24:41,400

at the end of the book.

543

00:24:41,400 --> 00:24:43,680

And you can see these items in

the picture.

544

00:24:43,680 --> 00:24:45,930

There's that bell jar.

545

00:24:45,930 --> 00:24:50,170

There's that device.

546

00:24:50,170 --> 00:24:56,401

There's that big sixteen-pint

flask, with a brass fitting on

547

00:24:56,401 --> 00:24:56,930

it.

548

00:24:56,930 --> 00:25:01,849

There's that valve that you

attach to the bottom of the

549

00:25:01,849 --> 00:25:02,578

flask.

550

00:25:02,578 --> 00:25:06,135

And over here is a portfolio,

and the portfolio says,

551
00:25:06,135 --> 00:25:09,145

down in the corner,

"Paulze Lavoisier

552

00:25:09,145 --> 00:25:10,720

sculpsit."

553

00:25:10,720 --> 00:25:13,448

That means this was drawn by

Paulze Lavoisier,

554

00:25:13,448 --> 00:25:14,598

who was his wife.

555

00:25:14,598 --> 00:25:18,157

She was his assistant in the

laboratory, kept all the

556

00:25:18,157 --> 00:25:19,923

notebooks;
read English for him,

557

00:25:19,923 --> 00:25:21,450

because he couldn't read

English.

558

00:25:21,450 --> 00:25:23,519

So if he had to do anything

with Priestley,

559

00:25:23,519 --> 00:25:24,849

she would read it to him.

560

00:25:24,849 --> 00:25:25,950

But she drew all these things.

561

00:25:25,950 --> 00:25:29,155

She studied with David,

drawing, in order to be able to

562

00:25:29,155 --> 00:25:29,750

do this.

563

00:25:29,750 --> 00:25:36,859

Okay, she painted this portrait

of their family friend.

564

00:25:36,859 --> 00:25:37,838

Who's that?

565

00:25:37,838 --> 00:25:38,818

Student: Benjamin

Franklin.

566

00:25:38,818 --> 00:25:40,078

Prof: Yes,

Benjamin Franklin.

567

00:25:40,078 --> 00:25:42,846

I showed you that picture

earlier, said we'd refer to it

568

00:25:42,846 --> 00:25:43,250

again.

569

00:25:43,250 --> 00:25:46,830

So this is that particular

plate in the book,

570

00:25:46,830 --> 00:25:49,680

and it relates to weighing a

gas.

571

00:25:49,680 --> 00:25:54,788

It'll turn out that the most

important thing for Lavoisier,

572

00:25:54,788 --> 00:25:58,804

and for the whole 19th Century

-- all this development that led

573

00:25:58,804 --> 00:26:01,069

to bonds and their arrangement

--

574

00:26:01,069 --> 00:26:03,789

weighing was the key thing.

575

00:26:03,789 --> 00:26:05,710

But how do you weigh a gas?

576

00:26:05,710 --> 00:26:09,506

So you need gases so they're

simple enough to deal with,

577

00:26:09,506 --> 00:26:10,817

and easy to purify.

578
00:26:10,817 --> 00:26:11,440

Right?

579

00:26:11,440 --> 00:26:13,970

But you need to weigh them.

580

00:26:13,970 --> 00:26:16,358

So how can you weigh a gas?

581

00:26:16,358 --> 00:26:19,150

Well you can collect a gas,

as shown in this picture,

582

00:26:19,150 --> 00:26:23,592

by generating it in this retort

G, and it comes and it bubbles

583

00:26:23,592 --> 00:26:26,910

up,
displacing water or mercury,

584

00:26:26,910 --> 00:26:30,200

most often mercury,

from a bell jar.

585

00:26:30,200 --> 00:26:31,839

You've done this kind of thing?

586

00:26:31,839 --> 00:26:31,970

Student: Yes.

587

00:26:31,970 --> 00:26:33,029

Prof: Some of you.

588

00:26:33,029 --> 00:26:34,150

But you can see how it would

work;
589

00:26:34,150 --> 00:26:35,809

as it bubbles up the mercury

comes down.

590

00:26:35,809 --> 00:26:36,410

Okay.

591

00:26:36,410 --> 00:26:38,130

So now you have the gas.

592

00:26:38,130 --> 00:26:41,442

Now we'll shift attention down

to the bottom right here,

593

00:26:41,442 --> 00:26:42,950

and see how this works.

594

00:26:42,950 --> 00:26:45,420

So we have this bell jar on the

bottom,

595

00:26:45,420 --> 00:26:47,509

which is fitted with valves on

the top,

596

00:26:47,509 --> 00:26:50,529

is filled with mercury,

and it's in a pool of mercury,

597

00:26:50,529 --> 00:26:55,369

and then this big sixteen-pint

flask is evacuated.

598

00:26:55,369 --> 00:26:56,838

You use one of these pumps.

599

00:26:56,838 --> 00:27:01,847

Remember, 100 years before

this, Hooke -- or 130 years

600

00:27:01,847 --> 00:27:07,328

before this -- Hooke made a

great vacuum pump for Boyle.

601

00:27:07,328 --> 00:27:11,632

Boyle is the only person on the

front of the building older than

602

00:27:11,632 --> 00:27:12,315

Lavoisier.

603

00:27:12,315 --> 00:27:12,930

Right?

604

00:27:12,930 --> 00:27:15,750

And that was dealing with gases

and Boyle's Law,

605
00:27:15,750 --> 00:27:18,630

how pressure and volume relate

to one another.

606

00:27:18,630 --> 00:27:22,027

Okay, so anyhow,

he could evacuate that with a

607

00:27:22,027 --> 00:27:25,500

pump, then seal it off,

turn the valves off.

