IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Image sensors are being used in many areas today, in cell phone cameras, digital video
recorders, still cameras, and many more devices. The issue is how to evaluate each sensor, to
see if significant differences exist among the designs. Megapixels seem to be the largest used
barometer of sensor performance, with the idea that the more pixels an image have, the better
its output. This may not always be the case. Many other metrics are important for sensor
design, and may give a better indication of performance than raw pixel count. Furthermore,
specific applications may require the optimization of one aspect of the sensor's performance.
As silicon process technology improves, some of these metrics may get better, while others
might become worse.

Fig. 1.1 Imaging System Pipeline

1.1 The Physics of Silicon Image Sensors

The first thing to explain is how a modern digital image sensor works. Nearly every modern
image sensor today is produced using silicon. The chief reason is that silicon, being a
semiconductor, has an energy gap in between its valence band and conduction band, referred
to as the band gap, which is perfect for capturing light in the visible and near infrared
spectrum.

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 1

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

1.2 Performance Metrics for Image Sensors

When comparing image sensors, either CCD or CMOS, the system is essentially a box where
the input is light, and the output is an image based on the light that is seen. The service
provided by the sensor is the conversion of light to a digital image. There are a number of
common metrics that are used for image sensors. These categories are not hard and fast
categories, as there will be some overlap amongst them.

1.3 A Performance Comparison of Image Sensors

This paper described how modern image sensors work. It showed the difference in how CCD
and CMOS image sensors function. It also gave a description of many of the common metrics
used when comparing the performance of different image sensors. An analysis was performed
using a sample of state of the art image sensors. The analysis showed that for dark current and
dynamic range, no significant difference could be seen, although the sample size was small
for both CCD and CMOS populations. The model predicts that smaller well capacities lead to
large conversion gains, while larger capacities lead to smaller gains like mobile imaging,
digital still and video cameras, Internet-based video conferencing, surveillance, and
biometrics.
In recent years, with growing interest in small HD-resolution camcorders, there has been
significant development of CMOS sensors which are low power consumption devices with
high-speed image readout capabilities. In the field of security surveillance, this development
is accompanied by the increasing prevalence of IP networking, which in turn builds demand
for HD resolution, as the digital of the network surveillance camera signal does not depend on
a conventional TV format.
Because of these growing needs, Sony has amassed its image quality knowledge accumulated
in CCDs, and dedicated this to creating new, more advantageous high speed, high-resolution
CMOS sensors. The result is a CMOS sensor with an entirely new structure: the “EXMOR”.

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 2

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER 2
HISTORY

2.1 Image Sensor History

Before 1960 mainly film photography was done and vacuum tubes were being used. From
1960-1975 early research and development was done in the fields of CCD and CMOS. From
1975-1990 commercialization of CCD took place. After 1990 re-emergence of CMOS took
place and amorphous Si also came into the picture.

2.1.1 CCD History

CCD was invented in 1970 by Bell Labs. Honeywell developed this into an X-Y scanner and
taken further by IBM Originally for data storage, later taken up by research and astronomy
areas. The CCD started its life as a memory device and one could only inject charge into the
device at an input register. However, it was immediately clear that the CCD could receive
charge via the photoelectric effect and electronic images could be created. By 1969, Bell
researchers were able to capture images with simple linear devices; thus the CCD was born.

2.1.2 CMOS History

Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) is a major class of integrated circuits.
CMOS technology is used in microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM, and other
digital logic circuits. CMOS technology is also used for a wide variety of analog circuits such
as image sensors, data converters, and highly integrated transceivers for many types of
communication. Frank Wanlass successfully patented CMOS in 1967. Now used in security
cameras, digital cameras and virtually all digital video applications.

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 3

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER 3
ARCHITECTURE

3.1 Pixel
The smallest discrete component of an image or picture on a CRT screen is known as a pixel.
The greater the number of pixels per inch the greater is the resolution. Each pixel is a sample
of an original image, where more samples typically provide more accurate representations of
the original.

Fig.3.1 Pixel

3.2 Fill Factor

Fill factor refers to the percentage of a photo site that is sensitive to light. If circuits cover
25% of each photo site, the sensor is said to have a fill factor of 75%. Higher the fill factor,
more sensitive is the sensor.

