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 Provisional chapter

An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local

Rings

A. Amparan, S. Marcaida and I. Zaballa

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

. Introduction

Consider a linear time invariant system

ẋ t = Ax t + Bu t id

n×n n×m
to be identified with the pair of matrices A, B where A ∈ , B∈ and = ℝ or ℂ the
fields of the real or complex numbers. If state-feedback u t = Fx t + v t is applied to sys‐
tem ▭ , Rosenbrock's Theorem on pole assignment see [ ] characterizes for the closed-
loop system

ẋ t = A + BF x t + Bv t , id

the invariant factors of its state-space matrix A + BF . This result can be seen as the solution
of an inverse problem that of finding a non-singular polynomial matrix with prescribed in‐
variant factors and left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices at infinity. To see this we recall
that the invariant factors form a complete system of invariants for the finite equivalence of
polynomial matrices this equivalence relation will be revisited in Section ▭ and it will be
seen in Section ▭ that any polynomial matrix is left Wiener–Hopf equivalent at infinity to a
k km
diagonal matrix Diag s , ..., s , where the non-negative integers k , ..., km that can be as‐
sumed in non-increasing order form a complete system of invariants for the left Wiener–
Hopf equivalence at infinity. Consider now the transfer function matrix
-
G s = sI - A + BF B of ▭ . This is a rational matrix that can be written as an irreducible
-
matrix fraction description G s = N s P s , where N s and P s are right coprime polyno‐

© 2012 Amparan et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2 Linear Algebra

mial matrices. In the terminology of [ ], P s is a polynomial matrix representation of ▭ ,

concept that is closely related to that of polynomial model introduced by Fuhrmann see for
example [ ] and the references therein . It turns out that all polynomial matrix representa‐
tions of a system are right equivalent see [ ], [ ] , that is, if P s and P s are polynomial
matrix representations of the same system there exists a unimodular matrix U s such that
P s = P s U s . Therefore all polynomial matrix representations of ▭ have the same in‐
variant factors, which are the invariant factors of sI n - A + BF except for some trivial ones.
Furthermore, all polynomial matrix representations also have the same left Wiener– Hopf
factorization indices at infinity, which are equal to the controllability indices of ▭ and ▭ ,
because the controllability indices are invariant under feedback. With all this in mind it is
not hard to see that Rosenbrock's Theorem on pole assignment is equivalent to finding nec‐
essary and sufficient conditions for the existence of a non-singular polynomial matrix with
prescribed invariant factors and left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices at infinity. This re‐
sult will be precisely stated in Section ▭ once all the elements that appear are properly de‐
fined. In addition, there is a similar result to Rosenbrock's Theorem on pole assignment but
involving the infinite structure see [ ] .

Our goal is to generalize both results the finite and infinite versions of Rosenbrock's Theo‐
rem for rational matrices defined on arbitrary fields via local rings. This will be done in Sec‐
tion ▭ and an extension to arbitrary fields of the concept of Wiener–Hopf equivalence will
be needed. This concept is very well established for complex valued rational matrix func‐
tions see for example [ ], [ ] . Originally it requires a closed contour, , that divides the ex‐
tended complex plane ℂ ∪ {∞ } into two parts the inner domain Ω+ and the region outside
Ω- , which contains the point at infinity. Then two non-singular m × m complex rational
matrices T s and T s , with no poles and no zeros in , are said to be left Wiener–Hopf
equivalent with respect to if there are m × m matrices U - s and U + s with no poles and no
zeros in Ω- ∪ and Ω+ ∪ , respectively, such that

T s = U- s T s U+ s . id

It can be seen, then, that any non-singular m × m complex rational matrix T s is left Wie‐
ner–Hopf equivalent with respect to to a diagonal matrix

k km
Diag s - z , ..., s - z id

where z is any complex number in Ω+ and k ≥ ⋯ ≥ km are integers uniquely determined by

T s . They are called the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices of T s with respect to see
again [ ], [ ] . The generalization to arbitrary fields relies on the following idea We can
identify Ω+ ∪ and Ω- ∪ ∖ {∞ } with two sets M and M ', respectively, of maximal ideals of
ℂ s . In fact, to each z ∈ ℂ we associate the ideal generated by s - z , which is a maximal
ideal of ℂ s . Notice that s - z is also a prime polynomial of ℂ s but M and M ', as defined,
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 3
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

cannot contain the zero ideal, which is prime. Thus we are led to consider the set
Specm ℂ s of maximal ideals of ℂ s . ”y using this identification we define the left Wie‐
ner–Hopf equivalence of rational matrices over an arbitrary field with respect to a subset M
of Specm s , the set of all maximal ideals of s . In this study local rings play a fundamen‐
tal role. They will be introduced in Section ▭. Localization techniques have been used previ‐
ously in the algebraic theory of linear systems see, for example, [ ] . In Section ▭ the
algebraic structure of the rings of proper rational functions with prescribed finite poles is
ps
studied i.e., for a fixed M ⊆ Specm s the ring of proper rational functions qs with
gcd g s , π s = for all π s ∈ M . It will be shown that if there is an ideal generated by
a linear polynomial outside M then the set of proper rational functions with no poles in M
is an Euclidean domain and all rational matrices can be classified according to their Smith–
McMillan invariants. In this case, two types of invariants live together for any non-singular
rational matrix and any set M ⊆ Specm s its Smith–McMillan and left Wiener–Hopf in‐
variants. In Section ▭ we show that a Rosenbrock-like Theorem holds true that completely
characterizes the relationship between these two types of invariants.

. Preliminaries

In the sequel s will denote the ring of polynomials with coefficients in an arbitrary field
and Specm s the set of all maximal ideals of s , that is,

Specm s ={π s π s ∈ s , irreducible, monic, different from }. id

Let π s ∈ s be a monic irreducible non-constant polynomial. Let S = s ∖ π s be the

multiplicative subset of s whose elements are coprime with π s . We denote by π s the
quotient ring of s by S i.e., S - s

π s = { qp ss ps,qs ∈ s , gcd q s , π s = }. id

This is the localization of s at π s see [ ] . The units of π s are the rational functions
ps
us = qs such that gcd p s , π s = and gcd q s , π s = . Consequentially,

π s = {u s π s d
u s is a unit and d ≥ } ∪ { }. id

For any M ⊆ Specm s , let

4 Linear Algebra

s = ⋂ π s
M
π s ∈M
id
= { ps
qs
ps,qs ∈ s , gcd q s , π s = ∀ πs ∈M . }
ps
This is a ring whose units are the rational functions u s = qs such that for all ideals
πs ∈ M, gcd p s , π s = and gcd q s , π s = . Notice that, in particular, if
M = Specm s then M s = s and if M = ∅ then M s = s , the field of rational functions.

Moreover, if s ∈ s is a non-constant polynomial whose prime factorization,

d dm
s =k s ⋯ m s , satisfies the condition that i s ∈ M for all i, we will say that s
factorizes in M or s has all its zeros in M . We will consider that the only polynomials that
factorize in M = ∅ are the constants. We say that a non-zero rational function factorizes in
M if both its numerator and denominator factorize in M . In this case we will say that the
ps
rational function has all its zeros and poles in M . Similarly, we will say that qs has no
poles in M if p s ≠ and gcd q s , π s = for all ideals π s ∈ M . “nd it has no zeros in
ps
M if gcd p s , π s = for all ideals π s ∈ M . In other words, it is equivalent that qs
ps
has no poles and no zeros in M and that qs is a unit of M s . So, a non-zero rational func‐
tion factorizes in M if and only if it is a unit in Specm s ∖M s .

m×m
Let M s denote the set of m × m matrices with elements in M s . “ matrix is invertible in
m×m
M s if all its elements are in M s and its determinant is a unit in M s . We denote by
m×m
Glm M s the group of units of M s .

Remark

Let M , M ⊆ Specm s . Notice that

. If M ⊆ M then M s ⊇ M s and Glm M s ⊇ Glm M s .

.M ∪M s = M s ∩ M s and Glm M ∪M s = Glm M s ∩ Glm M s .

For any M ⊆ Specm s the ring M s is a principal ideal domain see [ ] and its field of
m×m
fractions is s . Two matrices T s , T s ∈ s are equivalent with respect to M if there
exist matrices U s , V s ∈ Glm M s such that T s = U s T s V s . Since M s is a princi‐
m×m
pal ideal domain, for all non-singular G s ∈ M s see [ ] there exist matrices
U s , V s ∈ Glm M s such that

G s = U s Diag s , ..., m s V s id
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 5
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

with s ∣ ⋯ ∣ m s ∣ € stands for divisibility monic polynomials factorizing in M ,

unique up to multiplication by units of M s . The diagonal matrix is the Smith normal form
of G s with respect to M and s , ..., m s are called the invariant factors of G s with re‐
spect to M . Now we introduce the Smith–McMillan form with respect to M . “ssume that
m×m G s m×m
T s ∈ s is a non-singular rational matrix. Then T s = d s with G s ∈ M s and
d s ∈ s monic, factorizing in M . Let G s = U s Diag s , ..., m s V s be the Smith
m×m
normal form with respect to M of G s , i.e., U s , V s invertible in M s and
s ∣ ⋯ ∣ m s monic polynomials factorizing in M . Then

s m s
T s = U s Diag , ..., V s id
ψ s ψm s

i s
where ψi s are irreducible rational functions, which are the result of dividing i s by d s
and canceling the common factors. They satisfy that s ∣ ⋯ ∣ m s , ψm s ∣ ⋯ ∣ ψ s are
monic polynomials factorizing in M . The diagonal matrix in ▭ is the Smith–McMillan
i s
form with respect to M . The rational functions ψi s , i = , ..., m, are called the invariant ra‐
tional functions of T s with respect to M and constitute a complete system of invariants of
the equivalence with respect to M for rational matrices.