608

00:27:25,500 --> 00:27:26,759

And he's got mercury in that

thing.

609

00:27:26,759 --> 00:27:29,990

And now he puts a tip

underneath it and generates gas.

610

00:27:29,990 --> 00:27:36,358

And it bubbles up and fills

this container with a gas.

611

00:27:36,358 --> 00:27:39,086

And it's sitting in a mercury

pool so that it's not

612

00:27:39,086 --> 00:27:41,923

communicating with the

atmosphere, other than through

613

00:27:41,923 --> 00:27:44,269

the pressure,

through the mercury pool.

614

00:27:44,269 --> 00:27:48,009

Okay, so now he opens the

valves.

615

00:27:48,009 --> 00:27:52,038

So the vacuum starts sucking up

the mercury;
616

00:27:52,038 --> 00:27:55,134

that is, pulling the air in,

up to a certain point.

617

00:27:55,134 --> 00:27:55,630

Right?

618

00:27:55,630 --> 00:27:57,099

Then the mercury stops rising.

619

00:27:57,099 --> 00:27:58,519

Okay?

620

00:27:58,519 --> 00:28:02,788

And now, at this point you know

that the pressure of that gas is

621

00:28:02,788 --> 00:28:06,314

atmospheric pressure,

less whatever the height of the

622

00:28:06,314 --> 00:28:07,534

mercury column is.

623

00:28:07,534 --> 00:28:08,279

Right?

624

00:28:08,279 --> 00:28:11,150

That's how a barometer works.

625

00:28:11,150 --> 00:28:16,740

So he knows how much gas,

what volume of gas he has in A.

626

00:28:16,740 --> 00:28:20,960

He filled it with water first

and weighed it to see what its

627

00:28:20,960 --> 00:28:21,890

volume was.

628

00:28:21,890 --> 00:28:24,230

Now he knows the volume,

he knows the pressure.

629

00:28:24,230 --> 00:28:27,335

So he knows how much gas there

would be, at atmospheric

630

00:28:27,335 --> 00:28:27,852

pressure.

631

00:28:27,852 --> 00:28:28,368

Right?

632
00:28:28,368 --> 00:28:31,410

And now, of course,

he just turns off these things,

633

00:28:31,410 --> 00:28:34,633

unscrews one,

the thing on top,

634

00:28:34,633 --> 00:28:38,625

and weighs it,

and sees how much heavier it is

635

00:28:38,625 --> 00:28:41,068

than it was when it was

evacuated.

636

00:28:41,068 --> 00:28:42,598

And that's how much the air

weighs.

637

00:28:42,598 --> 00:28:45,308

And he knows how much volume,

how much pressure.

638

00:28:45,308 --> 00:28:48,490

So he knows how much whatever

gas he collected weighed.

639

00:28:48,490 --> 00:28:50,390

So he could weigh a gas.

640

00:28:50,390 --> 00:28:53,029

Pretty clever, huh?

641

00:28:53,029 --> 00:28:57,358

Okay, here he is working with

one of these bell jars.

642

00:28:57,358 --> 00:29:02,160

Now these bell jars were filled

with mercury.
643

00:29:02,160 --> 00:29:07,338

I don't know if you've -- here,

would you help me out Wilson?

644

00:29:07,338 --> 00:29:09,430

Lift this up and show it to the

class.

645

00:29:09,430 --> 00:29:13,119

But don't lift it high,

hold it above the thing.

646

00:29:13,119 --> 00:29:14,279

Did it surprise you?

647

00:29:14,279 --> 00:29:14,838

Student: Yes.

648

00:29:14,838 --> 00:29:17,528

Prof: He said it

surprised him.

649

00:29:17,528 --> 00:29:20,205

And you can come up afterwards,

if you want to,

650

00:29:20,205 --> 00:29:23,000

and be surprised yourself,

by lifting this up.

651

00:29:23,000 --> 00:29:25,471

But keep it over this,

because people are so panicked

652

00:29:25,471 --> 00:29:26,660

about mercury nowadays.

653

00:29:26,660 --> 00:29:28,492

I heard on the way over to

class, while I was bringing

654

00:29:28,492 --> 00:29:30,710

this,

I heard there's a new law in

655

00:29:30,710 --> 00:29:34,866

the European Union that it's

going to be illegal to transport

656

00:29:34,866 --> 00:29:37,500

mercury over international

borders.

657

00:29:37,500 --> 00:29:38,759

Go figure.

658

00:29:38,759 --> 00:29:42,894

Anyhow, there's Lavoisier doing

an experiment with this big

659
00:29:42,894 --> 00:29:44,107

thing of mercury.

660

00:29:44,107 --> 00:29:44,750

Right?

661

00:29:44,750 --> 00:29:47,390

He must've been a stout person.

662

00:29:47,390 --> 00:29:48,348

Okay?

663

00:29:48,348 --> 00:29:52,298

This is him in his library,

with Madame Lavoisier taking

664

00:29:52,298 --> 00:29:55,460

his dictation,
as he does his experiments.

665

00:29:55,460 --> 00:29:56,657

Okay, so here's the

Traité

666

00:29:56,657 --> 00:29:58,130

Élémentaire de

Chimie,

667

00:29:58,130 --> 00:30:02,390

and I'll show you the -- this

actually is a facsimile,

668

00:30:02,390 --> 00:30:04,568

not the real thing.

669

00:30:04,568 --> 00:30:11,170

But here's the title page of

the first volume.

670

00:30:11,170 --> 00:30:12,910

Okay.

671

00:30:12,910 --> 00:30:14,460

So you can look at that if you

want to.

