GENERATION OF BIOMASS

With serious concern globally and in India on the use of fossil fuels, it is important for India to
start using renewable energy sources. India is the 7th largest country in the world spanning 328
million hectares and amply bestowed with renewable sources of energy. Among the renewable
energy sources, biomass plays a vital role especially in rural areas, as it constitutes the major
energy source to majority of households in India. Biomass energy is the utilization of organic
matter present and can be utilized for various applications.

1-Biomass can be used to produce heat and electricity, or used in combined heat and power
(CHP) plants.

2-Biomass can also be used in combination with fossil fuels (co-firing) to improve efficiency and
reduce the build up of combustion residues.

3-Biomass can also replace petroleum as a source for transportation fuels.

OVERVIEW OF BIOMASS POWER SECTOR IN INDIA

Biomass has always been an important energy source for the country considering the benefits
and promises it offers. It is a carbon neutral fuel source for the generation of electricity; and apart
from providing the much needed relief from power shortages, biomass power projects could
generate employment in rural areas.About 32% of the total primary energy use in the country is
derived from biomass and more than 70% of the country’s population depends upon it for their
energy needs. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Government of India has
realized the potential and role of biomass energy in the Indian context and has initiated a number
of programmes for the promotion of efficient biomass conversion technologies to be used in
various sectors of the economy.

Programme/scheme wise physical progress

 Achievements (capacity in MW)
Sector
(as on 31.03.2016)
I. Grid Interactive Power (Capacities
in MW)
Biomass Power (Combustion,
4,831.33
Gasification and Bagasse Cogeneration)
Waste to Power 115.08
Sub-total Grid Interactive 4,946.41
II. Off-Grid / Captive Power
(Capacities in MWe)
Biomass (non bagasse) Cogeneration 651.91
Biomass Gasifiers
· Rural 18.15
· Industrial 164.24
Waste to Energy 160.16
Sub-total Off-Grid 994.46

Total Biomass Based Power 5940.87

State wise biomass power and cogeneration projects

State Capacity (MW)
Andhra Pradesh* 389.75
Bihar 43.42
Chhattisgarh 264.90
Gujarat 55.90
Haryana 52.30
Karnataka 737.28
Madhya Pradesh 36.00
Maharashtra 1,112.78
Odisha 20.00
Punjab 140.50
Rajasthan 111.30
Tamil Nadu 662.30
Uttarakhand 30.00
Uttar Pradesh 936.70
West Bengal 26.00
Total 4,761.00

Source- MNRE annual reports 2015-16

UTILIZATION OF BIOENERGY

Bioenergy is a field that relates to various processes and applications, because it very often has a
very large. This field can concern the production of energy through direct biomass combustion,
the use of gas fuels, liquid biofuels, and the use of microbial populations to produce biohydrogen
or for waste treatment. Here is an explanation of each of these applications.

Direct biomass combustion

Biomass can be directly burnt in order to produce heat. This is the most basic application of
bioenergy, and is the most widespread bioenergy technology. The use of biomass as a heating
source, however, can sometimes be more complex than the simple burning of wooden logs. In
the past years, wood and herbaceous pellets as well as briquettes have become popular means to
create more efficient fuels that can be, in certain regions, less harmful to human health than the
direct combustion of biomass.

Gas fuels

Through pyrolysis or gasification processes, it is possible to produce fuels from solid biomass.
This results into a cycle with a higher thermal efficiency. The first step is a pyrolysis phase
(heating of organic matter), which forms a solid char, a liquid fraction and volatile gases. All
three fractions can be used independently or further processed. In the creation of syngas, the
volatiles and part of the char react with oxygen to create carbon monoxide. The char further
reacts with carbon monoxide to create the gaseous fuel called syngas, a mix of dihydrogen and
carbon dioxide. This gas can then be used as a fuel for burning and for electricity generation.

Another way to produce useful gas fuels is through anaerobic digestion of solids or liquids. In
the absence of oxygen, microbial populations will generate biogas (a mixture of methane, carbon
dioxide, sulfur oxides and water vapour by digesting organic matter from waste or energy crops.
This gas can then be used to produce either heat, electricity or both.

Dr. Jeff Bergthorson conducts important research on the combustion and reformation of
sustainable fuels, such as synthetic gas (a mixture of dihydrogen and carbon monoxide), that can
be used as alternatives to fossil fuels. His research group, the Alternative Fuels Laboratory, runs
experiments in order to build detailed models related to the combustion of such fuels and to
optimize the process.

Dr. Mark Lefsrud is conducting experiments on the gasification of certain biomass products as a
potential value-added feedstock for the purpose of heating greenhouses. He also leads
the Biomass production lab, which currently focuses on community proteomics for the
production of liquid biofuels.

Liquid biofuels

Liquid biofuels are usually classified in 2 categories: biodiesel and ethanol. Biodiesel is usually
made with vegetable oils or other feedstocks with a high lipid and oil content. The
transesterification process generates a less viscous liquid with a relatively high heating value that
can be used in diesel engines. It provides lower fine particle counts in the exhaust and is
generally considered an extremely "clean" feedstock for a diesel engine.

Ethanol is usually produced through the fermentation of certain organic materials under the
action of microbial populations or yeasts. It is a good alternative to highly-refined liquid fossil
fuels and can replace them in biofuel designed or modified combustion engines.

The utilization of biofuels is currently investigated for its applications in motors and other
engines, as well as its effects on the expected life of combustion engines that work with blends of
liquid biofuels and conventional fossil fuels.

Biological treatment of waste

Membrane bioreactors (MBR) have been used for decades as a good secondary treatment option
in small municipalities for wastewater treatment. The use of aerobic or anaerobic microbial
populations that feed on nutrients allows the treatment of suspended solids through membrane
filtration. Membrane bioreactors have been added to increase the water treatment capacity of the
Olympic village for the 2008 Beijing Olympics and to recycle 50% of the wastewater. The use of
MBR treatment and other technologies has more than doubled the water treatment capacity of the
Beixiaohe wastewater treatment plant by using a biological energy source.

Microbial populations can also be used to treat solids. Composting of organic matter, is one of
the best ways to reduce solid waste volumes. Large composting facilities can make an odorless
product from organic waste. Treatment under high temperatures has the ability to kill parasites
and weeds that could be found in the initial waste. The method of industrial composting is an
efficient method used by cities like Edmonton or Toronto in order to reduce the waste mass that
needs to be transported to landfills.

Dr. Dominic Frigon works on the application of mathematical models to microbial populations
for waste treatment systems and plans to work on the development of hydrogen and microbial
fuel cells.

Bioproduction of hydrogen

Hydrogen can be produced by either photosynthetic or fermentative microbial populations.

Researchers discovered that under sulfur deprivation, cells from microalgae Chlamydomonas
reinhardtii could produce molecular dihydrogen by a transfer of protons and electrons during a
biophotolysis process, a chemical reaction in which the compounds break down under the action
of photons. In a sulfur-lacking environment, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii accumulate starch and
have an increased consumption of oxygen which leads to the degradation of water molecules to
consume the oxygen atom and the release of dihydrogen. Sustained dihydrogen production can
be attained in the absence of acetone and is dependant on the lighting at certain stages (there is
an aerobic phase followed by an anaerobic phase in the absence of ambien oxygen), pH, the
possible addition of sulfur as well as the use of mutant microalgae.

Indirect biophotolysis refers to a fermentation process under which purple, non-sulfur

photosynthetic bacteria use sugars as a feedstock to produce dihydrogen and carbon dioxide in a
nitrogen-deficient environment. Like direct biophotolysis, this process requires an energy input
provided by photons.