In particular, if M = Specm s then Specm s

s = s , the matrices U s , V s ∈ Glm s are
unimodular matrices, ▭ is the global Smith–McMillan form of a rational matrix see [ ] or
i s
[ ] when = ℝ or ℂ and ψi s are the global invariant rational functions of T s .

From now on rational matrices will be assumed to be non-singular unless the opposite is
specified. Given any M ⊆ Specm s we say that an m × m non-singular rational matrix has
no zeros and no poles in M if its global invariant rational functions are units of M s . If its
global invariant rational functions factorize in M , the matrix has its global finite structure
localized in M and we say that the matrix has all zeros and poles in M . The former means
that T s ∈ Glm M s and the latter that T s ∈ Glm Specm s ∖M s because
s ⋯ms
det T s = det U s det V s ψ s ⋯ ψm s and det U s , det V s are non-zero constants. The
following result clarifies the relationship between the global finite structure of any rational
matrix and its local structure with respect to any M ⊆ Specm s .
s s
m×m m
Proposition Let M ⊆ Specm s . Let T s ∈ s be non-singular with s , ..., m s its
s m s
global invariant rational functions and let ψ s , ..., ψm s be irreducible rational functions
such that s ∣ ⋯ ∣ m s , ψm s ∣ ⋯ ∣ ψ s are monic polynomials factorizing in M . The fol‐
lowing properties are equivalent
6 Linear Algebra

• There exist T s , T s ∈ s m×m

such that the global invariant rational functions of T L s
L R
s m s
are ψ s , ..., ψm s , T R s ∈ Glm M s and T s = T L s T R s .

• There exist matrices U s , U s invertible in M s m×m

such that

s m s
T s = U s Diag , ..., U s, id
ψ s ψm s

s m s
i.e., ψ s , ..., ψm s are the invariant rational functions of T s with respect to M .

• s =i s
'
s and
'
s = ψi s ψi' s with i s , ψi' s ∈ s units of M s , for i = , ..., m.
i i i

s m s
Proof.- ⇒ . Since the global invariant rational functions of T L s are ψ s , ..., ψm s ,
s m s
there exist W s , W s ∈ Glm s such that T L s = W s Diag ψ s , ..., ψm s W s . “s

Specm s
s = s , by Remark ▭. , W s , W s ∈ Glm M s . Therefore, putting U s = W s
m×m
and U s = W s T R s it follows that U s and U s are invertible in M s and
s m s
T s = U s Diag ψ s , ..., ψm s U s.

m×m
⇒ . There exist unimodular matrices V s , V s ∈ s such that

s m s
T s = V s Diag , ..., V s id
s m s

i s
with i s irreducible rational functions such that s ∣ ⋯ ∣ m s and m s ∣ ⋯ ∣ s are
s pi s pi ' s
such that pi s , qi s factorize in M and pi' s , qi' s
i
monic polynomials. Write i s = qi s qi ' s

factorize in Specm s ∖ M . Then

p s pm s p' s pm' s
T s = V s Diag , ..., Diag ' , ..., ' V s id
q s qm s q s qm s

p' s pm' s
m×m
with V s and Diag q' s
, ..., qm' s
V s invertible in M s . Since the Smith–McMillan
pi s i s
form with respect to M is unique we get that qi s = ψi s .

⇒ . Write ▭ as
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 7
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

' '
s m s s m s
T s = V s Diag , ..., Diag ' , ..., ' V s. id
ψ s ψm s ψ s ψm s

s m s
It follows that T s = T L s T R s with T L s = V s Diag ψ s , ..., ψm s and T R s =
' '
s m s
Diag ψ s ' , ..., ψm' s
V s ∈ Glm M s .

m×m
Corollary Let T s ∈ s be non-singular and M , M ⊆ Specm s such that
i i
s m s
M ∩ M = ∅. If ψi s
, ..., ψmi s
are the invariant rational functions of T s with respect to
s s m s m s
M i , i = , , then ψ s ψ s
, ..., ψm s ψm s
are the invariant rational functions of T s with re‐
spect to M ∪ M .
s m s
. Proof.- Let s , ..., m s be the global invariant rational functions of T s . ”y Proposi‐

tion ▭, i s = i s ni s , i s = ψi s di s , with ni s , di s ∈ s units of M s . On the other

hand i s = i s ni s , i s = ψi s di s , with ni s , di s ∈ s units of M s . So,
i s ni s i s ni s
i s ni s = i s ni s or equivalently ni s = , ni s = . The polynomials
i s i s

i s, i s are coprime because i s factorizes in M , i s factorizes in M and M ∩ M = ∅.

In consequence i s ∣ ni s and i s ∣ ni s . Therefore, there exist polynomials a s , unit of

M s, and a' s , unit of M s, such that ni s = i s a s , ni s = i s a ' s . Since

i s = i s ni s = i s i s a ' s and i s = i s ni s = i s i s a s . This implies that a s = a ' s

unit of M s ∩M s =M ∪M s. Following the same ideas we can prove that
s s m s m s
i s = ψi s ψi s b s with b s a unit of M ∪M s . ”y Proposition ▭ ψ s ψ s
, ..., ψm s ψm s
are
the invariant rational functions of T s with respect to M ∪ M .

Corollary Let M , M ⊆ Specm s . Two non-singular matrices are equivalent with re‐
spect to M ∪ M if and only if they are equivalent with respect to M and with respect to
M .
m×m
Proof.- Notice that by Remark ▭. two matrices T s , T s ∈ s are equivalent with re‐
m×m m×m
spect to M ∪ M if and only if there exist U s , U s invertible in M s ∩M s such
m×m
that T s = U s T s U s . Since U s and U s are invertible in both M s and
m×m
M s then T s and T s are equivalent with respect to M and with respect to M .

Conversely, if T s and T s are equivalent with respect to M and with respect to M then,
by the necessity of this result, they are equivalent with respect to M ∖ M ∩ M , with re‐
8 Linear Algebra

s s
∖ M ∩ M and with respect to M ∩ M . Let
m
spect to M ψ s
, ..., ψm s
be the invariant ra‐
s s
∖ M ∩M ,
m
tional functions of T s and T s with respect to M ψ s
, ..., ψm s
be the
invariant rational functions of T s and T s with respect to M ∖ M ∩M and
s m s
ψ s
, ..., ψm s
be the invariant rational functions of T s and T s with respect to M ∩ M .
s s s m s m s m s
”y Corollary ▭ ψ s ψ s ψ s
, ..., ψm s ψm s ψm s
must be the invariant rational functions of
T s and T s with respect to M ∪ M . Therefore, T s and T s are equivalent with re‐
spect to M ∪ M .

Let pr s be the ring of proper rational functions, that is, rational functions with the degree of
the numerator at most the degree of the denominator. The units in this ring are the rational
functions whose numerators and denominators have the same degree. They are called bipr‐
m×m
oper rational functions. “ matrix B s ∈ pr s is said to be biproper if it is a unit in
m×m
pr s or, what is the same, if its determinant is a biproper rational function.

Recall that a rational function t s has a pole zero at ∞ if t s has a pole zero at . Follow‐
ing this idea, we can define the local ring at ∞ as the set of rational functions, t s , such that
t s does not have as a pole, that is, ∞ {
s = t s ∈ s t s
}
∈ s s . If t s =
ps
qs with
p s = at s t + at + s t + + ⋯ + ap s p , ap ≠ , q s = br s r + br + s r + + ⋯ + bq s q , bq ≠ ,
p = d p s , q = d q s , where d · stands for degree of€, then

at at + ap
+ + ⋯ +
st s t+ sp at s p-t + at + s p-t - + ⋯ + ap f s q- p
t = = s q- p = s . id
s br br + bq q-r
br s + br + s q-r -
+ ⋯ + bq g s
+ + ⋯ + q
sr s r+ s

“s s s = { gf ss sd f ≠ ,g ≠ and d ≥ }∪{ }, then

∞ s = { qp ss ∈ s d qs ≥d p s }. id

Thus, this set is the ring of proper rational functions, pr s.

m×m
Two rational matrices T s , T s ∈ s are equivalent at infinity if there exist biproper
matrices B s , B s ∈ Glm pr s such that T s = B s T s B s . Given a non-singular ra‐
m×m
tional matrix T s ∈ s see [ ] there always exist B s , B s ∈ Glm pr s such that
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 9
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

q qm
T s = B s Diag s , ..., s B s id

where q ≥ ⋯ ≥ qm are integers. They are called the invariant orders of T s at infinity and
q qm
the rational functions s , ..., s are called the invariant rational functions of T s at infinity.
.

. Structure of the ring of proper rational functions with prescribed finite

poles

Let M ' ⊆ Specm s . “ny non-zero rational function t s can be uniquely written as
n s n' s ns n' s
t s = d s d's where d s is an irreducible rational function factorizing in M ' and d's
is a
unit of M ' s . Define the following function over s ∖ { } see [ ], [ ]

s ∖{ } → ℤ
id
t s ↦ d d ' s - d n' s .

This mapping is not a discrete valuation of s if M ' ≠ ∅ Given two non-zero elements
t s , t s ∈ s it is clear that t s t s = t s + t s but it may not satisfy that
t s +t s ≥ min t s , t s . For example, let
s+ . s+ .
M ' = { s - a ∈ Specm ℝ s a∉ - , - }. Put t s = s+ . and t s = s+ . . We have that
t s =d s+ . -d = , t s =d s+ . -d = but t s +t s = = .
ns
However, if M ' = ∅ and t s = d s ∈ s where n s , d s ∈ s , d s ≠ , the map

∞ s → ℤ ∪ { + ∞} id

defined via ∞ t s = d d s - d n s if t s ≠ and ∞ t s = + ∞ if t s = is a discrete valu‐

ation of s .