Fig.3.2 Fill Factor

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 4

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

An image sensor is typically of two types:

1. Charged Coupled Device (CCD)

1) Full Frame CCD Image Sensor
2) Interline Transfer Image Sensor

2. Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)

1) Active Pixel CMOS Image Sensor
2) Passive Pixel CMOS Image Sensor

Following figure shows that the different type of Image sensor. In this figure the full frame
and frame transfer image sensor both are same there is little difference between them.

Fig.3.3 Image Sensor Architectures for Digital Cinematography

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 5

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

3.3 Architecture of CCD

CCD is silicon-based integrated circuits consisting of a dense matrix of photodiodes. A CCD
has photo sites, arranged in a matrix. Each comprises a photodiode which converts light into
charge and a charge holding region. The charges are shifted out of the sensor as a bucket
brigade.

Fig.3.4 Readout architectures of interline transfer CCD

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 6

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

3.4 Architecture of CMOS

CMOS circuits use a combination of p-type and n-type metal–oxide–semiconductor field

effect transistors (MOSFETs) to implement logic gates and other digital circuits found in
computers, telecommunications equipment, and signal processing equipment. “CMOS" refer
to both a particular style of digital circuitry design, and the family of processes used to
implement that circuitry on integrated circuits (chips).

Fig.3.5 CMOS image sensor

Another major element that determines image quality is noise reduction. In “EXMOR”
CMOS sensor, noise on the analog part is eliminated by the built-in Correlated Double
Sampling (CDS) circuit. Other new structural element drastically also decrease the noise-
contamination level.

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 7

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

The A/D conversion conventionally done just before signal readout is now performed
immediately after the light-to-electricity conversion, and is performed for each column. This
helps to reduce noise because the analog circuit is made shorter, and the frequency lower.
Noise-elimination circuits (CDS circuit) are equipped in the digital domain in addition to in
the analog domain.

Fig.3.6 Conventional and EXMOR CMOS Sensor

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 8

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER 4
WORKING
4.1 Basic Operation of CCD
Charge-coupled devices (CCDs) are silicon-based integrated circuits consisting of a dense
matrix of photodiodes that operate by converting light energy in the form of photons into an
electronic charge.
Electrons generated by the interaction of photons with silicon atoms are stored in a potential
well and can subsequently be transferred across the chip through registers and output to an
amplifier. The A/D conversion is done at the edge of the circuit.
In a CCD for capturing images, there is a photoactive region, and a transmission region made
out of a shift register (the CCD, properly speaking). An image is projected by a lens on the
capacitor array (the photoactive region), causing each capacitor to accumulate an electric
charge proportional to the light intensity at that location.
A one-dimensional array, used in cameras, captures a single slice of the image, while a two-
dimensional array, used in video and still cameras, captures a two-dimensional picture
corresponding to the scene projected onto the focal plane of the sensor.

Fig.4.1 CCD Sensor Structure

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 9

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

1) The photodiode within the pixel receives light which is then converted to electrical charges
and accumulated. 2) The electrical charges accumulated in all the receiving sections are
simultaneously transferred to the vertical CCD shift registers. 3) The charges that have passed
through the vertical CCD shift registers are transferred to the horizontal CCD shift registers.
4) The charges sent from the horizontal CCD shift registers are converted to a voltage and
amplified in the amplifier, then sent to camera signal processing.

There are two types of CCD image sensor:

1) Interline Transfer CCD Image Sensor
2) Frame Transfer CCD Image Sensor

4.1.1 Interline Transfer CCD Image Sensor

In the interline transfer design the charge holding region is shielded from light. Light is
collected over the entire imager simultaneously and then transferred to the next, adjacent
charge transfer cells within the columns. This implies a low fill factor, which on modern
designs usually is compensated for by micro lenses.
Next, the charge is read out: each row of data is moved to a separate horizontal charge
transfer register. Charge packets for each row are read out serially and sensed by a charge-to-
voltage conversion and amplifier section.
Here, the following fig. Shows that an interline image sensor has a light shielded vertical
CCD adjacent to each photodiode photo sensor. Charge is transferred from the photo sites to
the vertical CCD in one cycle. Then charge is transferred into the horizontal CCD, one raw at
a time.