Dark fermentation, on the other hand, uses organic matter as the primary feedstock. Under
anaerobic conditions, the digestion of the substrate will yield dihydrogen gas, but also different
acids and alcohols, such as ethanol or methanol. The yields in biohydrogen depend on the
microbial populations, oxidation state, the primary feedstock, and the environmental conditions.
Dark fermentation yields a lot of by-products, but does not require any light and can work with a
wide array of feedstocks.

Biobased Products

Just as biomass can substitute for fossil fuels in the production of energy, it can also provide a
renewable substitute for the many industrial products and materials made from petroleum or
natural gas – biobased foams, plastics, fertilizers, lubricants, and industrial chemicals are a few
of the possibilities.

Biomass Feedstocks

Every region has its own locally generated biomass feedstocks from agriculture, forest, and
urban sources.
A wide variety of biomass feedstocks are available and biomass can be produced anywhere that
plants or animals can live. Furthermore, most feedstocks can be made into liquid fuels, heat,
electric power, and/or biobased products. This makes biomass a flexible and widespread resource
that can be adapted locally to meet local needs and objectives.

Some of the most common (and/or most promising) biomass feedstocks are:

 Grains and starch crops – sugar cane, corn, wheat, sugar beets, industrial sweet
potatoes, etc.

 Agricultural residues – Corn stover, wheat straw, rice straw, orchard prunings, etc.

 Food waste – waste produce, food processing waste, etc.

 Forestry materials – Logging residues, forest thinnings, etc.

 Animal byproducts – Tallow, fish oil, manure, etc.

 Energy crops – Switchgrass, miscanthus, hybrid poplar, willow, algae, etc.

 Urban and suburban wastes – municipal solid wastes (MSW), lawn wastes, wastewater
treatment sludge, urban wood wastes, disaster debris, trap grease, yellow grease, waste
cooking oil, etc.

Biomass and Land Use

Like wind, solar, and other renewable energy sources, biomass can make a positive impact on
our atmosphere by lessening our dependence on climate change-inducing fossil fuels. Biomass
energy differs from other renewables, however, in the extent to which its use is directly tied to
the farms, forests, and other ecosystems from which biomass feedstocks are obtained. Because of
this close association, the use of biomass has the potential to result in a wide range of
environmental and social impacts, both positive and negative, above and beyond its use as a
substitute for fossil fuels. Impacts on soils, water resources, biodiversity, ecosystem function,
and local communities will differ depending on what choices are made regarding what types of
biomass are used, as well as where and how they are produced. This is why biomass needs to be
produced and harvested as sustainably as possible. In this sense, sustainability refers to choosing
management practices that minimize adverse impacts and complement local land-management
objectives, such as farm preservation, forest stewardship, food production, and wildlife
management.

One land use issue that often arises is the perceived conflict between food production and
bioenergy (the so-called ‘food-vs.-fuel’ debate). Many traditional food crops, such as corn, sugar
and vegetable oils, are also some of the most commonly used energy feedstocks. Furthermore,
agricultural land may be shifted from producing food to the production of dedicated energy
crops. The use of agricultural crops and lands has undoubtedly contributed in part to increased
prices for many of these commodities. Many other factors, however, have contributed much
more substantially to this increase, including inflation of the dollar and especially the rapid rise
in price of fossil fuels. Oil and natural gas, in the form of fuel and synthetic fertilizers, are two of
the biggest economic inputs in food production and distribution. There are many opportunities to
further reduce the conflict between food and fuel production, including an increased use of
agricultural wastes, logging residues, food scraps, municipal solid waste, and marginal lands.

Another issue heavily associated with biomass production is greenhouse gas emissions from land
management and land use change. These refer to emissions of greenhouse gases (especially CO2,
CH4, and N2O) resulting from agricultural inputs, management practices, and land use changes
associated with production of biomass. These emissions can be divided into direct and indirect
sources. Direct emissions refer to those resulting from land clearing, agricultural inputs (such as
fertilizers), or management practices undertaken in the process of growing or harvesting a
biomass crop. Indirect emissions are associated with market-driven land use change. These are
the emissions that occur when forests, grasslands, or other ecosystems are cleared to produce
crops or other commodities to compensate for land that has been diverted to energy production.
The effects are difficult to quantify or attribute, making indirect emissions from land use change
(ILUC) a very controversial subject.

Finally, it is important to remember that biomass markets will add value to biomass products,
residues, and productive lands. This value will help improve the economic viability of working
lands and act as a positive incentive to help preserve farms and forests from the accelerating
threat of urban and suburban sprawl – the greatest land use impact.

Powering self-sufficient robots

What type of bioenergy?

Algae and microscopic animals

How’s it being used?

To power two aquatic robots with mouths, stomachs and an animal-type metabolism. Designed
at the University of Bristol, the 30cm Row-Bot is modelled on the water boatman insect. The
other, which is smaller, closer resembles a tadpole, and moves with the help of its tail.

Both are powered by microbial fuel cells – fuel cells that use the activity of bacteria to generate
electricity – developed at the University of the West of England in Bristol. As they swim, the
robots swallow water containing algae and microscopic animals, which is then used by their fuel
cell ‘stomachs’ to generate electricity and recharge the robots’ batteries. Once recharged, they
row or swim to a new location to look for another mouthful.

Purifying water

What’s used?

Human waste

How’s it being used?

The Omni Processor, a low cost waste treatment plant funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation, does something incredible: it turns sewage into fresh water and electricity.

It does this by heating human waste to produce water vapour, which is then condensed to form
water. This water is passed through a purification system, making it safe for human consumption.
Best of all, it does this while powering itself.
The solid sludge left over by the evaporated sewage is siphoned off and burnt in a steam engine
to produce enough electricity to process the next batch of waste.

PROPERTIES OF BIOMASS

Agro Wastes Cal./kg. Ash Content

Babool Wood 4707 K. 0.90%

Bagasse 4700 K. 1.80%

 Bamboo Dust 3700 K. 8.00%

Barks Wood 3900 K. 4.40%

Castor Seed Shells 3860 K. 8.00%

Coffee Husk 4200 K. 5.30%

Coir Pitch 4146 K. 13.60%

Cotton Stalks / Chips 4200 K. 3.01%

Forestry Waste 3000 K. 7.00%

Groundnut Shell 4500 K. 3.80%

Jute Waste 4800 K. 3.00%

Mustard Shell 4300 K. 3.70%

Mustard Stalk 4200 K. 3.40%

Paddy Straw 3469 K. 15.50%

Palm Husk 3900 K. 4.90%

Rice Husks 3200 K. 22.20%

Saw Dust 4400 K. 1.20%

Soya bean Husk 4170 K. 4.10%

Sugarcane Waste 3700 K. 10.00%

Sunflower Stalk 4300 K. 4.30%

Tea Waste 4000 K. 6.70%

Tobacco Waste 1100 K. 49.40%

Wheat Straw 4000 K. 8.00%

Wood Chips 4300 K. 1.20%

Biomass Briquettes
Biomass briquettes are a biofuel substitute to coal and charcoal. Biomass briquettes are made
from agricultural and forestry waste. The low density biomass(agricultural and forestry waste) is
converted into high density biomass briquettes with the help of a briquetting machine that uses
binder less technique, without using any type of chemical so it is 100% natural.

The major raw material for biomass briquette are, Mustard Stalks, Sawdust, Rice Husk, Coffee
Husk, Coir Pitch, Jute Sticks, Sugarcane Baggasse, Groundnut Shell, Cotton Stalks, Caster Seed
Shells / Stalk, Wood Chips, Bamboo Dust, Tobacco Waste, Tea Waste, maize stalks, bajra cobs,
Arhar stalks, Paddy Straw, Wheat Straw, Sunflower Stalk, Palm Husk, Soyabean Husk, Veneer
Residues,Barks & Straws, Leafs, Pine Niddle, Seeds Cases etc.