672

00:30:14,460 --> 00:30:16,848

And at the end,

I'll just note here,

673

00:30:16,848 --> 00:30:22,259

at the end of the second

volume, are all these pages,

674

00:30:22,259 --> 00:30:27,480

which are devices -- like

here's this is the one we just

675

00:30:27,480 --> 00:30:28,619

looked at.

676

00:30:28,619 --> 00:30:30,828

Okay?

677

00:30:30,828 --> 00:30:33,170

So if you want to look at them,

feel free.

678

00:30:33,170 --> 00:30:35,289

Don't handle the other one

though;

679

00:30:35,289 --> 00:30:36,920

it's real.

680

00:30:36,920 --> 00:30:40,980

Okay, so Elementary Treatise

of Chemistry,
681

00:30:40,980 --> 00:30:44,538

Presented in a New Order

-- this is the Revolution --

682

00:30:44,538 --> 00:30:46,039

According to Modern

Discoveries,

683

00:30:46,039 --> 00:30:49,788

With Figures;

as I just showed you.

684

00:30:49,788 --> 00:30:55,617

And 1789 is the date,

the same as the French

685

00:30:55,617 --> 00:30:57,380

Revolution.

686
00:30:57,380 --> 00:31:00,063

Okay, you notice he's a member

of all different academies,

687

00:31:00,063 --> 00:31:01,240

including Philadelphia.

688

00:31:01,240 --> 00:31:03,503

Why in the world would he have

been a member of the Scientific

689

00:31:03,503 --> 00:31:04,470

Academy of Philadelphia?

690

00:31:04,470 --> 00:31:06,019

He never went there.

691

00:31:06,019 --> 00:31:06,680

Student: Ben Franklin

was --

692

00:31:06,680 --> 00:31:08,630

Prof: Right, his pal.

693

00:31:08,630 --> 00:31:10,078

Okay, 1789.

694

00:31:10,078 --> 00:31:12,849

So it has the most wonderful

Introduction,

695

00:31:12,849 --> 00:31:16,230

called "Discours

Préliminaire."

696

00:31:16,230 --> 00:31:18,720

And he says:

"My only object,

697

00:31:18,720 --> 00:31:22,249

when I began this work" --

or, "I had no other object

698

00:31:22,249 --> 00:31:25,819

when I began the following work,

than to extend and explain more

699

00:31:25,819 --> 00:31:27,945

fully the memoir,

which I read at the public

700

00:31:27,945 --> 00:31:30,460

meeting of the Academy of

Science in the month of April,

701

00:31:30,460 --> 00:31:33,838

1787" (remember when

radical was introduced and so

702

00:31:33,838 --> 00:31:37,405

on) "on the necessity of

reforming and completing the

703

00:31:37,405 --> 00:31:39,660

nomenclature of Chemistry."

704

00:31:39,660 --> 00:31:43,804

So that's all he was trying to

do was get a proper nomenclature

705

00:31:43,804 --> 00:31:46,744

that would be useful,

in contrast to all this

706

00:31:46,744 --> 00:31:48,349

alchemical nonsense.

707

00:31:48,349 --> 00:31:48,880

Okay?
708

00:31:48,880 --> 00:31:50,640

"While engaged in this

employment,

709

00:31:50,640 --> 00:31:53,090

I perceived,

better than I had ever done

710

00:31:53,090 --> 00:31:55,284

before,

the justice of the following

711

00:31:55,284 --> 00:31:58,357

maxims of the Abbé

de Condillac and his System of

712

00:31:58,357 --> 00:32:00,369

Logic and some other

works."

713
00:32:00,369 --> 00:32:02,230

So this is what Condillac said.

714

00:32:02,230 --> 00:32:04,705

"We think,

only through the medium of

715

00:32:04,705 --> 00:32:05,190

words.

716

00:32:05,190 --> 00:32:08,380

Languages are true analytical

methods.

717

00:32:08,380 --> 00:32:12,088

Algebra, which is adapted to

its purpose in every species of

718

00:32:12,088 --> 00:32:13,903

expression,
in the most simple,

719

00:32:13,903 --> 00:32:15,818

most exact, and best manner

possible,

720

00:32:15,818 --> 00:32:20,380

is at the same time a language

and an analytical method.

721

00:32:20,380 --> 00:32:25,275

The art of reasoning is nothing

more than language,

722

00:32:25,275 --> 00:32:27,430

well arranged."

723

00:32:27,430 --> 00:32:31,382

So Lavoisier goes on to say:

"Thus, while I thought

724

00:32:31,382 --> 00:32:34,578

myself employed only in forming

a Nomenclature,

725

00:32:34,578 --> 00:32:37,567

and while I proposed to myself

nothing more than to improve the

726

00:32:37,567 --> 00:32:41,300

chemical language,

my work transformed itself by

727

00:32:41,300 --> 00:32:43,413

degrees,

without my being able to

728

00:32:43,413 --> 00:32:45,715

prevent it,

into a treatise upon the

729

00:32:45,715 --> 00:32:47,730

Elements of Chemistry."

730

00:32:47,730 --> 00:32:51,021

So in the process of reforming

the language,

731

00:32:51,021 --> 00:32:55,078

he reformed the whole

understanding of the science.

732

00:32:55,078 --> 00:32:58,477

"The impossibility of

separating nomenclature of a

733

00:32:58,477 --> 00:33:02,008

science from the science itself,

is owing to this,

734

00:33:02,008 --> 00:33:06,538

that every branch of physical

science must consist of three

735

00:33:06,538 --> 00:33:09,195

things;

the series of facts

736

00:33:09,195 --> 00:33:11,940

which are the object of the

science,

737

00:33:11,940 --> 00:33:15,568

the ideas which

represent these facts,

738

00:33:15,568 --> 00:33:20,028

and the words by which

the ideas are expressed.