Fig.4.2 Interline Image Sensor

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 10

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

The next image can be integrated while the previous image is safely transferred out of the
imager. Interline imager sensor, unlike full-frame device, do not require an external shutter.
Here, Full frame means in the full frame design the charge holding region is integrated with
the light sensing region. Light is collected over the entire imager simultaneously. Then the
light has to be shut off so that the charge can be transferred down the columns.
Finally, each row of data is moved to a separate horizontal charge transfer register. Charge
packets for each row are read out serially and sensed by a charge-to-voltage conversion and
amplifier section. This design features a high, almost 100% fill factor but external shuttering
is required and light cannot be collected during readout.
Here, figure shows that the pixels are both photo sites and the VCCD. Charge is transported
down the columns from pixel to pixel. Charge in the first VCCD row is transferred into the
HCCD. The HCCD clocks out one row at a time.

Fig.4.3 Full Frame Image Sensor

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 11

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

Fig.4.4 Modern Frame Transfer Image Sensor

4.1.2 Frame Transfer Image Sensor

In frame transfer CCD has photo sites, arranged in an X-Y matrix. (Almost) the entire photo
site is light sensitive, i.e. a good fill factor.
When light has been collected over the entire imager simultaneously it is rapidly shifted into
an equal size rectangular array of charge holding regions which is shielded from light.

Fig.4.5 Frame Transfer CCD Operational Principle

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 12

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

4.2 Basic Operation of CMOS

The CMOS sensor’s architecture is arranged more like a memory cell or flat-panel display.
Each photosite contains a photodiode that converts light to electrons, a charge to voltage
conversion section, a reset and select transistor and an amplifier section. This additional
electronics limits the fill factor.

Fig.4.6 CMOS Image Sensor

1) The photodiode within the pixel receives light which is then converted to electrical charges
and accumulated. 2) The accumulated charges are converted to a voltage by an amplifier
within the pixel. 3) The converted voltage is transferred to the vertical signal line depending
on the selected transistor. 4) Various random noise and fixed pattern noise are eliminated by
correlated double sampling at a column circuit. 5) After CDS, the image signal voltage is
output through the horizontal signal line.
Overlaying the entire sensor is a grid of metal interconnects to apply timing and readout
signals, and an array of column output signal interconnects. The column lines connect to a set
of decode and readout (multiplexing) electronics that are arranged by column outside of the
pixel array.
This architecture allows the signals from the entire array, from subsections, or even from a
single pixel to be readout by a simple X-Y addressing technique, something not possible with
a CCD.

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 13

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

Fig.4.7 A typical CMOS chip design

There are two types of CMOS sensor:

1) Active Pixel Image Sensor
2) Passive Pixel Image Sensor

4.2.1 Active Pixel Image Sensor

Have 3-4 transistors per pixel. Fast, higher SNR, but larger pixel, lower fill factor. Requires
lower voltage and consumes lower power.

Fig.4.8 Active Pixel Image Sensor

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 14

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

4.2.2 Passive Pixel Image Sensor

Have one transistor per pixel. Have smaller pixel, large fill factor, but slow in operation and
low signal to noise ratio (SNR).

Fig.4.9 Passive Pixel Image Sensor

4.3 Colour in Image Sensor

We use one- or three-chip camera –The three-chip is usually at least 3 times as expensive.
The colour filter matrix for one- chip, usually Bayer mosaic.
Reduces colour resolution to about half. Also reduces light collection efficiency. Anisotropic
in x and y. A new method invented by Foveon uses “vertical filters” with less resolution loss.

Fig.4.10 Creating Colour using Beam Splitter

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 15

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER 5

COMPARISON BETWEEN CCD AND CMOS IMAGE

SENSOR

5.1 Comparison between CCD and CMOS

CMOS image sensors can incorporate other circuits on the same chip, eliminating the many
separate chips required for a CCD.
This also allows additional on-chip features to be added at little extra cost. These features
include image stabilization and image compression.
Not only does this make the camera smaller, lighter, and cheaper; it also requires less power
so batteries last longer.
CMOS image sensors can switch modes on the fly between still photography and video.
CMOS sensors excel in the capture of outdoor pictures on sunny days, they suffer in low light
conditions. Their sensitivity to light is decreased because part of each photosite is covered
with circuitry that filters out noise and performs other functions.
The percentage of a pixel devoted to collecting light is called the pixel’s fill factor. CCDs
have a 100% fill factor but CMOS cameras have much less.
The lower the fill factor, the less sensitive the sensor is and the longer exposure times must
be. Too low a fill factor makes indoor photography without a flash virtually impossible.
CMOS has more complex pixel and chip whereas CCD has a simple pixel and chip.