Biomass Briquette are widely used for any type of thermal application like steam generation in
boilers, in furnace & foundries (It can be used for metal heating & melting where melting point
is less than 1000d/cel.), for heating purpose (Residential & Commercial Heating for winter,
heating in Cold areas and Hotels, Canteens, Cafeterias and house hold kitchen appliances etc),
drying process and in gasification plant replacing conventional solid fuels like Coal and
Firewood and liquid fuels like Diesel, Kerosene, Furnace Oil (FO), etc.

COMBUSTION

Direct combustion is the burning of biomass in the presence of oxygen. Furnaces and boilers are
used typically to produce steam for use in district heating/cooling systems or to drive turbines to
produce electricity. In a furnace, biomass burns in a combustion chamber converting the biomass
into heat. The heat is distributed in the form of hot air or water. In a boiler, the heat of
combustion is converted into steam. Steam can be used to produce electricity, mechanical energy,
or heating and cooling. A boiler’s steam contains 60-85% of the energy in biomass fuel.

Co-firing is a practice which has permitted biomass feedstocks to be used early on in the
renewable energy? transformation. Co-firing is the combustion of a fossil-fuel (such as coal or
natural gas) with a biomass feedstock. Co-firing has a number of advantages, particularly when
electricity is an output. If the conversion facility is situated near an agro-industrial or forestry
product processing plant, large quantities of low cost biomass residues are available to be burnt
with a fossil-fuel feedstock. It is now widely accepted that fossil-fuel power plants are usually
highly polluting in terms of sulfur, CO 2 and other GHGs?. Use of existing equipment, with
modifications, to co-fire biomass may be a cost-effective means for meeting more stringent
emissions targets. Biomass fuel’s comparatively low sulfur content allows biomass to potentially
offset the higher sulfur content of fossil fuel.

Biomass can also be used in co-generation, also called combined heat and power (CHP) which is
the simultaneous production of heat and electricity. All power plants produce heat as a by-
product of electricity production, and this heat is typically released to the environment through
cooling towers (which release heat to the atmosphere) or discharge into near-by bodies of water.
However, in CHP processes, some of the “waste heat” is recovered for use in district heating. Co-
generation coverts about 85% of biomass’ potential energy into useful energy.

BIOCHEMICAL CONVERSION

The use of micro-organisms for the production of ethanol is an ancient art. However, in more
recent times such organisms have become regarded as biochemical "factories" for the treatment
and conversion of biological materials. Fermentation technologies, with the assistance of
biological engineering, are leading to breakthrough processes for creating fuels and fertilizer, and
other products useful in agriculture. Anaerobic digestion and fermentation are key biochemical
conversion technologies.

Anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion is the use of microorganisms in oxygen-free environments to break down

organic material. Anaerobic digestion is widely used for the production of methane- and carbon-
rich biogas from crop residues, food scraps, and manure (human and animal). Anaerobic
digestion is frequently used in the treatment of wastewater and to reduce emissions from
landfills.

Anaerobic digestion involves a multi-stage process. First, bacteria are used in hydrolysis to break
down carbohydrates, for example, into forms digestible by other bacteria. The second set of
bacteria convert the resulting sugars and amino acids into carbon dioxide, hydrogen, ammonia
and organic acids. Finally, still other bacterias convert these products into methane and carbon
dioxide. Mixed bacterial cultures are characterized by optimal temperature ranges for growth.
These mixed cultures allow digesters to be operated over a wide temperature range, for example,
above 0° C and up to 60° C. When functioning well, the bacteria convert about 90% of the
biomass feedstock into biogas (containing about 55% methane), which is a readily useable
energy source.

Solid remnants of the original biomass input are left over after the digestion process. This by-
product, or digestate, has many potential uses. Potential uses include fertilizer (although it should
be chemically assessed for toxicity and growth-inhibiting factors first), animal bedding and low-
grade building products like fiberboard.

Fermentation

At its most basic, fermentation is the use of yeasts to convert carbohydrates into alcohol – most
notably ethanol, also called bioethanol. The total process involves several stages. In the first
stage crop materials are pulverized or ground and combined with water to form a slurry. Heat
and enzymes are then applied to break down the ground materials into a finer slurry. Other
enzymes are added to convert starches into glucose sugar. The sugary slurry is then pumped into
a fermentation chamber to which yeasts are added. After about 48-50 hours, the fermented liquid
is distilled to divide the alcohol from the solid materials left over.

In the U.S., corn grain is the primary feedstock in ethanol production. About 2.8 gallons of
ethanol is produced from one bushel of corn. A by-product of the corn-to-ethanol process is spent
grains. These spent grains are dried and can be used as feed for livestock – termed Distillers
Dried Grains, or DDGs.

Cellulosic ethanol? production by fermentation is more complex than conversion of starch or

sugar components of plants. Cellulosic ethanol production involves use of wood, grasses ? and the
stems, leaves and stalks of non-grass plants. Lignocellulose, the structural material of plants,
must first be broken down into sugars before being fermented into ethanol. Molecules of
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin – the components of lignocellulose, have strong chemical
bonds and are difficult to separate. Mechanical pre-treatment and enzymatic are necessary to
breakdown lignocellulose. As a result, at present, conversion of lignocellulosic materials into
ethanol is less cost-effective than conversion of starch and sugar crops to ethanol.

Reducing the cost and improving the efficiency of separating and converting cellulosic materials
into fermentable sugars is one of the keys to a viable industry. Research and development efforts
are focusing on the development of cost-effective biochemical hydrolysis and pretreatment
processes to overcome this barrier. Hydrolysis is a chemical process in which molecules are split
into parts with the addition of water and a salt or weak acid. Another form of hydrolysis involves
use of enzymes. Such technological advances promise substantially lower processing costs.

BIOMASS GASIFICATION

Biomass gasification, or producing gas from biomass, involves burning biomass under

restricted air supply for the generation of producer gas. Producer gas is a mixture of gases:

18%–22% carbon monoxide (CO), 8%–12% hydrogen (H2), 8%–12% carbon dioxide (CO2),

2%–4% methane (CH4) and 45%–50% nitrogen (N2) making up the rest.

Gasification reactions

Producing gas from biomass consists of the following main reactions, which occur inside a
biomass gasifier.

Drying: Biomass fuels usually contain 10%–35% moisture. When biomass is heated to

about 100 °C, the moisture is converted into steam.

Pyrolysis: After drying, as heating continues, the biomass undergoes pyrolysis.

Pyrolysis involves burning biomass completely without supplying any oxygen. As a

result, the biomass is decomposed or separated into solids, liquids, and gases. Charcoal

is the solid part, tar is the liquid part, and flue gases make up the gaseous part.

Oxidation: Air is introduced into the gasifier after the decomposition process. During

oxidation, which takes place at about 700–1,400 °C, charcoal, or the solid carbonized fuel,

reacts with the oxygen in the air to produce carbon dioxide and heat.

C + O2 → CO2 + heat

Reduction: At higher temperatures and under reducing conditions, that is when not

enough oxygen is available, the following reactions take place forming carbon dioxide,

hydrogen, and methane.

C + CO2 → 2 CO

C + H2O → CO + H2

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2

C + 2H2 → CH4

Advantages of biomass gasification technologies

Mature technology: Biomass gasifier technology is a mature technology and gasifiers are

available in several designs and capacities to suit different requirements.