739

00:33:20,028 --> 00:33:24,557

Like three impressions of the

same seal, the word ought to

740
00:33:24,557 --> 00:33:28,369

produce the idea,

and the idea to be a picture of

741

00:33:28,369 --> 00:33:29,880

the fact."

742

00:33:29,880 --> 00:33:32,691

So all these things have to be

harmonious.

743

00:33:32,691 --> 00:33:33,240

Right?

744

00:33:33,240 --> 00:33:36,769

Three impressions of the same

seal.

745

00:33:36,769 --> 00:33:40,215

"And, as ideas are

preserved and communicated by

746

00:33:40,215 --> 00:33:43,291

means of words,

it necessarily follows that we

747

00:33:43,291 --> 00:33:47,117

cannot improve the language of

any science without at the same

748

00:33:47,117 --> 00:33:49,440

time improving the science

itself;

749

00:33:49,440 --> 00:33:51,541

neither can we,

on the other hand,

750

00:33:51,541 --> 00:33:54,601

improve a science,

without improving the language

751

00:33:54,601 --> 00:33:57,150

or nomenclature which belongs to

it.

752

00:33:57,150 --> 00:34:00,338

However certain the facts of

any science may be,

753

00:34:00,338 --> 00:34:04,460

however just the ideas we may

have formed of these facts,

754

00:34:04,460 --> 00:34:08,329

we can only communicate false

impressions to others,

755

00:34:08,329 --> 00:34:11,309

while we want words by which

these may be properly

756

00:34:11,309 --> 00:34:12,282

expressed."

757

00:34:12,282 --> 00:34:12,829

Right?

758

00:34:12,829 --> 00:34:17,650

So clarity, as opposed to

obscurity, was his goal;

759

00:34:17,650 --> 00:34:20,119

as opposed to Newton or the

alchemists.

760

00:34:20,119 --> 00:34:20,639

Right?

761

00:34:20,639 --> 00:34:26,088

Facts, ideas and words,

and they all have to tie into

762

00:34:26,088 --> 00:34:30,909

one another as impressions of

the same seal.

763

00:34:30,909 --> 00:34:31,659

Okay?

764

00:34:31,659 --> 00:34:34,313

So he presented things,

as he had advertised,

765

00:34:34,313 --> 00:34:36,753

in a new order;

very different from any book on

766

00:34:36,753 --> 00:34:38,579

chemistry that had been written

before.

767
00:34:38,579 --> 00:34:42,309

First was doctrine,

-- that is, the theory -- the

768

00:34:42,309 --> 00:34:46,429

first part of the book,

which is a two-volume book.

769

00:34:46,429 --> 00:34:50,019

So almost all of the first --

no, about two-thirds,

770

00:34:50,019 --> 00:34:53,179

I think, of the first volume

are doctrine.

771

00:34:53,179 --> 00:34:56,518

And then nomenclature;

that's what he had set out to

772

00:34:56,518 --> 00:34:56,760

do.
773

00:34:56,760 --> 00:35:00,371

And finally operations,

how you can actually repeat

774

00:35:00,371 --> 00:35:03,909

this stuff for yourself,

what devices you need.

775

00:35:03,909 --> 00:35:07,429

Of course, he was very wealthy

and could employ people to

776

00:35:07,429 --> 00:35:10,070

manufacture all the equipment he

needed;

777

00:35:10,070 --> 00:35:12,579

not everybody could do that.

778

00:35:12,579 --> 00:35:16,155

But he showed exactly how it

was done and gave great -- it's

779

00:35:16,155 --> 00:35:18,639

easy to understand exactly what

he did.

780

00:35:18,639 --> 00:35:22,472

Now, one of the first things he

turned his attention to was

781

00:35:22,472 --> 00:35:23,199

elements.

782

00:35:23,199 --> 00:35:26,175

He says:

"…if by the name

783

00:35:26,175 --> 00:35:28,920

elements we mean to designate

the simple,

784

00:35:28,920 --> 00:35:32,617

indivisible molecules"

(molecule just means little

785

00:35:32,617 --> 00:35:35,630

thing, right?) "that make

up substances,

786

00:35:35,630 --> 00:35:39,329

it is probable we do not know

what they are."

787

00:35:39,329 --> 00:35:41,619

(They're just too small. Right?)

788

00:35:41,619 --> 00:35:43,445

"But if,

on the contrary,
789

00:35:43,445 --> 00:35:46,090

we associate with the name of

elements,

790

00:35:46,090 --> 00:35:50,001

or the principles of

substances, the idea of the

791

00:35:50,001 --> 00:35:53,829

furthest stage to which analysis

can reach,

792

00:35:53,829 --> 00:35:58,067

all substances that we have so

far found no means to decompose

793

00:35:58,067 --> 00:36:02,027

are elements for us…

they behave with respect to us

794
00:36:02,027 --> 00:36:04,320

like simple substances."

795

00:36:04,320 --> 00:36:07,971

So it's an operational,

not a philosophical,

796

00:36:07,971 --> 00:36:10,010

definition of element.

797

00:36:10,010 --> 00:36:13,342

If you can't break it apart,

consider it an element until

798

00:36:13,342 --> 00:36:14,829

you can break it apart.

799

00:36:14,829 --> 00:36:17,349

We have elements here,

the chemical elements.

800

00:36:17,349 --> 00:36:22,045

Are they elements,

according to Lavoisier's

801

00:36:22,045 --> 00:36:23,500

definition?