Consider the subset of s , M ' s ∩ pr s , consisting of all proper rational functions with poles
in Specm s ∖ M , that is, the elements of M ' s ∩
'
pr s are proper rational functions whose
denominators are coprime with all the polynomials π s such that π s ∈ M '. Notice that
n' s
g s ∈M's ∩ pr s if and only if g s = n s d's
where

(a)(b)(c)
• n s ∈ s is a polynomial factorizing in M ',
10 Linear Algebra

• n' s
d's
is an irreducible rational function and a unit of M ' s ,

• g s -d n s ≥ or equivalently ∞ g s ≥ .

n' s
In particular c implies that d's
∈ pr s . The units in M ' s ∩ pr s are biproper rational
n' s
functions d's
, that is d n ' s = d d ' s , with n ' s , d ' s factorizing in Specm s ∖ M '. Fur‐
thermore, M ' s ∩ pr s is an integral domain whose field of fractions is s provided that
M ' ≠ Specm s see, for example, Prop. . [ ] . Notice that for M ' = Specm s ,
M ' s ∩ pr s = s ∩ pr s = .

“ssume that there are ideals in Specm s ∖ M ' generated by linear polynomials and let
s - a be any of them. The elements of M ' s ∩ pr s can be written as g s = n s u s s-a d

where n s ∈ s factorizes in M ', u s is a unit in M ' s ∩ pr s and d = g s ≥ d n s . If is

algebraically closed, for example = ℂ, and M ' ≠ Specm s the previous condition is always
fulfilled.
The divisibility in M ' s ∩ pr s is characterized in the following lemma.

n' s
Lemma Let M ' ⊆ Specm s . Let g s , g s ∈ M ' s ∩ pr s be such that g s = n s d's
n' s n' s n' s
and g s = n s d's
with n s , n s ∈ s factorizing in M ' and d's
, d's
irreducible ra‐
tional functions, units of M ' s . Then g s divides g s in M ' s ∩ pr s if and only if

n s ∣ n s in s id

g s -d n s ≤ g s -d n s . id

n' s
Proof.- If g s ∣ g s then there exists g s = n s d's
∈M's ∩ pr s , with n s ∈ s factoriz‐
ing in M ' and n ' s , d ' s ∈ s coprime, factorizing in Specm s ∖ M ', such that
n' s n' s n' s n' s n' s
g s =g s g s. Equivalently, n s d s ' =n s '
d s
n s '
d s
=n s n s d's d's
. So
n s = n s n s and g s -d n s = g s -d n s + g s - d n s . Moreover, as g s
is a proper rational function, g s -d n s ≥ and g s -d n s ≥ g s -d n s .

Conversely, if n s ∣ n s then there is n s ∈ s , factorizing in M ', such that

n' s n' s
n s = n s n s . Write g s = n s d s ' where d's
is an irreducible fraction representation of
n' s d ' s n' s n' s d ' s n' s n' s n' s
'
d s n s ' , i.e., '
d s
= '
d s n s' after canceling possible common factors. Thus '
d s
= d s d's
'

and
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 11
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

g s -d n s = d d ' s - d n' s - d n s
= d d ' s + d n' s - d n' s - d d ' s - d n s + d n s id
= g s -d n s - g s -d n s ≥ .

Then g s ∈ M ' s ∩ pr s and g s = g s g s .

Notice that condition ▭ means that g s ∣ g s in M ' s and condition ▭ means that
g s ∣ g s in pr s . So, g s ∣ g s in M ' s ∩ pr s if and only if g s ∣ g s simultaneously
in M ' s and pr s.

n' s
Lemma Let M ' ⊆ Specm s . Let g s , g s ∈ M ' s ∩ pr s be such that g s = n s d's
n' s
and g s = n s d's
as in Lemma ▭. If n s and n s are coprime in s and either
g s = d n s or g s = d n s then g s and g s are coprime in M ' s ∩ pr s.

Proof.- Suppose that g s and g s are not coprime. Then there exists a non-unit
'
n s
g s =n s d's
∈M's ∩ pr s such that g s ∣ g s and g s ∣ g s . “s g s is not a unit, n s
is not a constant or g s > . If n s is not a constant then n s ∣ n s and n s ∣ n s which
is impossible because n s and n s are coprime. Otherwise, if n s is a constant then
g s > and we have that g s ≤ g s -d n s and g s ≤ g s - d n s . ”ut
this is again impossible.

It follows from this Lemma that if g s , g s are coprime in both rings M ' s and pr s then
g s , g s are coprime in M ' s ∩ pr s . The following example shows that the converse is not
true in general.

Example Suppose that = ℝ and M ' = Specm ℝ s ∖ { s + }. It is not difficult to prove

s s
that g s = s +
and g s = s +
are coprime elements in ℝM ' s ∩ ℝ pr s . “ssume that
n' s
there exists a non-unit g s = n s d's
∈ ℝM ' s ∩ ℝ pr s such that g s ∣ g s and g s ∣ g s .
Then n s ∣ s , n s ∣ s and g s -d n s = . Since g s is not a unit, n s cannot be a con‐
stant. Hence, n s = cs, c ≠ , and g s = , but this is impossible because d ' s and n ' s are
powers of s + . Therefore g s and g s must be coprime. However n s = s and n s = s
are not coprime.

Now, we have the following property when there are ideals in Specm s ∖ M ',
M ' ⊆ Specm s , generated by linear polynomials.

Lemma Let M ' ⊆ Specm s . “ssume that there are ideals in Specm s ∖ M ' generated
by linear polynomials and let s - a be any of them. Let g s , g s ∈ M ' s ∩ pr s be such
12 Linear Algebra

that g s = n s u s d and g s = n s u s d . If g s and g s are coprime in

s-a s-a

M ' s ∩ pr s then n s and n s are coprime in s and either d = d n s or d = d n s .

Proof.- Suppose that n s and n s are not coprime in s . Then there exists a non-constant

n s ∈ s such that n s ∣ n s and n s ∣ n s . Let d = d n s . Then g s = n s s-a d is not a

unit in M ' s ∩ pr s and divides g s and g s because =d -d n s ≤d -d n s and
=d -d n s ≤ d - d n s . This is impossible, so n s and n s must be coprime.

Now suppose that d > d n s and d > d n s . Let d = min {d - d n s , d - d n s }. We

have that d > . Thus g s = s-a d is not a unit in M ' s ∩ pr s and divides g s and g s
because d ≤ d - d n s and d ≤ d - d n s . This is again impossible and either d = d n s
or d = d n s .

The above lemmas yield a characterization of coprimeness of elements in M ' s ∩ pr s when

M ' excludes at least one ideal generated by a linear polynomial.

Following the same steps as in p. [ ] and p. [ ] we get the following result.

Lemma Let M ' ⊆ Specm s and assume that there is at least an ideal in Specm s ∖M '
generated by a linear polynomial. Then M ' s ∩ pr s is a Euclidean domain.

The following examples show that if all ideals generated by polynomials of degree one are
in M ', the ring M ' s ∩ pr s may not be a ”ezout domain. Thus, it may not be a Euclidean
domain. Even more, it may not be a greatest common divisor domain.

Example Let =ℝ and M ' = Specm ℝ s ∖ { s + }. Let

s s
g s = s +
,g s = s +
∈ ℝM ' s ∩ ℝ pr s . We have seen, in the previous example, that
g s , g s are coprime. We show now that the ”ezout identity is not fulfilled, that is, there
are not a s , b s ∈ ℝM ' s ∩ ℝ pr s such that a s g s + b s g s = u s , with u s a unit in
ns
ℝM ' s ∩ ℝ pr s . Elements in ℝM ' s ∩ ℝ pr s are of the form d with n s relatively
s +

prime with s + and d ≥ d n s and the units in ℝM ' s ∩ ℝ pr s are non-zero constants.
ns n' s
We will see that there are not elements a s = d ,bs = d '
with n s and n ' s co‐
s + s +

prime with s + , d ≥ d n s and d ' ≥ d n ' s such that a s g s + b s g s = c, with c non-

ns s n' s s d+
zero constant. “ssume that d
s +
+ d ' s +
= c. We conclude that c s + or
s + s +
d '+
cs + is a multiple of s, which is impossible.
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 13
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Example Let =ℝ and M ' = Specm ℝ s ∖ { s + }. “ fraction

ns
g s = d ∈ ℝM ' s ∩ ℝ pr s if and only if d -d n s ≥ . Let
s +
s s s+
g s = ,g s = ∈ ℝM ' s ∩ ℝ pr s . ”y Lemma ▭
s + s +

• g s ∣ g s ⇔ n s ∣ s and ≤ d -d n s ≤ - =

• g s ∣g s ⇔n s ∣s s+ and ≤ d -d n s ≤ - = .

If n s ∣ s and n s ∣ s s + then n s = c or n s = cs with c a non-zero constant. Then

g s ∣ g s and g s ∣ g s if and only if n s = c and d ≤ or n s = cs and d ≤ . So, the list
of common divisors of g s and g s is

{c,
c
s +
,
c
s +
,
cs
s +
,
cs
s +
c∈,c≠ } . id

ns
If there would be a greatest common divisor, say d , then n s = cs because n s must be
s +
cs
a multiple of c and cs. Thus such a greatest common divisor should be either s +
or
cs c
, but does not divide neither of them because
s + s +

=
c
s +
- d c > max { cs
s +
- d cs ,
cs
s +
- d cs } = . id

Thus, g s and g s do not have greatest common divisor.