Small and modular: The technology is suitable and economical for small, decentralized

applications, typically with capacities smaller than a megawatt.

Flexible operation: A gasifier based power system, unlike those based on other

renewable sources such as the sun and wind, can generate electricity when required and

also wherever required. Whereas large thermal power plants and solar and wind based

units are very location specific, biomass gasifier based systems can be set up at almost

any place where biomass feedstock is available.

Economically viable: For small-scale systems, the cost of power generation by biomass

gasification technology is far more reasonable than that of conventional diesel based

power generation.

Socio-economically beneficial: Biomass gasifier based systems generate employment

for local people.

Mitigate climate change: Biomass is a CO2 neutral fuel and, therefore, unlike fossil fuels

such as diesel does not contribute to net CO2 emissions, which makes biomass based

power generation systems an attractive option in mitigating the adverse effects of

climate change.

TYPES OF GASIFIERS

Gasifiers can be classified based on the density factor, which is a ratio of the solid matter (the

dense phase) a gasifier can burn to the total volume available. Gasifiers can be (a) dense

phase reactors, or (b) lean phase reactors.

Dense phase reactors

In dense phase reactors, the feedstock fills most of the space in the reactor. They are

common, available in different designs depending upon the operating conditions, and are of
three types: downdraft, updraft, and cross-draft.

Downdraft or co-current gasifiers

The downdraft (also known as co-current) gasifier is the most common type of gasifier. In
downdraft gasifiers, the pyrolysis zone is above the combustion zone and the reduction zone is
below the combustion zone. Fuel is fed from the top. The flow of air and gas is downwards
(hence the name) through the combustion and reduction zones. The term co-current is used
because air moves in the same direction as that of fuel, downwards. A downdraft gasifier is so
designed that tar, which is produced in the pyrolysis zone, travels through the combustion zone,
where it is broken down or burnt. As a result, the mixture of gases in the exit stream is relatively
clean. The position of the combustion zone is thus a critical element in the downdraft gasifier, its
main advantage being that it produces gas with low tar content, which is suitable for gas engines.

Downdraft gasifier

Updraftor counter-current gasifier

In updraft gasifiers (also known as counter-current), air enters from below the grate and

flows upwards, whereas the fuel flows downwards. An updraft gasifier has distinctly
defined zones for partial combustion, reduction, pyrolysis, and drying. The gas produced in

the reduction zone leaves the gasifier reactor together with the products of pyrolysis from

the pyrolysis zone and steam from the drying zone.

The resulting combustible producer gas is rich in hydrocarbons (tars) and, therefore, has a

higher calorific value, which makes updraft gasifiers more suitable where heat is needed, for

example in industrial furnaces. The producer gas needs to be thoroughly cleaned if it is to be

used for generating electricity.

Updraft Gasifier

Cross-draft gasifier

In a cross-draft gasifier, air enters from one side of the gasifier reactor and leaves from the

other. Cross-draft gasifiers have a few distinct advantages such as compact construction and

low cleaning requirements. Also, cross-draft gasifiers do not need a grate; the ash falls to the

bottom and does not come in the way of normal operation.

 Crossdraft Gasifier

Lean phase reactors

Lean phase gasifiers lack separate zones for different reactions. All reactions – drying,

combustion, pyrolysis, and reduction – occur in one large reactor chamber. Lean phase

reactors are mostly of two types, fluidized bed gasifiers and entrained-flow gasifiers.

Fluidized bed gasifiers

In fluidized bed gasifiers, the biomass is brought into an inert bed of fluidized material (e.g.
sand, char, etc.). The fuel is fed into the fluidized system either above-bed or directly into the
bed, depending upon the size and density of the fuel and how it is affected by the bed velocities.
During normal operation, the bed media is maintained at a temperature between 550 °C and 1000
°C. When the fuel is introduced under such temperature conditions, its drying and pyrolyzing
reactions proceed rapidly, driving off all gaseous portions of the fuel at relatively low
temperatures. The remaining char is oxidized within the bed toprovide the heat source for the
drying and devolatilizingreactions to continue.Fluidized bed gasifiers are better than dense phase
reactors in that they produce more heatin short time due to the abrasion phenomenon between
inert bed material and biomass,giving a uniformly high (800–1000 ºC) bed temperature. A
fluidized bed gasifier works as ahot bed of sand particles agitated constantly by air. Air is
distributed through nozzleslocated at the bottom of the bed.
 Fluidized Bed Gasifier

Entrained-flow gasifiers

In entrained-flow gasifiers, fuel and air are introduced from the top of the reactor, and fuel is
carried by the air in the reactor. The operating temperatures are 1200–1600 °C and the pressure is
20–80 bar. Entrained-flow gasifiers can be used for any type of fuel so long as it is dry (low
moisture) and has low ash content. Due to the short residence time (0.5–4.0 seconds), high
temperatures are required for such gasifiers. The advantage of entrained-flow gasifiers is that the
gas contains very little tar.
 Entrained Flow Gasifier

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT GASIFIER TYPES

Gasifier Type Advantages Disadvantages

Updraft Simple Design High amount of tar and
pyrolysis products
High charcoal Burnout Extensive gas cleaning
required if used for power
application
High fuel to gas conversion
efficiency
Accepts fuels with higher
moisture content
Accepts fuels of different
sizes
Downdraft Low tar Limited scale-up
 Best option for usage in gas At low temperatures, more tar
engines produced
At lower loads, fewer High amounts of ash and dust
particles in the gas
Fuel requirements are strict
Cross-draft Applicable for small-scale High amount of tar produced
operations
Due to high temperatures, gas
cleaning requirements are
low
Fluidized bed Compact Construction Gas stream contains fine
particles of dust
Uniform Construction profile Complex system due to low
biomass hold up in the fuel
bed
Accepts fuel size variation Variety of biomass can be
used but fuel flexibility is
applicable for biomass of 0.1
cm to 1 cm size
High ash melting point of
biomass does not lead to
clinker formation
Entrained flow Applicable to large systems High Investment
Short residence time for Strict fuel requirements
biomass

PRODUCER GAS APPLICATIONS

The producer gas obtained can be used either to produce heat or to generate electricity.

Thermal applications

Producer gas can also be burnt directly in open air, much like Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG),

and therefore can be used for cooking, boiling water, producing steam, and drying food and

other materials.
 Dryer: The hot gas after combustion can be mixed with the right quantity of

secondary air to lower its temperature to the desired level for use in dryers in the

industries such as tea drying, cardamom drying etc.

 Kilns: Firing of tiles, pottery articles, limestone and refractories, where temperatures

of 800–950 °C are required.

 Boilers: Producer gas can be used as fuel in boilers to produce steam or hot water.

Power applications

Producer gas can be used for generating motive power to run either dual-fuel engines

(which run on a mixture of gas and diesel, with gas replacement of up to 85% of diesel) or

engines that run on producer gas alone (100% diesel replacement). In general, the fuel-
toelectricity

efficiency of gasification is much higher than that of direct combustion: The

conversion efficiency of gasification is 35%–45% whereas that of combustion is only 10%–

20%.

Generated electricity can be fed into the grid or can be used for farm operations, irrigation,

chilling or cold storage, and other commercial and industrial applications.

Conditions and requirements for implementation

Biomass gasifier needs uniform-sized and dry fuel for smooth and trouble-free operation.

Most gasifier systems are designed either for woody biomass (or dense briquettes made

from loose biomass) or for loose, pulverized biomass.