802

00:36:23,500 --> 00:36:26,307

Like here we see cerium,

praseodymium,

803

00:36:26,307 --> 00:36:29,420

neodymium, promethium,

samarium, europium,

804

00:36:29,420 --> 00:36:30,559

gadolinium.
805

00:36:30,559 --> 00:36:33,329

Are they elements,

according to Lavoisier?

806

00:36:33,329 --> 00:36:33,989

Students: No.

807

00:36:33,989 --> 00:36:34,750

Prof: Why not?

808

00:36:34,750 --> 00:36:35,518

Students:

You can break them.

809

00:36:35,518 --> 00:36:38,333

Prof: You can break them

apart, into nuclei and

810

00:36:38,333 --> 00:36:38,969

electrons.

811

00:36:38,969 --> 00:36:41,936

The nuclei you can break apart

into protons and neutrons,

812

00:36:41,936 --> 00:36:45,170

and you can break these things

apart into quarks and so on.

813

00:36:45,170 --> 00:36:47,181

But, for Lavoisier,

or for chemists,

814

00:36:47,181 --> 00:36:49,885

those are elements,

because you don't break them

815

00:36:49,885 --> 00:36:50,460

apart.
816

00:36:50,460 --> 00:36:52,320

Okay?

817

00:36:52,320 --> 00:36:54,989

So here's a table of simple

substances,

818

00:36:54,989 --> 00:36:56,889

in the first English

translation of the

819

00:36:56,889 --> 00:36:59,090

Traité

Élémentaire de

820

00:36:59,090 --> 00:36:59,840

Chimie.

821
00:36:59,840 --> 00:37:01,827

So here's a table of the

elements: "Simple

822

00:37:01,827 --> 00:37:04,159

substances belonging to all the

kingdoms of nature,

823

00:37:04,159 --> 00:37:07,018

which may be considered as the

elements of bodies."

824

00:37:07,018 --> 00:37:10,396

So what are the first two

elements, things that you can't

825

00:37:10,396 --> 00:37:11,239

break apart?

826

00:37:11,239 --> 00:37:13,518

Student: Light.
827

00:37:13,518 --> 00:37:17,163

Prof: Light and heat are

the first two elements -- which

828

00:37:17,163 --> 00:37:19,690

we don't see in Mendeleev's

table, right?

829

00:37:19,690 --> 00:37:22,460

Because they're fundamentally

different from the other

830

00:37:22,460 --> 00:37:24,920

elements, because they don't

have any weight.

831

00:37:24,920 --> 00:37:28,851

You can weigh a gas but you

can't weigh light,

832

00:37:28,851 --> 00:37:31,210

and you can't weigh heat.

833

00:37:31,210 --> 00:37:31,949

Okay?

834

00:37:31,949 --> 00:37:36,429

So he gives new names to these

things -- light and caloric --

835

00:37:36,429 --> 00:37:38,518

and what the old name was.

836

00:37:38,518 --> 00:37:41,552

Light used to be called light

too, but in his new system he's

837

00:37:41,552 --> 00:37:44,079

going to keep the old name;

or "caloric",

838

00:37:44,079 --> 00:37:46,429

he's going to use for what used

to be called heat;

839

00:37:46,429 --> 00:37:48,550

or "the principle or

element of heat";

840

00:37:48,550 --> 00:37:50,980

or "fire";

or "igneous fluid";

841

00:37:50,980 --> 00:37:52,750

or "the matter of fire or

heat".

842

00:37:52,750 --> 00:37:55,382

Those were terms people had

used before, but he's going to

843

00:37:55,382 --> 00:37:56,860

call them "caloric".

844

00:37:56,860 --> 00:37:57,659

Okay?

845

00:37:57,659 --> 00:38:01,869

Now, if you have caloric,

you must be able to measure it.

846

00:38:01,869 --> 00:38:04,239

If you can't weigh it,

what you can do;

847

00:38:04,239 --> 00:38:06,523

you can use a

"calorimeter"

848
00:38:06,523 --> 00:38:07,539

to measure it.

849

00:38:07,539 --> 00:38:10,940

And this is the calorimeter

manufactured and used by

850

00:38:10,940 --> 00:38:12,737

Lavoisier;

and also Laplace,

851

00:38:12,737 --> 00:38:15,909

a younger man who was his

colleague, who became a great

852

00:38:15,909 --> 00:38:18,199

mathematician,

as you probably know.

853

00:38:18,199 --> 00:38:19,349

So here's the thing.

854

00:38:19,349 --> 00:38:20,739

It's big.

855

00:38:20,739 --> 00:38:23,579

That's a three-foot rule.

856

00:38:23,579 --> 00:38:25,577

So this thing stood this high

off the table,

857

00:38:25,577 --> 00:38:25,949

right?

858

00:38:25,949 --> 00:38:27,389

Okay?
859

00:38:27,389 --> 00:38:28,210

Now here's what it is.

860

00:38:28,210 --> 00:38:30,360

There's a lamp that's going to

make fire.

861

00:38:30,360 --> 00:38:33,268

There's oil in the well of the

lamp.

862

00:38:33,268 --> 00:38:36,775

You're going to measure how

much heat you get out of burning

863

00:38:36,775 --> 00:38:37,429

that oil.

864

00:38:37,429 --> 00:38:41,518

So you put it inside this

bucket, and you put the bucket

865

00:38:41,518 --> 00:38:44,420

in this mesh cage and put the

lid on.

866

00:38:44,420 --> 00:38:47,485

Then you put that cage,

and its lid,

867

00:38:47,485 --> 00:38:49,150

up into this can.

868

00:38:49,150 --> 00:38:50,039

Okay?

869

00:38:50,039 --> 00:38:54,579

And now you light the flame,

in there.
870

00:38:54,579 --> 00:38:55,960

You want to measure how much

heat it gives.