. . Smith–McMillan form

m×m m×m m×m m×m

“ matrix U s is invertible in M ' s ∩ pr s if U s ∈ M ' s ∩ pr s and its deter‐
minant is a unit in both rings, M ' s and pr s , i.e., U s ∈ Glm M ' s ∩ pr s if and only if
U s ∈ Glm M ' s ∩ Glm pr s .

m×m m×m
Two matrices G s , G s ∈ M ' s ∩ pr s are equivalent in M ' s ∩ pr s if there exist
m×m m×m
U s , U s invertible in M ' s ∩ pr s such that

G s =U s G s U s . id

If there are ideals in Specm s ∖ M ' generated by linear polynomials then M ' s ∩ pr s is an
Euclidean ring and any matrix with elements in M ' s ∩ pr s admits a Smith normal form
14 Linear Algebra

see [ ], [ ] or [ ] . ”earing in mind the characterization of divisibility in M ' s ∩ pr s giv‐

en in Lemma ▭ we have

Theorem Smith normal form in M ' s ∩ pr s Let M ' ⊆ Specm s . “ssume that there are
ideals in Specm s ∖ M ' generated by linear polynomials and let s - a be one of them. Let
m×m m×m
G s ∈M's ∩ pr s be non-singular. Then there exist U s , U s invertible in
m×m m×m
M ' s ∩ pr s such that

G s = U s Diag n s d , ..., nm s dm U s id
s-a s-a

with n s | ⋯ | nm s monic polynomials factorizing in M ' and d , ..., dm integers such that
≤d -d n s ≤ ⋯ ≤ dm - d nm s .

Under the hypothesis of the last theorem n s d , ..., nm s dm form a complete sys‐
s-a s-a

tem of invariants for the equivalence in M ' s ∩ pr s and are called the invariant rational
functions of G s in M ' s ∩ pr s . Notice that ≤ d ≤ ⋯ ≤ dm because ni s divides ni+ s .

Recall that the field of fractions of M ' s ∩ pr s is s when M ' ≠ Specm s . Thus we can talk
m×m
about equivalence of matrix rational functions. Two rational matrices T s , T s ∈ s
m×m m×m
are equivalent in M ' s ∩ pr s if there are U s , U s invertible in M ' s ∩ pr s such
that

T s =U s T s U s . id

When all ideals generated by linear polynomials are not in M ', each rational matrix admits a
reduction to Smith–McMillan form with respect to M ' s ∩ pr s.

Theorem Smith–McMillan form in M ' s ∩ pr s Let M ' ⊆ Specm s . “ssume that there
are ideals in Specm s ∖ M ' generated by linear polynomials and let s - a be any of them.
m×m
Let T s ∈ s be a non-singular matrix. Then there exist U s , U s invertible in
m×m m×m
M ' s ∩ pr s such that

s m s
n nm
s-a s-a
T s = U s Diag , ..., U s id
ψ s ψm s
d dm
s-a s-a
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 15
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

i s ψi s
with ni , di ∈M's ∩ pr s coprime for all i such that i s , ψi s are monic polyno‐
s-a s-a
s s ψi s ψi - s
mials factorizing in M ',
i i+
ni divides ni + for i = , ..., m - while di divides di -
s-a s-a s-a s-a
for i = , ..., m.

i s
n
s - a i
The elements ψi s of the diagonal matrix, satisfying the conditions of the previous theo‐
di
s - a

rem, constitute a complete system of invariant for the equivalence in M ' s ∩ pr s of rational
matrices. However, this system of invariants is not minimal. “ smaller one can be obtained
by substituting each pair of positive integers ni , di by its difference li = ni - di .

i s
Theorem Under the conditions of Theorem ▭, ψi s li with i s , ψi s monic and co‐
s-a

prime polynomials factorizing in M ', i s ∣ i+ s while ψi s ∣ ψi- s and l , ..., lm integers

such that l + d ψ s - d s ≤ ⋯ ≤ lm + d ψm s - d m s also constitute a complete system
of invariants for the equivalence in M ' s ∩ pr s.

i s
Proof.- We only have to show that from the system ψi s li , i = , ..., m, satisfying the
s-a
i s
n
s - a i
conditions of Theorem ▭, the system ψi s , i = , ..., n, can be constructed satisfying the
d
s - a i

conditions of Theorem ▭.

Suppose that i s , ψi s are monic and coprime polynomials factorizing in M ' such that
i s ∣ i+ s and ψi s ∣ ψi- s . “nd suppose also that l , ..., lm are integers such that
l +d ψ s -d s ≤ ⋯ ≤ lm + d ψm s - d m s . If li + d ψi s - d i s ≤ for all i, we define
non-negative integers ni = d i s and di = d i s - li for i = , ..., m. If li + d ψi s - d i s >
for all i, we define ni = li + d ψi s and di = d ψi s . Otherwise there is an index
k ∈ { , ..., m} such that

lk - + d ψk - s - d k- s ≤ < lk + d ψk s - d k s . id

Define now the non-negative integers ni , di as follows

ni = { d is
li + d ψi s
if i < k
if i ≥ k
di = {
d i s - li if i < k
d ψi s if i ≥ k
id

Notice that li = ni - di . Moreover,

16 Linear Algebra

ni - d i s = {
li + d ψi s - d i s
if i < k
if i ≥ k
id

di - d ψi s = { -li - d ψi s + d i s if i < k
if i ≥ k
id

and using ▭ , ▭

n -d s = ⋯ = nk - - d k- s = < nk - d k s ≤ ⋯ ≤ nm - d m s id

d -d ψ s ≥ ⋯ ≥ dk - - d ψk - s ≥ = dk - d ψk s = ⋯ = dm - d ψm s . id

i s ψi s
In any case ni and di are elements of M ' s ∩ pr s . Now, on the one hand i s , ψi s
s-a s-a
i s ψi s
are coprime and ni - d i s = or di - d ψi s = . This means Lemma ▭ that ni , di
s-a s-a
are coprime for all i. On the other hand i s ∣ i+ s and ≤ ni - d i s ≤ ni+ - d i+ s . Then
i s i+ s
Lemma ▭ ni divides ni + . Similarly, since ψi s ∣ ψi- s and
s-a s-a
ψi s ψi - s
≤ di - d ψi s ≤ di- - d ψi- s , it follows that di divides di - .
s-a s-a

i s
We call ψi s li , i = , ..., m, the invariant rational functions of T s in M ' s ∩ pr s.
s-a

There is a particular case worth considering If M ' = ∅ then ∅ s ∩ pr s = pr s and

s ∈ Specm s ∖ M ' = Specm s . In this case, we obtain the invariant rational functions of
T s at infinity recall ▭ .

. Wiener–Hopf equivalence

The left Wiener–Hopf equivalence of rational matrices with respect to a closed contour in
the complex plane has been extensively studied [ ] or [ ] . Now we present the generaliza‐
tion to arbitrary fields [ ] .

Definition Let M and M ' be subsets of Specm s such that M ∪ M ' = Specm s . Let
m×m
T s,T s ∈ s be two non-singular rational matrices with no zeros and no poles in
M ∩ M '. The matrices T s , T s are said to be left Wiener–Hopf equivalent with respect to
m×m m×m
M , M ' if there exist both U s invertible in M ' s ∩ pr s and U s invertible in
m×m
M s such that
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 17
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

T s =U s T s U s . id

This is, in fact, an equivalence relation as it is easily seen. It would be an equivalence rela‐
tion even if no condition about the union and intersection of M and M ' were imposed. It
will be seen later on that these conditions are natural assumptions for the existence of
unique diagonal representatives in each class.

The right Wiener–Hopf equivalence with respect to M , M ' is defined in a similar manner
m×m m×m m×m
There are invertible matrices U s in M ' s ∩ pr s and U s in M s such that

T s =U s T s U s . id

In the following only the left Wiener–Hopf equivalence will be considered, but, by transpo‐
sition, all results hold for the right Wiener–Hopf equivalence as well.

The aim of this section is to obtain a complete system of invariants for the Wiener–Hopf
equivalence with respect to M , M ' of rational matrices, and to obtain, if possible, a canoni‐
cal form.

There is a particular case that is worth-considering If M = Specm s and M ' = ∅, the in‐
m×m m×m
vertible matrices in ∅ s ∩ pr s are the biproper matrices and the invertible matrices
m×m
in Specm s
s are the unimodular matrices. In this case, the left Wiener–Hopf equiva‐
lence with respect to M , M ' = Specm s , ∅ is the so-called left Wiener–Hopf equiva‐
lence at infinity see [ ] . It is known that any non-singular rational matrix is left Wiener–
g gm
Hopf equivalent at infinity to a diagonal matrix Diag s , ..., s where g , ..., gm are inte‐
gers, that is, for any non-singular T s ∈ s m×m there exist both a biproper matrix
B s ∈ Glm pr s and a unimodular matrix U s ∈ Glm s such that

g gm
T s = B s Diag s , ..., s U s id

where g ≥ ⋯ ≥ gm are integers uniquely determined by T s . They are called the left Wie‐
ner–Hopf factorization indices at infinity and form a complete system of invariants for the
left Wiener–Hopf equivalence at infinity. These are the basic objects that will produce the
complete system of invariants for the left Wiener–Hopf equivalence with respect to M , M ' .