Woody biomass:

Pieces smaller than 5–10 cm (2–4 inches) in any dimension, depending on design

Bulk density of wood or briquettes: less than 250–300 kg/m3

Loose biomass:

Pulverized biomass, depending on design

Moisture content up to 15%–25%, depending on gasifier design

Ash content below 5% preferred; with a maximum limit of 20%

Bulk density of loose biomass is less than 150 kg/m3

INDICATIVE GASIFIER CAPITAL COST

Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) has specified the normative capital cost

for biomass gasifier power projects as Rs 592.532 lakh per MW) for FY 2015-16. After taking

into account capital subsidy of Rs 150 lakh per MW, net project cost shall be Rs 442.532 lakh

per MW for FY 2015-16.

For small-scale gasifier (100 kWe, decentralized), the cost of gasifier including engine cost is

Rs 70,000 - 90,000 per kWe.

Please note that depending on site-specific requirements and the level of automation, the

cost can vary significantly. For applicable capital cost, please refer to the norms approved by

the state electricity regulatory commissions.

ROLE OF BIOMASS ENERGY IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Biomass energy systems not only offer significant possibilities for clean energy production and
agricultural waste management but also foster sustainable development in rural areas. The
increased utilization of biomass wastes will be instrumental in safeguarding the environment,
generation of new job opportunities, sustainable development and health improvements in rural
areas.

Biomass energy has the potential to modernize the agricultural economy and catalyze rural
development. The development of efficient biomass handling technology, improvement of agro-
forestry systems and establishment of small, medium and large-scale biomass-based power
plants can play a major role in rural development.

Sustainable harvesting practices remove only a small portion of branches and tops leaving
sufficient biomass to conserve organic matter and nutrients. Moreover, the ash obtained after
combustion of biomass compensates for nutrient losses by fertilizing the soil periodically in
natural forests as well as fields.
Planting of energy crops on abandoned agricultural lands will lead to an increase in species
diversity. The creation of structurally and species diverse forests helps in reducing the impacts of
insects, diseases and weeds. Similarly the artificial creation of diversity is essential when
genetically modified or genetically identical species are being planted.

Improvements in agricultural practices promises to increased biomass yields, reductions in

cultivation costs, and improved environmental quality. Extensive research in the fields of plant
genetics, analytical techniques, remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) will
immensely help in increasing the energy potential of biomass feedstock.

Rural areas are the preferred hunting ground for the development of biomass sector worldwide.
By making use of various biological and thermal processes (anaerobic digestion, combustion,
gasification, pyrolysis), agricultural wastes can be converted into biofuels, heat or electricity, and
thus catalyzing sustainable development of rural areas economically, socially and
environmentally.

Biomass energy can reduce ‘fuel poverty’ in remote and isolated communities

A large amount of energy is utilized in the cultivation and processing of crops like sugarcane,
wheat and rice which can met by utilizing energy-rich residues for electricity production. The
integration of biomass-fueled gasifiers in coal-fired power stations would be advantageous in
terms of improved flexibility in response to fluctuations in biomass availability and lower
investment costs.

There are many areas in India where people still lack access to electricity and thus face enormous
hardship in day-to-day lives. Biomass energy promises to reduce ‘fuel poverty’ commonly
prevalent among remote and isolated communities. Obviously, when a remote area is able to
access reliable and cheap energy, it will lead to economic development and youth empowerment.
CONCEPT OF BIO-ENERGY

Bioenergy is a renewable energy source created from natural, biological sources. Many natural
sources, such as plants, animals, and their byproducts, can be valuable resources. Modern
technology makes even landfills or waste zones potential bioenergy resources. It can be used to
be a sustainable power source, providing heat, gas, and fuel.

The energy contained in the sources, like plants, is obtained from the sun, absorbed through a
process known as photosynthesis.

As this energy can be replenished, its considered an inexhaustible source.

Using bioenergy has the potential to decrease our carbon footprint and improve the environment.
While bioenergy uses the same amount of carbon dioxide as traditional fossil fuels, as long as the
plants used are replaced, the impact is minimized. Fast-growing trees and grass help this process
and are known as bioenergy feedstocks.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction through which plants absorb light and transform it into
sugars and oxygen. It is a highly complex process that is vital to nearly all organisms on Earth.
But exactly how does it work?

Plants are autotrophic organisms, which means that plants produce their own food and they
support other organisms. Without the sun, photosynthesis would stop and no life could be
sustained.

Photosynthesis is the chemical reaction where carbon dioxide (CO 2) and water form sugars and
oxygen in the presence of light energy. The sugars formed by photosynthesis are used by the
plants as a food energy source. Under natural conditions, the sun provides the energy to trigger
photosynthesis.

BIOMASS PYROLYSIS PROCESS

Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of biomass occurring in the absence of oxygen. It is the
fundamental chemical reaction that is the precursor of both the combustion and gasification
processes and occurs naturally in the first two seconds. The products of biomass pyrolysis
include biochar, bio-oil and gases including methane, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon
dioxide.

Depending on the thermal environment and the final temperature, pyrolysis will yield mainly
biochar at low temperatures, less than 450 0C, when the heating rate is quite slow, and mainly
gases at high temperatures, greater than 800 0C, with rapid heating rates. At an intermediate
temperature and under relatively high heating rates, the main product is bio-oil.

Pyrolysis can be performed at relatively small scale and at remote locations which enhance
energy density of the biomass resource and reduce transport and handling costs. Pyrolysis offers
a flexible and attractive way of converting solid biomass into an easily stored and transported
liquid, which can be successfully used for the production of heat, power and chemicals.

A wide range of biomass feedstocks can be used in pyrolysis processes. The pyrolysis process is
very dependent on the moisture content of the feedstock, which should be around 10%. At higher
moisture contents, high levels of water are produced and at lower levels there is a risk that the
process only produces dust instead of oil. High-moisture waste streams, such as sludge and meat
processing wastes, require drying before subjecting to pyrolysis.

The efficiency and nature of the pyrolysis process is dependent on the particle size of feedstocks.
Most of the pyrolysis technologies can only process small particles to a maximum of 2 mm
keeping in view the need for rapid heat transfer through the particle. The demand for small
particle size means that the feedstock has to be size-reduced before being used for pyrolysis.

Pyrolysis processes can be categorized as slow pyrolysis or fast pyrolysis. Fast pyrolysis is
currently the most widely used pyrolysis system. Slow pyrolysis takes several hours to complete
and results in biochar as the main product. On the other hand, fast pyrolysis yields 60% bio-oil
and takes seconds for complete pyrolysis. In addition, it gives 20% biochar and 20% syngas.

Bio-oil

Bio-oil is a dark brown liquid and has a similar composition to biomass. It has a much higher
density than woody materials which reduces storage and transport costs. Bio-oil is not suitable
for direct use in standard internal combustion engines. Alternatively, the oil can be upgraded to
either a special engine fuel or through gasification processes to a syngas and then bio-diesel. Bio-
oil is particularly attractive for co-firing because it can be more readily handled and burned than
solid fuel and is cheaper to transport and store.

Bio-oil can offer major advantages over solid biomass and gasification due to the ease of
handling, storage and combustion in an existing power station when special start-up procedures
are not necessary. In addition, bio-oil is also a vital source for a wide range of organic
compounds and speciality chemicals.

DIRECTION LIQUEFACTION OF BIOMASS

Figure shows a graphic of the three methods of thermochemical conversion of biomass, with
direct liquefaction highlighted (the fourth is combustion, not really a
thermochemical conversion of biomass).

There are differences for each of the thermal processes, as described in Lesson 5. Here we focus
on direct liquefaction. Direct liquefaction (particularly hydrothermal processing) occurs in a non-
oxidative atmosphere, where the biomass is fed into a unit as aqueous slurry at lower
temperatures, with bio-crude in liquid form being the product. The primary focus of these
particular processes is to produce a liquid product that is a hydrocarbon with atomic H:C ratio of
~2, and a boiling range of 170-280 °C.