871

00:38:55,960 --> 00:38:58,500

How do you measure the heat?

872

00:38:58,500 --> 00:39:03,320

What you do is surround it by

melting ice.

873

00:39:03,320 --> 00:39:05,920

So the heat will melt the ice.

874

00:39:05,920 --> 00:39:07,809

Now there's going to be a

problem.

875
00:39:07,809 --> 00:39:10,559

Obviously the more heat,

the more ice you melt.

876

00:39:10,559 --> 00:39:13,320

But that's not the only place

heat's coming from.

877

00:39:13,320 --> 00:39:15,920

Where else will it come from,

to melt the ice?

878

00:39:15,920 --> 00:39:16,409

Students: Outside.

879

00:39:16,409 --> 00:39:17,960

Prof: From outside.

880

00:39:17,960 --> 00:39:20,420

So this is where the thing is

clever.

881

00:39:20,420 --> 00:39:23,347

So there's another can,

outside that can,

882

00:39:23,347 --> 00:39:26,789

and you fill it with ice,

which is an insulator,

883

00:39:26,789 --> 00:39:28,179

for the inside.

884

00:39:28,179 --> 00:39:31,164

So no heat comes from the --

any heat that comes from the

885

00:39:31,164 --> 00:39:33,989

outside, melts the outside ice,

not the inside ice.

886

00:39:33,989 --> 00:39:36,579

Only the flame will melt the

inside ice.

887

00:39:36,579 --> 00:39:39,739

Okay, and notice that the lids

also are covered with ice too.

888

00:39:39,739 --> 00:39:43,248

So it's completely surrounded

by ice, and then by another

889

00:39:43,248 --> 00:39:44,190

layer of ice.

890

00:39:44,190 --> 00:39:47,295

So your flame burns,

burns, burns,

891

00:39:47,295 --> 00:39:48,050

burns.

892

00:39:48,050 --> 00:39:51,409

And you fill -- water comes up

as they melt in both of them.

893

00:39:51,409 --> 00:39:55,405

And then you put that thing

underneath and turn the tap,

894

00:39:55,405 --> 00:39:58,019

and see how much water was

melted;

895

00:39:58,019 --> 00:40:00,949

only by the flame, right?

896

00:40:00,949 --> 00:40:03,280

And that measures how much heat.

897

00:40:03,280 --> 00:40:07,000

Pretty clever, huh?

898

00:40:07,000 --> 00:40:11,237

Okay, so that's a fact,

is measuring how much heat

899

00:40:11,237 --> 00:40:12,190

there is.

900

00:40:12,190 --> 00:40:14,210

But analysis in general is it.

901

00:40:14,210 --> 00:40:18,523

This is from the Oxford English

Dictionary, which Yale has a

902
00:40:18,523 --> 00:40:19,840

subscription to.

903

00:40:19,840 --> 00:40:22,150

So you can look up words to

your heart's content.

904

00:40:22,150 --> 00:40:23,510

It's a lot of fun.

905

00:40:23,510 --> 00:40:26,393

This year is the 80th

anniversary of the Oxford

906

00:40:26,393 --> 00:40:27,710

English Dictionary.

907

00:40:27,710 --> 00:40:29,726

There was a symposium,

down the hill,

908

00:40:29,726 --> 00:40:32,697

sponsored by the library,

including the guy that wrote

909

00:40:32,697 --> 00:40:35,219

that The Professor and the

Madman.

910

00:40:35,219 --> 00:40:37,960

Has anyone read that book about

the Oxford English Dictionary?

911

00:40:37,960 --> 00:40:41,628

It's a wonderful short book,

and the madman was a Yale

912

00:40:41,628 --> 00:40:42,389

graduate.
913

00:40:42,389 --> 00:40:43,789

Really, it's an interesting

story.

914

00:40:43,789 --> 00:40:47,425

And the other guy was one who

read the Oxford English

915

00:40:47,425 --> 00:40:51,480

Dictionary, cover to cover,

20 volumes, within one year.

916

00:40:51,480 --> 00:40:53,739

He wrote a book about that,

during the last year.

917

00:40:53,739 --> 00:40:54,510

It was a fun thing.

918

00:40:54,510 --> 00:40:57,235

But anyhow, this is -- it's fun

to look up things in the Oxford

919

00:40:57,235 --> 00:40:58,159

English Dictionary.

920

00:40:58,159 --> 00:41:00,909

And here's analysis.

921

00:41:00,909 --> 00:41:05,963

So you see it comes from

ana, and I think it's

922

00:41:05,963 --> 00:41:10,019

lisein;

but I can get some help on that.

923

00:41:10,019 --> 00:41:11,309

Student: luein.
924

00:41:11,309 --> 00:41:12,920

Prof: luein, okay.

925

00:41:12,920 --> 00:41:15,293

Anyhow, but it means "to

loose," according to the

926

00:41:15,293 --> 00:41:16,440

Oxford English Dictionary.

927

00:41:16,440 --> 00:41:19,983

So it's to loose back;

to take things apart is the

928

00:41:19,983 --> 00:41:20,820

sense of it.

929
00:41:20,820 --> 00:41:24,349

And generally it's the

resolution or breaking up of

930

00:41:24,349 --> 00:41:28,018

anything complex into its

various simple elements.

931

00:41:28,018 --> 00:41:32,769

So you can analyze a passage in

literature.

932

00:41:32,769 --> 00:41:34,360

Okay?

933

00:41:34,360 --> 00:41:38,550

It's the opposite of synthesis.