For polynomial matrices, their left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices at infinity are the col‐
umn degrees of any right equivalent by a unimodular matrix column proper matrix.
Namely, a polynomial matrix is column proper if it can be written as
g gm m×m
Pc Diag s , ..., s + L s with Pc ∈ non-singular, g , ..., gm non-negative integers and
L s a polynomial matrix such that the degree of the ith column of L s smaller than gi ,
m×m
≤ i ≤ m. Let P s ∈ s be non-singular polynomial. There exists a unimodular matrix
18 Linear Algebra

V s ∈ s m×m such that P s V s is column proper. The column degrees of P s V s are

uniquely determined by P s , although V s is not see [ ], p. [ ], [ ] . Since P s V s
is column proper, it can be written as P s V s = Pc D s + L s with Pc non-singular,
g gm
D s = Diag s , ..., s and the degree of the ith column of L s smaller than gi , ≤ i ≤ m.
- -
Then P s V s = Pc + L s D s D s . Put B s = Pc + L s D s . Since Pc is non-singular
-
and L s D s is a strictly proper matrix, B s is biproper, and P s = B s D s U s where
-
U s =V s .
The left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices at infinity can be used to associate a sequence of
integers with every non-singular rational matrix and every M ⊆ Specm s . This is done as
m×m
follows If T s ∈ s then it can always be written as T s = T L s T R s such that the
global invariant rational functions of T L s factorize in M and T R s ∈ Glm M s or, equiva‐
lently, the global invariant rational functions of T R s factorize in Specm s ∖ M see Propo‐
sition ▭ . There may be many factorizations of this type, but it turns out see Proposition
. [ ] for the polynomial case that the left factors in all of them are right equivalent. This
means that if T s = T L s T R s = T L s T R s with the global invariant rational functions
of T L s and T L s factorizing in M and the global invariant rational functions of T R s
and T R s factorizing in Specm s ∖ M then there is a unimodular matrix U s such that
TL s = TL s U s . In particular, T L s and T L s have the same left Wiener–Hopf fac‐
torization indices at infinity. Thus the following definition makes sense
m×m
Definition Let T s ∈ s be a non-singular rational matrix and M ⊆ Specm s . Let
m×m
TL s , TR s ∈ s such that

i)ii)iii)
• T s = TL s TR s ,

• the global invariant rational functions of T L s factorize in M , and

• the global invariant rational functions of T R s factorize in Specm s ∖ M .

Then the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices of T s with respect to M are defined to be
the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices of T L s at infinity.

In the particular case that M = Specm s , we can put T L s = T s and T R s = I m. There‐

fore, the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices of T s with respect to Specm s are the left
Wiener–Hopf factorization indices of T s at infinity.

We prove now that the left Wiener–Hopf equivalence with respect to M , M ' can be charac‐
terized through the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with respect to M .

Theorem Let M , M ' ⊆ Specm s be such that M ∪ M ' = Specm s . Let T s ,

m×m
T s ∈ s be two non-singular rational matrices with no zeros and no poles in M ∩ M '.
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 19
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

The matrices T s and T s are left Wiener–Hopf equivalent with respect to M , M ' if and
only if T s and T s have the same left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with respect to
M.
Proof.- ”y Proposition ▭ we can write T s = T L s TR s , T s = TL s T R s with the
global invariant rational functions of T L s and of T L s factorizing in M ∖ M ' recall that
T s and T s have no zeros and no poles in M ∩ M ' and the global invariant rational
functions of T R s and of T R s factorizing in M ' ∖ M .

“ssume that T s , T s have the same left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with respect
to M . ”y definition, T s and T s have the same left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices
with respect to M if T L s and T L s have the same left Wiener–Hopf factorization indi‐
ces at infinity. This means that there exist matrices B s ∈ Glm pr s and U s ∈ Glm s
such that TL s = B s TL sU s. We have that
-
T s = TL s TR s = B s TL s U s TR s = B s T s TR s U s TR s . We aim to
- - m×m
prove that B s = TL sU s TL s is invertible in M ' s and
-
TR s U s T R s ∈ Glm M s . Since the global invariant rational functions of T L s and
TL s factorize in M ∖M , TL s , TL s ∈ M ' s
' m×m
and B s ∈ M ' s m×m
. Moreover,
m×m -
det B s is a unit in M ' s as desired. Now, T R s U s T R s ∈ Glm M s because
TR s , TR s ∈ M s m×m
and det T R s and det T R s factorize in M ' ∖ M . Therefore T s
and T s are left Wiener–Hopf equivalent with respect to M , M ' .

Conversely, let U s ∈ Glm M ' s ∩ Glm pr s and U s ∈ Glm M s such that

T s =U s T s U s . Hence, T s = TL s TR s = U s TL s TR s U s . Put
T̄ L s = U s TL s and T̄ R s = T R s U s . Therefore,

(i)(ii)(iii)
• T s = TL s T R s = T̄ L s T̄ R s ,

• the global invariant rational functions of T L s and of T̄ L s factorize in M , and

• the global invariant rational functions of T R s and of T̄ R s factorize in Specm s ∖ M .

Then T L s and T̄ L s are right equivalent see the remark previous to Definition ▭ . So,
there exists U s ∈ Glm s such that T L s = T̄ L s U s . Thus, T L s = U s TL sU s.
Since U s is biproper and U s is unimodular T L s , TL s have the same left Wiener–
Hopf factorization indices at infinity. Consequentially, T s and T s have the same left
Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with respect to M .

In conclusion, for non-singular rational matrices with no zeros and no poles in M ∩ M ' the
left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with respect to M form a complete system of invari‐
20 Linear Algebra

ants for the left Wiener–Hopf equivalence with respect to M, M ' with
'
M ∪ M = Specm s .
“ straightforward consequence of the above theorem is the following Corollary

Corollary Let M , M ' ⊆ Specm s be such that M ∪ M ' = Specm s . Let T s ,

m×m
T s ∈ s be non-singular with no zeros and no poles in M ∩ M '. Then T s and T s
are left Wiener–Hopf equivalent with respect to M , M ' if and only if for any factorizations
T s = T L s T R s and T s = T L s T R s satisfying the conditions i – iii of Definition
▭, T L s and T L s are left Wiener–Hopf equivalent at infinity.

Next we deal with the problem of factorizing or reducing a rational matrix to diagonal form
by Wiener–Hopf equivalence. It will be shown that if there exists in M an ideal generated by
a monic irreducible polynomial of degree equal to which is not in M ', then any non-singu‐
lar rational matrix, with no zeros and no poles in M ∩ M ' admits a factorization with respect
to M , M ' . “fterwards, some examples will be given in which these conditions on M and
M ' are removed and factorization fails to exist.

Theorem Let M , M ' ⊆ Specm s be such that M ∪ M ' = Specm s . “ssume that there
are ideals in M ∖ M ' generated by linear polynomials. Let s - a be any of them and
m×m
T s ∈ s a non-singular matrix with no zeros and no poles in M ∩ M '. There exist both
m×m m×m m×m
U s invertible in M ' s ∩ pr s and U s invertible in M s such that

k km
T s = U s Diag s - a , ..., s - a U s, id

where k ≥ ⋯ ≥ km are integers uniquely determined by T s . Moreover, they are the left
Wiener–Hopf factorization indices of T s with respect to M .
Proof.- The matrix T s can be written see Proposition ▭ as T s = T L s T R s with the
∖ M ' and the global invariant
global invariant rational functions of T L s factorizing in M
rational functions of T R s factorizing in Specm s ∖ M = M ' ∖ M . “s k , ..., km are the left
Wiener–Hopf factorization indices of T L s at infinity, there exist matrices U s ∈ Glm s
k km
and B s ∈ Glm pr s such that T L s = B s D s U s with D s = Diag s , ..., s . Put
k km
k km s s
D s = Diag s - a , ..., s - a and U s = B s Diag k , ..., km . Then
s-a s-a
m×m
T L s = U s D s U s . If U s = U s T R s then this matrix is invertible in M s and
k km
T s = U s Diag s - a , ..., s - a U s . We only have to prove that U s is invertible in
m×m m×m m×m
M ' s ∩ pr s . It is clear that U s is in pr s and biproper. Moreover, the global in‐
variant rational functions of T L s U s = T L s D s U s -
factorize in M ∖ M '. Therefore,
m×m
U s is invertible in M ' s .
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 21
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

We prove now the uniqueness of the factorization. “ssume that T s also factorizes as

k̃ k̃ m
T s = Ũ s Diag s - a , ..., s - a Ũ s , id

with k̃ ≥ ⋯ ≥ k̃ m integers. Then,

k̃ k̃ m - k km -
Diag s - a , ..., s - a = Ũ s U s Diag s - a , ..., s - a U s Ũ s . id

The diagonal matrices have no zeros and no poles in M ∩ M ' because s - a ∈ M ∖ M ' and
they are left Wiener–Hopf equivalent with respect to M , M ' . ”y Theorem ▭, they have the
same left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with respect to M . Thus, k̃ i = ki for all
i = , ..., m.

Following [ ] we could call left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with respect to M , M '
the exponents k ≥ ⋯ ≥ km appearing in the diagonal matrix of Theorem ▭. They are, actual‐
ly, the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with respect to M .
Several examples follow that exhibit some remarkable features about the results that have
been proved so far. The first two examples show that if no assumption is made on the inter‐
section and/or union of M and M ' then existence and/or uniqueness of diagonal factoriza‐
tion may fail to exist.
Example

If P s is a polynomial matrix with zeros in M ∩ M ' then the existence of invertible matrices
U s ∈ Glm M ' s ∩ Glm pr s and U s ∈ Glm M s such that
P s = U s Diag s - a , ..., s - a
k km
∖ M ' may fail. In fact, suppose
U s with s - a ∈ M
that M = { s , s + }, M ' = Specm s ∖ { s }. Therefore, M ∩ M ' = { s + } and s ∈ M ∖ M '.
Consider p s = s + . “ssume that s + = u s s k u s with u s a unit in M ' s ∩ pr s and
s+
u s a unit in M s . Thus, u s = c a nonzero constant and u s = c sk
which is not a unit in
M s.
Example

If M ∪ M ' ≠ Specm s then the factorization indices with respect to M , M ' may be not
unique. Suppose that s ∉ M ∪ M ', πs ∈M ∖M ' with d πs = and
k
p s = u s π s u s , with u s a unit in M ' s ∩ pr s and u s a unit in M s . Then p s can
d s
k -d s π s
also be factorized as p s = ũ s π s ũ s with ũ s = u s s a unit in
M ' s ∩ pr s and ũ s = s u s a unit in M s .