Many of the processes developed are based on coal-to-liquids processing. The main purposes in
taking coal and biomass into a liquid is to produce liquids, to remove some of the less desirable
components (i.e., sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, minerals), and to make a higher energy density
material that will flow.

One of the primary processes to convert coal into liquids directly is through a combination of
thermal decomposition and hydrogenation under pressure. There are several single and two-stage
processes that have been developed, but have not been made commercial in the US. However,
China opened a commercial direct liquefaction plant partially based on US designs in 2008.
Figure 8.3a shows the general schematic of the plant as well as the products they make in Figure
8.3b. Design considerations include: 1) temperatures of ~400-450°C, 2) hydrogenation catalysts,
3) hydrocarbon solvents that are similar to fuels, 4) naturally occurring aromatics in coal, 5)
sulfur, nitrogen, minerals that must be removed in refining of the liquid. Biomass can be
processed in a similar manner, but biomass has significantly more oxygen and less aromatic
compounds, and decomposes differently than coal. Other processes have been developed for
biomass, that appear to do a better job of processing cellulose. One process is hydrothermal
processing in pressurized water using an acid catalyst such as LaCl 3 at 250°C - we won't go into
more detail here, but it is different from the direct liquefaction discussion in the next paragraph.

So, what are the differences with direct liquefaction of biomass? On the surface it looks pretty
much the same as the process for coal liquefaction. It is a thermochemical conversion process of
organic material into liquid bio-crude and co-products. Depending on the process, it is usually
conducted under moderate temperatures (300-400°C, lower than coal liquefaction) and pressures
(10-20 MPa, similar or maybe a little higher with primarily hydrogen in coal to liquids) with
added hydrogen or CO as a reducing agent. Unlike coal, the biomass is “wet”, or at least wetter
than coal, and can be processed as an aqueous slurry. When processed as an aqueous slurry, the
process is referred to in the literature as hydrothermal processing and can be subcritical to
supercritical for water. Figure 8.4 shows the conditions for supercritical water; water behaves
more like an acid/base system under these conditions. Thus, it can also be a catalyst. There is
also high solubility of organic material in water under these conditions. This mainly occurs along
the liquid/vapor line.

The basic reaction mechanisms can be described as:

 1. depolymerization of biomass;

2. decomposition of biomass monomers by cleavage, dehydration, decarboxylation, and

deamination;

3. recombination of reactive fragments.

Diffrent types of biomasses react differently depending on the biomass source. Carbohydrates,
such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and starch can decompose in hydrothermal water. The typical
product formed under these conditions is glucose, and glucose can then be fermented to make
alcohols or further degrade in water to make glycoaldehyde, glyceraldehyde, and
dihydroxyacetone. The products made depend on the conditions: at temperatures ~180°C,
products are sugar monomers, but at higher temperatures, 360-420°C, the aldehyde and acetone
compounds are formed.

Conditions for water to be supercritical and subcritical on phase diagram

Lignin and fatty acids also decompose in hydrothermal water, but the products are very different
because the substrate is different. For lignin, the products are similar to the building blocks for
lignin, as shown (p-coumaryl, coniferyl and sinapyl alcohols), although the functional groups
vary depending on the hydrothermal conditions. Bembenic and Clifford used hydrothermal water
at 365°C and ~13 MPa to form methoxy phenols, using different gases to change the product
slate (hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen). For lipid or triglyceride (fats
and oils) reaction in hydrothermal water at 330-340°C and 13.1 MPa, the main products are the
free fatty acids (HC – COOH) and glycerol (C 3H8O3). The free fatty acids can then be reacted to
straight-chain hydrocarbons that can be used for diesel or jet fuel, although the temperature
usually needs to be a little higher (400°C) for this to take place. Figure 8.5 shows the schematic
of a hydrothermal water process to convert algae into liquid fuels, making use of heat from an
integrated heat and power system. Flue gas from a power generation facility is used to grow
algae. Algae is then harvested and concentrated in water. The algae is then reacted in a
hydrothermal unit followed by catalytic hydrogenation to make the straight chain hydrocarbon
liquid fuels.

Schematic for hydrothermal liquefaction of algae for production of liquid fuels (diesel, jet fuel)

Many types of catalysts can be used, although it depends on the process stage which catalysts are
used and what feed material is used. In hydrothermal processing, the more common catalysts
used are acid and base catalysts. Particle size for biomass needs to be fine, with a size of < 0.5
mm. Introduction of the feed into the reactor is also challenging, as it is fed into a high-pressure
reactor. Some advantages of using this process for biomass: 1) it is possible to process feeds with
high water content, as much as 90%, 2) it is possible to process many different types of waste
materials, including MSW, food processing waste, and animal manure, and 3) the process serves
the dual roles of waste treatment and renewable energy production.
Process parameters include solids content, temperature, pressure, residence time, and use of
catalysts. Often simultaneous reactions are taking place, which makes the overall understanding
of the reactions complicated. The types of reactions taking place include: solubilization,
depolymerizaton, decarboxylation, hydrogenation, condensation, and hydrogenolysis.

For one particular process, hydrothermal liquefaction requires the use of catalyst. One typical
catalyst used is sodium carbonate combined with water and CO to produce sodium formate:

Na2CO3+H2O + CO→2HCO2Na + CO2This equation is not rendering properly due to an

incompatible browser. See Technical Requirements in the Orientation for a list of compatible
browsers.

This dehydrates the hydroxyl groups to carbonyl compounds, then reduces the carbonyl group to
an alcohol:

HCO2Na + C6H10O5→C6H10H4+NaHCO3H2+C6H10O5→C6H10H4+H2O

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Requirements in the Orientation for a list of compatible browsers.

The formate and hydrogen can be regenerated and recycled. Other catalysts used that behave in a
similar manner include K2CO3, KOH, NaOH, and other bases. For simultaneous decomposition
and hydrogenation, nickel (Ni) catalysts are used.

Similar to pyrolysis, the major product of this process is a liquid biocrude, which is a viscous
dark tar or asphalt material. Up to 70% of the carbon is converted into biocrude; lighter products
are obtained when different catalysts are used. Co-products include gases (CO 2, CH4, and light
hydrocarbons) as well as water-soluble materials. The liquid biofuel has a similar carbon to
hydrogen ratio as in the original feedstock and is a complex mixture of aromatics, aromatic
oligomers, and other hydrocarbons. In this process, the oxygen is reduced and is 10-20% less
than typical pyrolysis oils, with a heating value higher than pyrolysis oils, 35-40 MJ/kg on a dry
basis. However, the USDA has developed a pyrolysis process using recycled gases that produces
a fairly light hydrocarbon with very little oxygen content. (Mullens et al.)Table shows a
comparison of biocrudes from various processes and feed materials. The quality of the biocrude
shown from hydrothermal processing is for a heavy biocrude. Other processes will make a
lighter material, but also produce more co-products that must be utilized as well.

BIO-BASED CHEMICALS

In our ever-advancing world, it’s becoming increasingly important to develop and implement
sustainable solutions for producing industrial materials. Today, the constant use of petroleum-
based products and other non-renewable assets are depleting the world’s natural resources. In
addition to the damage caused by this depletion, the use of these natural resources has resulted in
serious environmental damage — burning petroleum-based fuels has seriously damaged the
Earth’s atmosphere, while petroleum and oil-based plastics have polluted it’s water and disrupted
aquatic ecosystems. This damage has prompted many to seek alternative methods for producing
industrial materials.