5.2 CMOS vs CCD today

Today there is no clear line dividing the types of applications each can serve.
CMOS designers have devoted intense effort to achieving high image quality, while CCD
designers have lowered their power requirements and pixel sizes.
As a result, you can find CCDs in low-cost low- power cell phone cameras and CMOS
sensors in high-performance professional and industrial cameras, directly contradicting the
early stereotypes.

5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of CCD

Here we will discuss the some of the advantages and disadvantages of CCD image sensor.

5.3.1 Advantages of CCD Image Sensor System

CCD’s started developing in early 70-ies, optimized for optical properties and image quality,
continues to improve. It is high quality.
The optimized photo detectors in architecture produce – high QE, low dark current. Very low
noise – no noise introduce during shifting very low fixed pattern noise (no uniformity) – no
FPN introduced by shifting. That is why CCD is high-performance imager. More light
sensitive than CMOS.

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 16

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

5.3.2 Disadvantages of CCD

The optimization makes integrating other electronics onto the silicon impractical. In addition,
operating the CCD requires application of several clock signals, clock levels, and bias
voltages, complicating system integration and increasing power consumption, overall system
size, and cost.

5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of CMOS Image Sensor

5.4.1 Advantages of CMOS

Has lower system cost. Found in high-volume foundries. Support electronics easier integrate.
Benefit from process and material improvements made in mainstream semiconductor
technology. It consumes less power. Integration of additional circuitry on-chip is easier. It
reads out subsections for variable resolution/speed.

5.4.2 Disadvantages of CMOS

There only one disadvantages of CMOS which is fill factor limit.

Fig.5.1 Fill-Factor limit in layout

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 17

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER 6
APPLICATIONS

The image sensor used in many devices like mobile video phone, Finger Print Scanner,
Virtual Key Board, Self-Parking Car, Aerospace, Auto Pilot Technology etc. Samsung
CMOS image sensors (CIS) enable bright, crisp images and smooth-motion video for a broad
range of applications, from smart phones and cameras to notebooks and smart TV.
Almost all medical and near medical areas benefit from image sensors are utilized. These
sensors are used for patients’ observation and drug production, inside the dentist’s offices and
during surgeries. In most cases the sensor itself represents only a small fraction (in size and
cost) of the larger system, but its functionality plays a major role in the whole system.
Figure shows examples of medical applications where CMOS image sensors are used. In this
section of the paper we mostly concentrate on applications that push current image sensor
technology to the edge of the possibilities. These applications are wireless capsule endoscopy
and retinal implants. Both of these applications will play an important role in millions of
patients’ lives in the near future.

Fig. 6.1 Image sensors applications in medicine

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 18

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

The following figure shows that the application of an image sensor is used in different area or
field.

Security Industrial
4% 3%

Video-
Conferencing
5%
Office Tools
51%

Consumer &
Professional
37%

Fig. 6.2 Application in different field

Fig. 6.3 Analysis of growth

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 19

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER 7
SUMMARY

7.1 Summary

Image sensors are an emergent solution for practically every automation-focused machine
vision application. New electronic fabrication processes, software implementations, and new
application fields will dictate the growth of image-sensor technology in the future. The two
major segments CCD and CMOS of the world image sensors market offer a range of image
sensors for multiple end users. The world image sensors market is poised for growth, with
certain factors likely to aid its growth in future years.

This technology is well supported by the latest fields of 3D Imaging, Motion Capture,
Biometrics, Automotive and Robotics which has overwhelming developments.

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 20

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

REFERENCE
[1] Sanket Mehta, Arpita Patel, Jagrat Mehta, “CCD or CMOS Image Sensor for
Photography”, IEEE ICCSP conference-2015.

[2] Alen Luštica, “CCD and CMOS Image Sensors in New HD Cameras”, 53rd International
Symposium ELMAR-2011.

[3] Abbas El Gamal and Helmy Eltoukhy, “CMOS Image Sensors”, IEEE circuits & devices
magazine, May/June 2005.

[4] Eric R. Fossum, “CMOS Image Sensors: Electronic Camera-On-A-Chip”, IEEE

transactions on electron devices, vol. 44, no. 10, October 1997.

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 21

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

APPENDIX

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 22

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 23

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 24

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 25

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 26

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 27

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 28

IMAGE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

Dept. of ECE, JSSATEB 2017 Page 29