The following example shows that if all ideals generated by polynomials of degree equal to
one are in M ' ∖ M then a factorization as in Theorem ▭ may not exist.
22 Linear Algebra

Example Suppose that = ℝ. Consider M ={s + } ⊆ Specm ℝ s and

M ' = Specm ℝ s ∖ { s + }. Let

s
P s = . id
-s s +

Notice that P s has no zeros and no poles in M ∩ M ' = ∅. We will see that it is not possible
× × ×
to find invertible matrices U s ∈ ℝM ' s ∩ ℝ pr s and U s ∈ ℝM s such that

c c
U s P s U s = Diag p s / q s , p s /q s . id

ps a
We can write qs =u s s + with u s a unit in ℝM s and a ∈ ℤ. Therefore,

c c ac ac c c
Diag p s / q s , p s /q s = Diag s + , s + Diag u s , u s . id

c c ×
Diag u s , u s is invertible in ℝM s and P s is also left Wiener–Hopf equivalent with
ac ac
respect to M , M ' to the diagonal matrix Diag s + , s + .

× ×
“ssume that there exist invertible matrices U s ∈ ℝM ' s ∩ ℝ pr s and
× d d
U s ∈ ℝM s such that U s P s U s = Diag s + , s + , with d ≥ d integers.

Notice first that det U s is a nonzero constant and since det P s = s s + and det U s
is a rational function with numerator and denominator relatively prime with s + , it fol‐
d +d
lows that cs s + det U s = s + . Thus, d + d = . Let

b s b s u s u s
- id
U s = , U s = .
b s b s u s u s

- d d
From P s U s = U s Diag s + , s + we get

d
su s =b s s + , id

d
-s u s + s + u s =b s s + , id

d
su s =b s s + , id
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 23
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

d
-s u s + s + u s =b s s + . id

f s h s
“s u s ∈ ℝM s and b s ∈ ℝM ' s ∩ ℝ pr s , we can write u s = g s and b s = q
s +

with f s , g s , h s ∈ ℝ s , gcd g s , s + = and d h s ≤ q . Therefore, by ▭ ,

f s h s d f s
s g s = q s + . Hence, u s = f s or u s = s . In the same way and using ▭ ,
s +
f s
u s = f s or u s = s with f s a polynomial. Moreover, by ▭ , d must be non-neg‐
ative. Hence, d ≥ d ≥ . Using now ▭ and ▭ and bearing in mind again that
u s,u s ∈ ℝM s and b s , b s ∈ ℝM ' s ∩ ℝ pr s , we conclude that u s and u s
are polynomials.

We can distinguish two cases d = , d = and d = d = . If d = and d = , by ▭ , b s is

c
a polynomial and since b s is proper, it is constant b s = c . Thus u s = s . ”y ▭ ,
b s = -c s+ s + u s . Since u s is polynomial and b s is proper, b s is also con‐
stant and then u s = and c = . Consequentially, b s = , and b s = . This is impossi‐
ble because U s is invertible.

If d = d = then , using ▭ ,

b s
b s -s u s + s + u s -s s + + s + u s
= s
=
s + s +
h s
-sb s + s + u s = -s id
= q + s + u s
s +
q+
-sh s + s + u s
= .
q
s +

q+
Notice that d - sh s ≤ + q and d s + u s = q + +d u s ≥ q + unless
q+
u s = . Hence, if u s ≠ , d - sh s + s + u s ≥ q + which is greater than
q
d s + = q . This cannot happen because b s is proper. Thus, u s = . In the same
way and reasoning with ▭ we get that u s is also zero. This is again impossible because
U s is invertible. Therefore no left Wiener–Hopf factorization of P s with respect to
M , M ' exits.

We end this section with an example where the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices of the
matrix polynomial in the previous example are computed. Then an ideal generated by a pol‐
24 Linear Algebra

ynomial of degree is added to M and the Wiener–Hopf factorization indices of the same
matrix are obtained in two different cases.

Example Let = ℝ and M = { s + }. Consider the matrix

s
P s = , id
-s s +

which has a zero at . It can be written as P s = P s P s with

s
P s = , P s = , id
-s s +

where the global invariant factors of P s are powers of s + and the global invariant fac‐
tors of P s are relatively prime with s + . Moreover, the left Wiener–Hopf factorization
indices of P s at infinity are , add the first column multiplied by s + s to the second
column the result is a column proper matrix with column degrees and . Therefore, the
left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices of P s with respect to M are , .

Consider now M̃ = { s + , s } and M̃ ' = Specm ℝ s ∖ M̃ . There is a unimodular matrix

s + s s + s
×
U s = , invertible in ℝM̃ s , such that P s U s = is column proper
-s
with column degrees and . We can write

s s s s
P sU s = + =Bs , id
- s s

where B s is the following biproper matrix

s +
- s
s s s s
Bs = + = . id
- s-
-
s

s +
Moreover, the denominators of its entries are powers of s and det B s = s
. Therefore,
× × -
B s is invertible in ℝM̃ ' s ∩ ℝ pr s . Since B s P s U s = Diag s , s , the left Wiener–
Hopf factorization indices of P s with respect to M̃ are , .

If M̃ = { s + , s - }, for example, a similar procedure shows that P s has , as left Wie‐

ner–Hopf factorization indices with respect to M̃ the same indices as with respect to M . The
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 25
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

reason is that s - is not a divisor of det P s and so P s = P s P s with P s and P s as

in ▭ and P s factorizing in M̃ .

Remark It must be noticed that a procedure has been given to compute, at least theoreti‐
cally, the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices of any rational matrix with respect to any
subset M of Specm s . In fact, given a rational matrix T s and M , write T s = T L s T R s
with the global invariant rational functions of T L s factorizing in M , and the global invari‐
ant rational functions of T R s factorizing in Specm s ∖ M for example, using the global
Smith–McMillan form of T s . We need to compute the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indi‐
ces at infinity of the rational matrix T L s . The idea is as follows Let d s be the monic least
common denominator of all the elements of T L s . The matrix T L s can be written as
P s
TL s = d s , with P s polynomial. The left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices of P s at in‐
finity are the column degrees of any column proper matrix right equivalent to P s . If
k , ..., km are the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices at infinity of P s then
k + d , ..., km + d are the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices of T L s , where d = d d s
see [ ] . Free and commercial software exists that compute such column degrees.

. Rosenbrock's Theorem via local rings

“s said in the Introduction, Rosenbrock's Theorem [ ] on pole assignment by state feed‐

back provides, in its polynomial formulation, a complete characterization of the relationship
between the invariant factors and the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices at infinity of
any non-singular matrix polynomial. The precise statement of this result is the following
theorem

Theorem Let g ≥ ⋯ ≥ gm and s ∣ ⋯ ∣ m s be non-negative integers and monic pol‐

ynomials, respectively. Then there exists a non-singular matrix P s ∈ s m×m with
s , ..., m s as invariant factors and g , ..., gm as left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices at
infinity if and only if the following relation holds

g , ..., gm ≺ d m s , ..., d s . id

Symbol ≺ appearing in ▭ is the majorization symbol see [ ] and it is defined as fol‐

lows If a , ..., am and b , ..., bm are two finite sequences of real numbers and
a ≥ ⋯ ≥a and b ≥ ⋯ ≥b are the given sequences arranged in non-increasing or‐
m m
der then a , ..., am ≺ b , ..., bm if

j j
∑a ≤ ∑b , ≤ j ≤m- id
i= i i= i
26 Linear Algebra

with equality for j = m.

The above Theorem ▭ can be extended to cover rational matrix functions. “ny rational ma‐
N s
trix T s can be written as d s where d s is the monic least common denominator of all the
elements of T s and N s is polynomial. It turns out that the invariant rational functions of
T s are the invariant factors of N s divided by d s after canceling common factors. We al‐
so have the following characterization of the left Wiener– Hopf factorization indices at infin‐
ity of T s these are those of N s plus the degree of d s see [ ] . ”earing all this in mind
one can easily prove see [ ]
s m s
Theorem Let g ≥ ⋯ ≥ gm be integers and s , ..., m s irreducible rational functions,
where i s, i s ∈ s are monic such that s ∣ ⋯ ∣ m s while m s ∣ ⋯ ∣ s . Then
m×m
there exists a non-singular rational matrix T s ∈ s with g , ..., gm as left Wiener–Hopf
s m s
factorization indices at infinity and s , ..., m s as global invariant rational functions if
and only if

g , ..., gm ≺ d m s -d m s , ..., d s -d s . id

Recall that for M ⊆ Specm s any rational matrix T s can be factorized into two matrices
see Proposition ▭ such that the global invariant rational functions and the left Wiener–
Hopf factorization indices at infinity of the left factor of T s give the invariant rational func‐
tions and the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices of T s with respect to M . Using Theo‐
rem ▭ on the left factor of T s we get
s m s
Theorem Let M ⊆ Specm s . Let k ≥ ⋯ ≥ km be integers and ψ s , ..., ψm s be irreduci‐
ble rational functions such that s ∣ ⋯ ∣ m s , ψm s ∣ ⋯ ∣ ψ s are monic polynomials fac‐
m×m s m s
torizing in M . Then there exists a non-singular matrix T s ∈ s with ψ s , ..., ψm s as
invariant rational functions with respect to M and k , ..., km as left Wiener–Hopf factoriza‐
tion indices with respect to M if and only if