In the past, bio-based chemical products were rarely able to compete with traditional chemical
processes and products. However, as technology and chemical methods have improved, the bio-
based chemical industry has become increasingly profitable, and is now poised to take over a
large share of the market. Sustainability-minded manufacturers and consumers welcome these
environmentally friendly alternatives, and as a result, the demand for sustainable chemicals has
only been increasing.

In addition to the forward-minded individuals supporting the development of bio-based

chemicals, researchers have been developing new sources and applications for bio-based
chemicals around the world, producing promising results. Not only do these bio-based chemical
supply companies improve the industry — they improve their local economies and
environments.

To help you and your company better understand the bio-based chemical industry and the
importance of working with sustainable chemical suppliers, we’d like to guide you through the
incredible story of the industry, from its history to its current applications and most exciting
recent development.
THE HISTORY OF THE BIO-BASED CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

The bio-based chemical industry took its first steps in the 1920s with Henry Ford, who
experimented with the idea that ethanol could fuel the automobile instead of gasoline. However,
food scarcity was still a real problem at the time, a result of limited agricultural markets.
Additionally, there was no federal funding to get Ford’s idea off the ground. The wars of the
20th century further tabled these ideas, placing them on the backburner in favor of established
methods. However, the idea remained in the minds of many through the decades, largely dormant
until the latter half of the century.

Finally, in the 80’s and 90’s, several organizations began to work toward the development of bio-
based production methods and applications for industrial use. Some of these organizations
included the New Uses Council and the Alternative Agriculture Research and Commercialization
(AARC) Center. These organizations invested in private corporations, funding them as they
developed bio-based industrial products, prompting growth in the industry over time.

True focus on bio-based chemical production methods did not come until the turn of the
millennium, however, when concerns about finding new sources for oil and other nonrenewable
resources came back to the forefront of public concern. It was at this point the National Research
Council provided scientific proof for the concept of the bio-based industry, proposing numerous
advantages the industry could provide the United States if pursued.

BIO-BASED CHEMICAL APPLICATIONS

When many consider of bio-based chemicals, they think of ethanol-based fuel, as Ford did.
However, the applications of bio-based chemicals reach far beyond energy. Some of the
applications of bio-based chemicals include the following:

 Energy: The largest opportunity for the bio-based economy is in energy and liquid fuels.
Most promising and well known of these applications are ethanol and biodiesel. This fuel
is made by extracting fatty acids and oils from the starch of maize plants. The byproducts
of this process are only animal feed and hot water, so the production of this fuel does not
 let off toxic chemicals like petroleum refineries do. However, maize-produced ethanol
does not come without its problems.

 Maize is a relatively high production-cost crop, as it’s relatively expensive in labor and
land for each plant. Additionally, the production of ethanol from this maize has resulted
in an excessive amount of animal feed byproduct on the market. For these reasons, maize
is likely not a viable long-term solution. Researchers are currently looking for an
alternative method, one with fewer byproducts and better cost-per-plant.

 Chemicals: Numerous bio-based chemicals feature in hundreds of products on the

market today. Many are intermediates or significant ingredients in food, pharmaceuticals
and cosmetics. These chemicals can also produce natural oils and lubricants, as well as
cleaners, solvents, adhesives and industrial gums and paints.

 These bio-based chemicals are often more expensive than their traditional equivalents,
but pose a valuable, renewable alternative, and one that is highly appreciated among
chemical companies throughout the world.

 Materials: While numerous materials are primarily bio-based, such as lumber, cotton and
silk, there are additional sustainable fiber sources available for use. Flax, industrial hemp,
milkweed floss and other materials each have their own unique features that make them
useful both by themselves and as parts of fiber blends. Additionally, more rigid materials
like wheat straw are often used in buildings and furniture as particleboard. Other
alternative materials include hemp-based plastics, which are on the rise as packaging
alternatives, and even pineapple-based leather.

All of these applications are constantly being researched and expanded worldwide, resulting in
new discoveries with each passing year. These developments not only mean improved
sustainability within the United States, but new applications, industries and markets throughout
the world.
THE BENEFITS OF THE BIO-BASED INDUSTRY

The numerous applications of bio-based chemicals are only growing in recent years as public
attention turns towards sustainability. However, sustainability is far from the only benefit offered
by using bio-based products. Some of the benefits of bio-based products include, but are not
limited to, the following:

 Environmental Benefits: Minimizing chemical waste and the release of toxic

byproducts into the environment is one of the most important benefits of sustainable bio-
based chemical products. 85% of all atmospheric pollutants are produced by the burning
of fossil fuels, while 275 million tons of plastic waste are produced each year worldwide,
8 million tons of which end up in the ocean. Both of these side effects pollute the
environment and negatively impact wildlife throughout the world.

 A worldwide switch to bio-based products can mitigate these problems, in combination

with proper recycling and disposal of potentially harmful products. Bio-based fuel lets off
minimal atmospheric pollutants, while bio-based plastics degrade more quickly than
traditional plastics, reducing the impact of plastic waste on wildlife.

 Economic Independence: Bio-based fuels are a point of interest for many corporations
and states, primarily due to the economic independence they offer. Foreign petroleum
accounts for a large portion of the United States’ oil, leaving the nation dependent. A
switch to locally produced liquid fuels, such as ethanol, will help the nation attain relative
energy independence.

 More Jobs: The bio-based chemical industry is on the rise, replacing the jobs left by
traditional chemical plant positions and more. Additionally, farmers growing the sources
of these bio-based materials will experience improved farm revenues, revitalizing the
United States’ rural communities.

 Reduced Expenses: Bio-chemicals require less special handling and management than
traditional, more hazardous chemicals, reducing operating expenses and increasing
revenue. Additionally, disposal of waste is much less problematic, as the byproducts of
bio-based chemicals are non-toxic and repurposable, usually as animal feed.
These incredible benefits of sustainable bio-based chemicals have resulted in many chemical
corporations looking into these options for their own products.

THE GROWING MARKET FOR GREEN CHEMISTRY

The global market for sustainable, “green” chemistry is positioned to grow phenomenally in the
next few years. Public interest in sustainable chemistry is on the rise, with 62% of chemical
companies reporting customer interest in sustainable applications in 2014 — a 5% rise since
2009. This interest, on top of the growing number of companies expressing interest or intent to
take part in green chemistry, has led to a very promising outlook for the global market for green
chemistry. Many expect the global green chemistry market to experience substantial boom, rising
from $11 billion in 2015 to nearly $100 billion by 2020.

Included in these projections are bio-based chemistry applications and procedures, which have
come to the forefront of national attention several times over the past few years for their
incredible applications and positive effects on the local economy and environment. One
promising example of this is the Sardinian thistle.
BIO-FUELS: AN OPPORTUNITY FOR INDIA

India is often berated for being late in planning and solving our social, economic and
infrastructure issues. This results in the country moving from one crisis to another—we start the
summer with water shortage issues, during the monsoon we cannot handle the rains, change in
seasons cause a health crisis with a spike in the incidence of viral diseases and during the winter
we are plagued with high levels of pollution. The general tendency is to look for a solution in
long-term planning and investment rather than short-term stop-gap arrangements, even when
technologically sustainable and efficient policy alternatives exist.

A glaring and current problem is the pollution plaguing the entire north Indian plains. The short-
term solution for this issue exists in the quick and scaled-out expansion of biofuel-powered
public transport across the country. Imagine bringing down pollution levels by up to 90% in
carbon emissions by public transport vehicles, eliminating stubble burning by farmers, instead
increasing their incomes, reducing our foreign trade deficit and adding nearly a million jobs
(during a period when no jobs especially blue-collar one’s are being added) by the Central and
state government’s deciding on one major policy initiative—reduce taxes on biofuel-driven buses
and trucks— available today.