934

00:41:38,550 --> 00:41:40,150

Okay?
935

00:41:40,150 --> 00:41:45,204

"The exact determination

of the elements or components of

936

00:41:45,204 --> 00:41:48,474

anything complex;

specifically in chemistry,

937

00:41:48,474 --> 00:41:52,128

the resolution of a chemical

compound into its proximate,

938

00:41:52,128 --> 00:41:54,150

or ultimate,

elements."

939

00:41:54,150 --> 00:41:56,820

Now, proximate and ultimate,

what does that mean?

940

00:41:56,820 --> 00:41:59,155

You can see down in the

historical uses of it what

941

00:41:59,155 --> 00:42:00,920

proximate and ultimate

mean.

942

00:42:00,920 --> 00:42:04,550

1791, this same time -- 1789,

remember,

943

00:42:04,550 --> 00:42:05,786

was the Traité

Élémentaire

944

00:42:05,786 --> 00:42:07,581

--

said, "the quantity of

945

00:42:07,581 --> 00:42:10,443

charcoal,

which something yields by

946

00:42:10,443 --> 00:42:11,860

analysis."

947

00:42:11,860 --> 00:42:13,768

So you find out how much

charcoal is in it.

948

00:42:13,768 --> 00:42:16,949

That's the word -- we now say

carbon.

949

00:42:16,949 --> 00:42:18,730

So that's elemental analysis.

950

00:42:18,730 --> 00:42:21,693

That's ultimate analysis;

take things all apart to the

951

00:42:21,693 --> 00:42:24,268

chemical elements,

see how much of each one.

952

00:42:24,268 --> 00:42:26,719

But there's also this thing

called proximate

953

00:42:26,719 --> 00:42:28,851

analysis,

which you can see from this

954

00:42:28,851 --> 00:42:29,809

quote in 1831.

955

00:42:29,809 --> 00:42:32,166

"Sugar,

starch and gum are proximate

956
00:42:32,166 --> 00:42:34,820

principles, and these we

obtained by proximate

957

00:42:34,820 --> 00:42:35,940

analysis."

958

00:42:35,940 --> 00:42:38,628

So you can take some foodstuff

and see what percentage of

959

00:42:38,628 --> 00:42:41,268

protein, what percentage of

sugar, or what percentage of

960

00:42:41,268 --> 00:42:42,949

this, that and the other thing.

961

00:42:42,949 --> 00:42:46,072

So what you read on a candy

bar, or something like that,

962

00:42:46,072 --> 00:42:48,342

that's proximate analysis,

not elemental,

963

00:42:48,342 --> 00:42:49,820

not ultimate analysis.

964

00:42:49,820 --> 00:42:53,974

So both kinds are important in

Lavoisier's work,

965

00:42:53,974 --> 00:42:55,300

as we'll see.

966

00:42:55,300 --> 00:42:59,650

Okay, so we looked at light and

caloric.
967

00:42:59,650 --> 00:43:01,782

Now let's look at a few of

these elements,

968

00:43:01,782 --> 00:43:03,289

the ultimate elements here.

969

00:43:03,289 --> 00:43:09,139

He had the fact,

the theory and the word for

970

00:43:09,139 --> 00:43:11,179

these things.

971

00:43:11,179 --> 00:43:14,039

So how about Azote?

972

00:43:14,039 --> 00:43:17,179

Why is that word -- that's the

French name for --

973

00:43:17,179 --> 00:43:21,170

the French still call nitrogen

azote,

974

00:43:21,170 --> 00:43:25,487

and in this English translation

it was called that in 1790 or

975

00:43:25,487 --> 00:43:25,920

'91.

976

00:43:25,920 --> 00:43:30,070

Okay, where does that word come

from?

977

00:43:30,070 --> 00:43:34,269

What does the prefix a

mean?
978

00:43:34,269 --> 00:43:37,039

Student: Without.

979

00:43:37,039 --> 00:43:38,050

Prof: Without.

980

00:43:38,050 --> 00:43:39,719

And how about zo?

981

00:43:39,719 --> 00:43:42,420

It's great we have somebody

taking Greek.

982

00:43:42,420 --> 00:43:43,190

Student: Life.

983
00:43:43,190 --> 00:43:45,099

Prof: Without life.

984

00:43:45,099 --> 00:43:48,911

In what sense is that an

appropriate name,

985

00:43:48,911 --> 00:43:51,980

a meaningful name for nitrogen?

986

00:43:51,980 --> 00:43:53,510

Alex?

987

00:43:53,510 --> 00:43:54,943

Student: I think they

performed the tests on nitrogen

988

00:43:54,943 --> 00:43:56,389

first and it was --

Prof: What kind of tests?

989

00:43:56,389 --> 00:43:57,788

Student: They would

suffocate like a bird in

990

00:43:57,788 --> 00:43:58,090

nitrogen.

991

00:43:58,090 --> 00:44:01,485

Prof: Yes,

if you put a mouse in an

992

00:44:01,485 --> 00:44:04,880

atmosphere of nitrogen,

it's azote.

993

00:44:04,880 --> 00:44:05,710

Right?
994

00:44:05,710 --> 00:44:07,610

So that's what the name meant.

995

00:44:07,610 --> 00:44:11,132

It used to be called

phlogisticated air,

996

00:44:11,132 --> 00:44:15,106

or gas, or mephitis,

or the base of mephitis.

997

00:44:15,106 --> 00:44:16,010

Right?

998

00:44:16,010 --> 00:44:20,000

Azote is the name that

Lavoisier decided to use for it.

999

00:44:20,000 --> 00:44:24,090

Or hydro-gen.

1000

00:44:24,090 --> 00:44:26,559

How about it, help us out?

1001

00:44:26,559 --> 00:44:30,349

Student: Hdor

would've been water.

1002

00:44:30,349 --> 00:44:31,530

Prof: Pardon me?