k , ..., km ≺ d m s - d ψm s , ..., d s -d ψ s . id

Theorem ▭ relates the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with respect to M and the fi‐
nite structure inside M . Our last result will relate the left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices
with respect to M and the structure outside M , including that at infinity. The next Theorem
is an extension of Rosenbrock's Theorem to the point at infinity, which was proved in [ ]
Theorem Let g ≥ ⋯ ≥ gm and q ≥ ⋯ ≥ qm be integers. Then there exists a non-singular
m×m
matrix T s ∈ s with g , ..., gm as left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices at infinity and
q qm
s , ..., s as invariant rational functions at infinity if and only if
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 27
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

g , ..., gm ≺ q , ..., qm . id

Notice that Theorem ▭ can be obtained from Theorem ▭ when M = Specm s . In the same
way, taking into account that the equivalence at infinity is a particular case of the equiva‐
lence in M ' s ∩ pr s when M ' = ∅, we can give a more general result than that of Theorem
▭. Specifically, necessary and sufficient conditions can be provided for the existence of a
non-singular rational matrix with prescribed left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with re‐
spect to M and invariant rational functions in M ' s ∩ pr s .

Theorem Let M , M ' ⊆ Specm s be such that M ∪ M ' = Specm s . “ssume that there
are ideals in M ∖ M ' generated by linear polynomials and let s - a be any of them. Let
s m s
k ≥ ⋯ ≥ km be integers, ψ s , ..., ψm s irreducible rational functions such that
s | ⋯ | m s , ψm s | ⋯ | ψ s are monic polynomials factorizing in M ' ∖ M and
l , ..., lm integers such that l + d ψ s - d s ≤ ⋯ ≤ lm + d ψm s - d m s . Then there ex‐
ists a non-singular matrix T s ∈ s m×m with no zeros and no poles in M ∩ M ' with
k , ..., km as left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with respect to M and
s m s
ψ s l , ..., ψm s lm as invariant rational functions in M ' s ∩ pr s if and only if the fol‐
s-a s-a
lowing condition holds

k , ..., km ≺ - l , ..., - lm . id

The proof of this theorem will be given along the following two subsections. We will use
several auxiliary results that will be stated and proved when needed.

. . Necessity

We can give the following result for rational matrices using a similar result given in Lemma
. in [ ] for matrix polynomials.
m×m
Lemma Let M , M ' ⊆ Specm s be such that M ∪ M ' = Specm s . Let T s ∈ s be
'
a non-singular matrix with no zeros and no poles in M ∩ M with g ≥ ⋯ ≥ gm as left Wie‐
ner–Hopf factorization indices at infinity and k ≥ ⋯ ≥ km as left Wiener–Hopf factorization
s m s
indices with respect to M . If ψ s , ..., ψm s are the invariant rational functions of T s with
respect to M ' then

g - k , ..., gm - km ≺ d m s - d ψm s , ..., d s -d ψ s . id

It must be pointed out that g - k , ..., gm - km may be an unordered m-tuple.

28 Linear Algebra

m×m
Proof.- ”y Proposition ▭ there exist unimodular matrices U s , V s ∈ s such that

s m s s m s
T s = U s Diag , ..., Diag , ..., V s id
s m s ψ s ψm s

with i s ∣ i+ s, i s ∣ i- s, i s ∣ i+ s , ψi s ∣ ψi- s , i s, i s units in M '

∖M s and

i s , ψi s factorizing in M ' ∖ M because T s has no poles and no zeros in M ∩ M '. Therefore

s m s
T s = T L s T R s , where T L s = U s Diag s , ..., m s has k , ..., km as left Wiener–
s m s s m s
Hopf factorization indices at infinity and T R s = Diag ψ s , ..., ψm s V s has ψ s , ..., ψm s

as global invariant rational functions. Let d s = s ψ s . Hence,

d s T s = U s Diag ¯ s , ..., ¯ m s Diag ¯ s , ..., ¯ m s V s id

s i s
with ¯ i s = and ¯ i s = factorizing in M ' ∖ M . Put
i

i s s units in M ∖M s
'
ψi s ψ s
P s =d s T s . Its left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices at infinity are
g + d d s , ..., gm + d d s Lemma . [ ]. The matrix
P s = U s Diag ¯ s , ..., ¯ m s = s T L s has k + d s , ..., km + d s as left Wie‐
ner–Hopf factorization indices at infinity. Now if P s = Diag ¯ s , ..., ¯ m s V s = ψ s T R s
then its invariant factors are ¯ s , ..., ¯ m s , P s = P s P s and, by Lemma . [ ],

g +d d s -k -d s , ..., gm + d d s - km - d s ≺ d ¯ m s , ..., d ¯ s . id

Therefore, ▭ follows.

5. . . Proof of Theorem : Necessity

s m s
If ψ s l , ..., ψm s lm are the invariant rational functions of T s in M ' s ∩ pr s then
s-a s-a
m×m m×m
there exist matrices U s , U s invertible in M ' s ∩ pr s such that

s m s
T s = U s Diag , ..., U s. id
ψ s s-a
l ψm s s-a
lm

-l
We analyze first the finite structure of T s with respect to M '. If D s = Diag s - a ,
-lm m×m
..., s - a ∈M's , we can write T s as follows
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 29
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

s m s
T s = U s Diag , ..., D sU s, id
ψ s ψm s

m×m s m s
with U s and D s U s invertible matrices in M ' s . Thus ψ s , ..., ψm s are the invari‐

ant rational functions of T s with respect to M '. Let g ≥ ⋯ ≥ gm be the left Wiener–Hopf
factorization indices of T s at infinity. ”y Lemma ▭ we have

g - k , ..., gm - km ≺ d m s - d ψm s , ..., d s -d ψ s . id

“s far as the structure of T s at infinity is concerned, let

s s l +d ψ s -d s
s s lm+d ψm s
m
-d m s
D s = Diag , ..., . id
ψ s s-a
l ψm s s-a
lm

Then D s ∈ Gl pr s and

-l -d ψ s +d s -lm-d ψm s +d s
T s = U s Diag s , ..., s m
D sU s id

m×m m×m
where U s ∈ pr s and D s U s ∈ pr s are biproper matrices. Therefore
-l -d ψ s +d s -lm-d ψm s +d s
s , ..., s m
are the invariant rational functions of T s at infinity. ”y
Theorem ▭

g , ..., gm ≺ - l - d ψ s + d s , ..., - lm - d ψm s + d m s . id

Let σ ∈ Σm the symmetric group of order m be a permutation such that

gσ - kσ ≥ ⋯ ≥ gσ m - kσ m and define ci = gσ i - kσ i , i = , ..., m. Using ▭ and ▭ we ob‐
tain

r r r m
∑ kj + ∑ d j s - d ψj s ≤ ∑ kj + ∑ cj
j= j= j= j=m-r+
r r r
≤ ∑ kj + ∑ gj - kj = ∑ gj id
j= j= j=
r r
≤ ∑ - lj + ∑ d j s - d ψj s
j= j=

for r = , ..., m - . When r = m the previous inequalities are all equalities and condition ▭
is satisfied.
30 Linear Algebra

s m s
Remark It has been seen in the above proof that if a matrix has ψ s l , ..., ψm s lm
s-a s-a
s m s
as invariant rational functions in M ' s ∩ pr s then ψ s , ..., ψm s are its invariant rational
-l -d ψ s +d s -lm-d ψm s +d s
functions with respect to M ' and s , ..., s m
are its invariant ration‐
al functions at infinity.

. . Sufficiency

Let a, b ∈ be arbitrary elements such that ab ≠ . Consider the changes of indeterminate

f s =a+ , f̃ s = b + id
s-b s-a

and notice that f f̃ s = f̃ f s = s. For s ∈ s , let s ∖ s denote the multiplicative

subset of s whose elements are coprime with s . For a, b ∈ as above define

ta,b s → s ∖ s-b
id
πs ↦ d π s d π s
s-b π a+ = s-b π f s .
s-b

d d-
In words, if π s = pd s - a + pd - s - a + ⋯ + p s - a + p pd ≠ then

d d-
ta,b π s = p s-b + p s-b + ⋯ + pd - s - b + pd . id

In general d ta,b π s ≤d π s with equality if and only if π s ∈ s ∖ s - a . This shows

that the restriction h a,b s ∖ s-a → s ∖ s - b of ta,b to s ∖ s - a is a bijection. In addition
-
h a,b is the restriction of tb,a to s ∖ s - b i.e.,

-
h a,b s ∖ s-b → s ∖ s-a
id
s ↦ d s d s
s-a b+ = s-a f̃ s
s-a

-
or h a,b = h b,a.

In what follows we will think of a, b as given elements of and the subindices of ta,b, h a,b and
- -
h a,b will be removed. The following are properties of h and h that can be easily proved.

Lemma Let π s , π s ∈ s ∖ s - a . The following properties hold

• h π sπ s =h π s h π s .
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 31
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

• If π s ∣ π s then h π s ∣h π s .

• If π s is an irreducible polynomial then h π s is an irreducible polynomial.

• If π s , π s are coprime polynomials then h π s , h π s are coprime polynomials.