The government appears to have put all its eggs in only one basket by making a major
announcement to incentivize and go all-electric by 2030. First, this is a very aggressive goal for a
middle-income country like India and second, even assuming that this were to happen, do we all
need to suffer the ill-effects of pollution for another 12 years?

India’s transport policy needs to prioritize renewable vehicular fuels for large transport; e-
mobility alone will not achieve the ambition of creating a sustainable transport sector.

A ready solution is available in the form of biofuel-driven buses, which can be easily deployed at
a short notice for all public transport purposes within cities and even for inter-city travel.
Imagine being able to use 170 million tonnes of agricultural waste out of the 800 million tonnes
generated to be used for ethanol production in the current situation. This could easily be ramped
up to 250 million tonnes per year, to produce between 31-47 billion litres of ethanol by 2020, a
radical increase from the current production of 2 billion litres. This will lead to a huge reduction
in stubble burning because of an economic incentive available to remove and give the crop waste
to biofuel plants.

Further, sewage treatment plants (STPs) hold a lot of promise. India generates around 70 billion
litres of waste water every day, which is expected to double in the next 15 years according to the
McKinsey Global Institute. By building biogas generation and upgrading facilities at the STP
sites, the output can potentially substitute 350 million litres of diesel, 2.3 gigawatt hours of
natural gas fired power and over 8 million LPG cylinders of 14.2kg each.

If all efforts are made to substitute diesel fuel, India could replace over 40% of the projected
demand for diesel in 2020. Another way to look at this is that the energy generated from biofuels
is equivalent to 340 million barrels of oil or over $22 billion (assuming a landed price of $65 per
barrel). Considering that in the first quarter India had a current account deficit of $14.3 billion,
we could wipe out almost a third of our current account deficit.

According to a Bloomberg New Energy Finance study Next-Generation Ethanol: What’s In It

For India?, the increase in ethanol production alone has the potential to create over 700,000 jobs
when targeting only the base potential. States with a combination of high agricultural activity and
large fuel consumption like Maharasthra, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh would be the best positioned
to exploit this opportunity.

We have started with some encouraging pilots for biofuel-driven buses in cities like Nagpur,
where the government has allowed special purpose vehicles to own and operate these buses
along with the plants and the depots required to fuel the buses. However, the economic viability
of placing more orders and scaling up such pilot projects would only happen if a rational tax
policy is implemented.

We need measures which are available today and at affordable costs. This one measure of
pushing for biofuel buses for public transport within a specific timeline like 2020, would help
transform our public transport services, improve the health of our citizens, provide economic
impetus and create jobs. Surely a win-win proposition at a fraction of the cost associated with the
subsidy-driven push being planned for E-mobility.
When sustainability focused countries like Sweden and a developing country like Brazil have
used ethanol in a big way to achieve their environmental and economic objectives, India must
make efforts to scale up technology alternatives.

PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES OF BIOFUEL

Biofuel production techniques widely vary, depending on the type of raw material, efficiency
level, production volume, surrounding situation and end-users requirement etc (Table
2 and Figure 2).

Raw material Technique Product Product type

Vegetable oil and Hydrotreatment Biodiesel Hydro-treated

animal fat biodiesel

Algae Fermentation, extraction Biodiesel etc. Algal

and Esterification biodiesel

Lignocellulosic Advanced hydrolysis & Biomass-to-liquids (BTL): Synthetic

material fermentation Fischer-Tropsch (FT) diesel biodiesel
synthetic (bio) diesel

Lignocellulosic Advance hydrolysis and Cellulosic bioethanol Bioethanol

material fermentation

Production technique of biofuel

Algae biodiesel

Algae are aquatic oxygenic prototroph. Microalgae are considered to be attractive source for
energy for various reasons, Such as: The biomass productivities (dry weight per unit time per
unit area) of some microalgae are much higher than those of higher plants [5]. Some microalgae
grow fast. The lipid and starch contents of some microalgae are high (over 30% w/w).
Microalgae are relatively easy to cultivate. Algae can be cultivated on non arable land or in
water. Thus, the energy production by algae does not compete for land with food production [5].
However, the cost of biodiesel production from algae is very high (Figure 3). Cultivating algae
under rural conditions requires novel multi-tier, multi-cyclic approaches of sharing land area
without causing threats to food and water security as well as demand for additional fertilizer
resources by adopting multi-tier cropping (algae-paddy) in decentralized open pond systems [6].
Synthetic biodiesel

Cellulose is a polymer of sugar. Polymers are large molecules made up of simpler molecules
bound together much like links in a chain. Common, everyday biological polymers include
cellulose (in paper, cotton, and wood) and starch (in food). Cellulose is a polymer of glucose, a
simple sugar that is easily consumed by yeast to produce ethanol. Cellulose is produced by every
living being.

The three major challenges in cellulose ethanol production are; Firstly, cellulosic feed stocks
must be available in large volumes when needed by refineries. Second, the cost of converting
cellulose to ethanol or other biofuels must be reduced to a level to make it competitive with
gasoline and corn-starch ethanol. Third, the marketing, distribution, and vehicle infrastructure
must absorb the increasing volumes of renewable fuel, including cellulosic fuel mandated by the
RFS [7].

Limitations with biofuel

Biofuel is the new requirement of the global society. A number of researches have been carried
out in different part of the world on alternative source of energy. The renewable sources have a
major concern of lack of continuous supply of energy to the users, as the resources are discrete in
nature. Secondly, in most of the sources are overestimated. For instance, Jatrophais considered
as one of the most promising technology, but, later found unsuitable in terms of high investment
to seed productivity ratio. It has gradually been discontinued in India. In US, the year’s mandate
for 2011, was supposed to be 100 million gallons of cellulosic biofuel, but that was reduced to
6.5 million. Thirdly, there is debate on the use of edible oil and feed for biofuel production.
Biofuel potential

Energy consumption is increasing at 6.5 per cent per annum, while reserves of petroleum are
decreasing day by day. India’s share of crude oil production is about 1 per cent of global crude
oil production, whereas consumption amounts to 3.1 per cent of global consumption [9]. A no. of
private and Government organizations are involved in production and distribution biofuel in
India. The leaders in biofuel processing in India are, D1 Oil Plc, Reliance Industries Ltd, Godrej
Agrovet, Emami Group, Aatmiya Biofuels Pvt Ltd., Gujarat Oelo Chem Limited (GOCL), Jain
Irrigation System Ltd., Nova Bio Fuels Pvt. Ltd., Sagar Jatropha Oil Extractions Private Limited
etc.

It is wise to consider the oil yield potential of different edible and non-edible crops (Table 3),
before selecting the crop as suitable source of biodiesel production. Considering the food grain
scarcity in developing countries like India, edible major crops may be spared as a potential
source for bio-diesel production. Typical feed stocks for biodiesel production are soybean,
canola/rapeseed, sunflower, cottonseed, palm seed and palm kernel, corn and mustard seed oil.
Pork, beef and poultry fat and grease also can be converted to biodiesel. Palm oil and animal fat
may have a high free fatty acid content, which causes soap formation that has adverse effects on
downstream processing and leads to yield reduction.
WAY FORWARD

McDermott has claimed of reducing the cost of algae biofuel production by 40% with the new
process. The key advantage of this new process, he says, is that it uses a proprietary solid catalyst
developed at his company instead of liquid catalysts used by other scientists today [19]. First, the
solid catalyst can be used over and over. Second, it allows the continuously flowing production
of biodiesel, compared to the method using a liquid catalyst.