1003

00:44:31,530 --> 00:44:32,409

Student: Water.

1004

00:44:32,409 --> 00:44:34,210

Prof: What about water?

1005

00:44:34,210 --> 00:44:34,739

Hydro is water.

1006

00:44:34,739 --> 00:44:37,440

What's gen?

1007

00:44:37,440 --> 00:44:39,550

Student: To leave water.

1008

00:44:39,550 --> 00:44:41,454

Prof: It makes water.

1009

00:44:41,454 --> 00:44:41,929

Right?

1010
00:44:41,929 --> 00:44:46,440

So if you burn hydro-gen,

you generate water.

1011

00:44:46,440 --> 00:44:47,260

Right?

1012

00:44:47,260 --> 00:44:48,739

So hydrogen.

1013

00:44:48,739 --> 00:44:49,760

Okay.

1014

00:44:49,760 --> 00:44:53,820

How about oxy-gen?

1015

00:44:53,820 --> 00:44:55,730

What does it generate?

1016

00:44:55,730 --> 00:44:57,289

Students: Acid.

1017

00:44:57,289 --> 00:44:59,429

Prof: Acid, sourness.

1018

00:44:59,429 --> 00:45:02,590

So oxygen is the element that

generates sourness,

1019

00:45:02,590 --> 00:45:04,039

that generates acid.

1020

00:45:04,039 --> 00:45:08,148

And that is the key element in

Lavoisier's theory,
1021

00:45:08,148 --> 00:45:11,000

the oxygen theory of

combustion.

1022

00:45:11,000 --> 00:45:14,096

Okay, so oxygen,

plus a base,

1023

00:45:14,096 --> 00:45:16,530

or radical -- right?

1024

00:45:16,530 --> 00:45:19,938

So these two terms meant the

same thing to Lavoisier,

1025

00:45:19,938 --> 00:45:23,284

the fundamental radical,

the root of some substance,

1026

00:45:23,284 --> 00:45:23,940

right?

1027

00:45:23,940 --> 00:45:27,634

And you react it with oxygen

and it makes the stuff into an

1028

00:45:27,634 --> 00:45:28,079

acid.

1029

00:45:28,079 --> 00:45:32,951

Can you think of an example of

an element that you react with

1030

00:45:32,951 --> 00:45:35,550

oxygen and it becomes an acid?

1031

00:45:35,550 --> 00:45:37,880

Well let's just look in his

table.
1032

00:45:37,880 --> 00:45:41,550

Sulfur;

you burn it and it becomes

1033

00:45:41,550 --> 00:45:44,344

sulfuric acid,

or sulfurous acid.

1034

00:45:44,344 --> 00:45:45,130

Right?

1035

00:45:45,130 --> 00:45:47,449

Phosphorous generates

phosphoric acid.

1036

00:45:47,449 --> 00:45:49,530

Carbon generates carbonic acid.

1037
00:45:49,530 --> 00:45:53,518

Muriatic radical -- which we

don't know;

1038

00:45:53,518 --> 00:45:56,849

they haven't discovered the

muriatic radical yet,

1039

00:45:56,849 --> 00:46:01,150

the base of that acid -- but if

you burn it and combine it with

1040

00:46:01,150 --> 00:46:03,510

oxygen, you get muriatic acid.

1041

00:46:03,510 --> 00:46:06,079

Does anybody know what muriatic

acid is?

1042

00:46:06,079 --> 00:46:06,539

Student: Hydrochloric
acid.

1043

00:46:06,539 --> 00:46:07,389

Prof: Hydrochloric acid.

1044

00:46:07,389 --> 00:46:09,099

How much oxygen is in it?

1045

00:46:09,099 --> 00:46:09,780

Student: None.

1046

00:46:09,780 --> 00:46:11,210

Prof: None, right?

1047

00:46:11,210 --> 00:46:13,115

But that was the theory,

that you take a base,

1048

00:46:13,115 --> 00:46:14,980

you react it with oxygen,

you get an acid.

1049

00:46:14,980 --> 00:46:19,360

So there must have been a

muriatic radical.

1050

00:46:19,360 --> 00:46:20,039

Okay?

1051

00:46:20,039 --> 00:46:21,949

Unfortunately that part of it

was wrong.

1052

00:46:21,949 --> 00:46:25,519

The same for fluoric radical.

1053

00:46:25,519 --> 00:46:25,980

Okay?

1054

00:46:25,980 --> 00:46:29,302

But then there were also

compound radicals,

1055

00:46:29,302 --> 00:46:33,260

radicals that were only

proximate, not ultimate;

1056

00:46:33,260 --> 00:46:37,561

radicals that had several other

elements in them.

1057

00:46:37,561 --> 00:46:38,280

Right?

1058

00:46:38,280 --> 00:46:41,980

And here were some of those,

a list of those radicals,

1059

00:46:41,980 --> 00:46:45,889

with the names that Lavoisier

decided to use for them.

1060

00:46:45,889 --> 00:46:48,539

And many of them,

all the ones indicated by an

1061

00:46:48,539 --> 00:46:51,719

arrow, are ones that Scheele had

already discovered;

1062

00:46:51,719 --> 00:46:54,094

like tartaric,

citric, oxalic,

1063

00:46:54,094 --> 00:46:55,570

benzoic, lactic.

1064
00:46:55,570 --> 00:46:58,376

Lithic acid was another one

that I didn't mention before,

1065

00:46:58,376 --> 00:47:02,420

which comes from stones;

see, it's from urinary calculus.

1066

00:47:02,420 --> 00:47:05,579

Okay, so those were compound

radicals.

1067

00:47:05,579 --> 00:47:09,469

And that's the end of today's

lecture.