“s a consequence the map

H Specm s ∖ { s - a } → Specm s ∖ { s - b }
id
πs ↦ h πs
p

with p = π a , is a bijection whose inverse is

H- Specm s ∖ { s - b } → Specm s ∖ { s - a }
-
id
s ↦ h s
a

where a = b. In particular, if M ' ⊆ Specm s ∖{ s - a } and

M̃ = Specm s ∖ M ' ∪ { s - a } i.e. the complementary subset of M ' in Specm s ∖ { s - a }
then

H M̃ = Specm s ∖ H M ' ∪ { s - b }. id

In what follows and for notational simplicity we will assume b = .

Lemma Let M ' ⊆ Specm s ∖ { s - a } where a ∈ is an arbitrary element of .

• If π s ∈ s factorizes in M ' then h π s factorizes in H M ' .

• If π s ∈ s is a unit of M ' s then t π s is a unit of H M ' s.

g gm
Proof.- . Let π s = cπ s ⋯ πm s with c ≠ constant, πi s ∈ M ' and gi ≥ . Then
g gm
h πs =c h π s ⋯ h πm s . ”y Lemma ▭ h πi s is an irreducible polynomial that
may not be monic . If ci is the leading coefficient of h πi s then ci h πi s is monic, irredu‐

cible and ci h πi s ∈ H M ' . Hence h π s factorizes in H M ' .

. If π s ∈ s is a unit of M ' s then it can be written as π s = s - a g π s where g ≥ and

π s is a unit of M '∪{ s-a } s . Therefore π s factorizes in Specm s ∖ M ' ∪ { s - a } . Since
t πs =h π s , it factorizes in recall that we are assuming b=
H Specm s ∖ M ' ∪ { s - a } = Specm s ∖ H M ' ∪ { s } . So, t π s is a unit of H M ' s.
32 Linear Algebra

Lemma Let a ∈ be an arbitrary element. Then

• If M ' ⊆ Specm s ∖ { s - a } and U s ∈ Gl ' s then U f s ∈ Glm ' s .
m M H M

• If U s ∈ Glm s-a s then U f s ∈ Glm pr s .

• If U s ∈ Glm pr s then U f s ∈ Glm s s .

• If s - a ∈ M ' ⊆ Specm s and U s ∈ Glm ' s then the matrix U f s ∈

M
Glm H M ∖{ s-a } s
' ∩ Glm pr s

ps
Proof.- Let qs with p s , q s ∈ s .

p f s sd ps
p f s d q s -d p s t ps d q s -d p s
= s = s . id
q f s sd qs
q f s t qs

ps
. “ssume that U s ∈ Glm M ' s and let qs be any element of U s . Therefore q s is a unit
of M ' s and, by Lemma ▭. , t q s is a unit of H M ' s . Moreover, s is also a unit of H M ' s.
p f s p̃ s
Hence, q f s ∈ H M' s . Furthermore, if det U s = q̃ s , it is a unit of M ' s and
p̃ f s
det U f s = q̃ f s is a unit of H M ' s.

ps
. If qs is any element of U s ∈ Glm s-a s then q s ∈ s ∖ s-a and so
d h qs = d q s . Since s - a may divide p s we have that d t p s ≤ d p s . Hence,
p f s t ps d q s -d p s
d h qs -d q s ≥d t p s -d p s and q f s = h qs s ∈ pr s . Moreover if
p̃ s
det U s = q̃ s then p̃ s , q̃ s ∈ s ∖ s - a , d h p̃ s = d p̃ s and d h q̃ s = d q̃ s .
h p̃ s
Thus, det U f s = h q̃ s sd q̃ s -d p̃ s
is a biproper rational function, i.e., a unit of pr s.
ps
. If U s ∈ Glm pr s and qs is any element of U s then d q s ≥ d p s . Since
p f s t ps
q f s = t qs sd q s -d p s
and t p s , t q s ∈ s ∖ s we obtain that U f s ∈s s m×m
. In
p̃ s
addition, if det U s = q̃ s , which is a unit of pr s , then d q̃ s = d p̃ s and since
t p̃ s
t p̃ s , t q̃ s ∈ s ∖ s we conclude that det U f s = t q̃ s is a unit of s s .

. It is a consequence of ., . and Remark ▭. .

m×m
Proposition Let M ⊆ Specm s and s - a ∈ M . If T s ∈ s is non-singular with
ni s gi i s
di s = s-a ψi s i s , ψi s ∈ s ∖ s-a as invariant rational functions with respect to M
T m×m h i s -gi +d ψi s -d s
then T f s ∈ s is a non-singular matrix with ci h ψi s s i
as invariant ra‐
m×m m×m i a
tional functions in H M ∖{ s-a } s ∩ pr s where ci = ψi a .
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 33
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

gi i s
Proof.- Since s - a ψ s are the invariant rational functions of T s with respect to M , there
are U s , U s ∈ Glm M s such that

g s gm m s
T s = U s Diag s - a , ..., s - a U s. id
ψ s ψm s

gi i f s h i s -gi +d ψi s -d s i a
Notice that f s - a ψi f s = h ψi s s i
. Let ci = ψi a , which is a non-zero con‐
stant, and put D = Diag c , ..., cm . Hence,

T T T
T f s =U f s DL s U f s id

with

h s -g +d ψ s -d s h ms -g +d ψm s -d s
L s = Diag s , ..., s m m
. id
c h ψ s cm h ψm s

T T
”y of Lemma ▭ matrices U f s , U f s ∈ Glm H M ∖{ s-a } s ∩ Glm pr s and the
Proposition follows.

Proposition Let M , M ' ⊆ Specm s such that M ∪ M ' = Specm s . “ssume that there
are ideals in M ∖ M ' generated by linear polynomials and let s - a be any of them. If
m×m
T s ∈ s is a non-singular rational matrix with no poles and no zeros in M ∩ M ' and
T m×m
k , ..., km as left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with respect to M then T f s ∈ s
is a non-singular rational matrix with no poles and no zeros in H M ∩ M ' and -km, ..., - k
as left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with respect to H M ' ∪ { s }.

m×m m×m
Proof.- ”y Theorem ▭ there are matrices U s invertible in M ' s ∩ pr s and U s
m×m k km
invertible in M s such that T s = U s Diag s - a , ..., s - a U s . ”y Lemma ▭
T m×m m×m T
U f s is invertible in H M ∖{ s-a } s ∩ pr s and U f s is invertible in
m×m m×m m×m
H M ' s ∩s s = H M ' ∪{ s } s . Moreover,

H M ∖ { s - a } ∪ H M ' ∪ { s } = Specm s and

H M ∖{ s - a } ∩ H M ' ∪ { s } = H M ∩ M ' . Thus,
T T -k -km T
T f s =U f s Diag s , ..., s U f s has no poles and no zeros in H M ∩ M '
and -km, ..., - k are its left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with respect to H M ' ∪ { s }.
34 Linear Algebra

5. . . Proof of Theorem : Sufficiency

s m s
Let k ≥ ⋯ ≥ km be integers, ψ s , ..., ψm s irreducible rational functions such that

s ∣ ⋯ ∣ m s , ψm s ∣ ⋯ ∣ ψ s are monic polynomials factorizing in M ' ∖ M and l , ..., lm

integers such that l + d ψ s - d s ≤ ⋯ ≤ lm + d ψm s - d m s and satisfying ▭ .

Since i s and ψi s are coprime polynomials that factorize in M ' ∖ M and s - a ∈ M ∖ M ',
h s l +d ψ s -d s h ms lm+d ψm s -d s
by Lemmas ▭ and ▭, h ψ s s , ..., h ψm s s m
are irreducible ration‐

al functions with numerators and denominators polynomials factorizing in H M ' ∪ { s }

actually, in H M ' ∖ M ∪ { s } and such that each numerator divides the next one and each
denominator divides the previous one.

m×m
”y ▭ and Theorem ▭ there is a matrix G s ∈ s with -km, ..., - k as left Wiener–Hopf
h s l +d ψ s -d s
factorization indices with respect to H M ' ∪ { s } and c h ψ s s , ...,
h ms lm+d ψm s -d s
cm h ψm s s m
as invariant rational functions with respect to H M ' ∪ { s } where
i a
ci = ψi a , i = , ..., m. Notice that G s has no zeros and poles in H M ∩ M ' because the nu‐
h i s li +d ψi s -d s
merator and denominator of each rational function h ψi s s i
factorizes in

H M ' ∖ M ∪ { s } and so it is a unit of H M ∩M ' s.

^ ^
Put M = H M ' ∪ { s } and M ' = H M ∖ { s - a } . “s remarked in the proof of Proposition ▭,
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
M ∪ M ' = Specm s and M ∩ M ' = H M ∩ M ' . Now s ∈ M so that we can apply Propo‐
sition ▭ to G s with the change of indeterminate f̃ s = s-a . Thus the invariant rational
T s m s
functions of G f̃ s in M ' s ∩ pr s are ψ s l , ..., ψm s lm .
s-a s-a

^ ^ ^'
On the other hand M ' = H M ∖ { s - a } ⊆ Specm s ∖ { s } and so s ∈ M ∖ M . Then we
can apply Proposition ▭ to G s with f̃ s = s - a so that G f̃ s T is a non-singular matrix
^ ^
with no poles and no zeros in H - M ∩ M ' = H - H M ∩ M ' = M ∩ M ' and k , ..., km as
left Wiener–Hopf factorization indices with respect to
^'
H- M ∪ { s - a } = M ∖{ s - a } ∪ { s - a } = M. The theorem follows by letting
T
T s = G f̃ s .

Remark Notice that when M ' = ∅ and M = Specm s in Theorem ▭ we obtain Theorem
▭ qi = - li .
 An Interpretation of Rosenbrock's Theorem Via Local Rings 35
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/81051

Author details

“. “mparan , S. Marcaida and I. Zaballa

Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHU,, Spain

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