CENTRE OF STUDY FOR LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING AND SURVEYING

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

TOPIC 2: PROJECTION AND COORDINATE SYSTEM

LAS 618: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM IN LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTURE

PREPARED BY:

AZLIN ELEENA BINTI AHMAD SUHAIME 2012611216

MASMEE BINTI RAZALI 2012443288

MUHAMMAD AIMAN B. ABDUL HAKIM 2013334521

NOR ATIQAH BINTI MOHAMAD SAHLAN 2012240652

MUHAMMAD IZZULHAIRI B. MOHD RASHID 2012298124

CHECKED BY:

PN. MASBIHA BINTI MAT ISA

CIK NURULHUDA BINTI ABDUL HAMID @ YUSOFF

NO. CONTENTS PAGE

1. INTRODUCTION 3

2. PROJECTION

2.1 Introduction of projection 3

2.2 Basic types of projection
2.3 Error and distortion in projection
2.4 Example of different projections

3. COORDINATE SYSTEM

3.1 Introduction of coordinate system

3.2 Types of coordinate system
3.3 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) 10
3.4 Spatial Reference
3.5 State Plane
3.6 Datum/reference point
3.7 Mean Sea Level

4. EXAMPLE OF DIFFERENT COORDINATE/ PROJECTION SYSTEM

4.1 Cassini soldner 16

4.2 Rectified Skew Orthomorphic (RSO)
4.3 World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84)

5. Conclusion 18

6. Reference 19

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

According to The University of Washington Spatial Technology, GIS, and Remote Sensing Page,
2010, Projection and coordinate systems are a complicated topic in GIS, but they form the basis for how
a GIS can store, analyze, and display spatial data. Projections and coordinate systems are important
knowledge to have, especially if you deal with many different sets of data that come from different
sources.

2.0 PROJECTION

2.1 INTRODUCTION OF PROJECTION

According to The University of Washington Spatial Technology, GIS, and Remote Sensing Page,
2010. Best model of the earth would be a 3-dimensional solid in the same shape as the earth. Spherical
globes are often used for this purpose. However, globes have several drawbacks such as globes are
large and cumbersome. Besides, they are generally of a scale unsuitable to the purposes for which most
maps are used. Usually we want to see more detail than is possible to be shown on a globe. Standard
measurement equipment (rulers, protractors, planimeters, dot grids, etc.) cannot be used to measure
distance, angle, area, or shape on a sphere, as these tools have been constructed for use in planar
models. The latitude-longitude spherical coordinate system can only be used to measure angles, not
distances or areas.

Here is an image of a globe, displaying lines of reference. These lines can only be used for measurement
of angles on a sphere. They cannot be used for making linear or areal measurements.

parallels of latitude (Y) meridians of longitude (X) graticular network

Figure 1 : Image of a globe, displaying lines of reference

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 Positions on a globe are measured by angles rather than X, Y (Cartesian planar) coordinates. In the
image below (Figure 2) the specific point on the surface of the earth is specified by the coordinate (60 °.
E longitude, 55 den. N latitude). The longitude is measured as the number of degrees from the prime
meridian, and the latitude is measured as the number of degrees from the equator. For this reason,
projection systems have been developed. Map projections are sets
of mathematical models which transform spherical coordinates (such
as latitude and longitude) to planar coordinates (x and y). In the
process, data which actually lie on a sphere are projected onto a flat
plane or a surface. That surface can be converted to a planar section
without stretching.

Figure 2 : Coordinate obtained

from globe

Here is a simple schematic designed to show how a projection works. Imagine a glass sphere
marked with grid lines or geographic features. A light positioned in the center of the sphere shines
("projects") outward, casting shadows from the lines. A plane, cone, or cylinder (known as
a developable surface) is placed outside the sphere. Shadows are
cast upon the surface. The surface is opened flat, and the
geographic features are displayed on a flat plane. As soon as a
projection is applied, a Cartesian coordinate system (regular
measurement in X and Y dimensions) is implied. The user gets to
choose the details of the coordinate system (e.g., units, origin, and
offsets).

Figure 3 : Cylindrical projection

2.2 BASIC TYPES OF PROJECTION

According to The University of Washington Spatial Technology, GIS, and Remote Sensing Page,
2010 define three basic types of projection which are cylinders, cones, and planes.

The conic tangent case:

Conic

The conic secant case:

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 Standard parallels are where the cone touches or
slices through the globe.
The central meridian is opposite the edge where
the cone is sliced open.

Conic projections are used frequently for

mapping large areas (e.g., states, large
countries, or continents).

Different cylindrical projection orientations:

Cylindrical

The most common cylindrical projection is the

Mercator projection, which is the basis of the
UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) system.

Different orthographic projection parameters:

Planar

(Orthographic)

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 2.3 ERROR AND DISTORTION IN PROJECTION

According to the research in Spatial Technology, GIS and Remote Sensing in The University of
Washington, from the 3 basic types of projection and how distortion in distance is minimized at the place
on the surface that is closest to the sphere. Distortion increases as you travel along the surface farther
from the light source. This distortion is an unavoidable property of map projection. Although many
different map projections exist, they all introduce distortion in one or more of the following measurement
properties : Shape, Distance, True Direction and Area.

Distortion will vary in at least one of each of the above properties depending on the projection used, as
well as the scale of the map, or the spatial extent that is mapped. Whenever one type of distortion is
minimized, there will be corresponding increases in the distortion of one or more of the other properties.
There are names for the different classes of projections that minimize distortion: Those that minimize
distortion in shape are called conformal. Those that minimize distortion in distance are known
as equidistant. Those that minimize distortion in area are known as equal-area. Those minimizing
distortion in direction are called true-direction projections.

It is appropriate to choose a projection based on which measurement properties are most important to
your work. For example, if it is very important to obtain accurate area measurements (e.g., for
determining the home range of an animal species), you will select an equal-area projection.

2.4 EXAMPLE OF DIFFERENT PROJECTIONS

Here is a view of the world in several different projections, along with brief descriptions of their
properties (descriptions copied from the on-line documentation):

Mercator
(cylindrical)

Conformal. Small shapes are well represented because this projection maintains the local
angular relationships. Increasingly distorted toward the polar regions. For example, in the
Mercator projection, although Greenland is only one-eighth the size of South America,
Greenland appears to be larger. Any straight line drawn on this projection represents an actual
compass bearing. These true direction lines are rhumb lines, and generally do not describe the
shortest distance between points. Scale is true along the Equator, or along the secant latitudes.

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Miller
(cylindrical)

Minimally distorted between 45th parallels, increasingly toward the poles. Land masses are
stretched more east to west than they are north to south. Distortion increases from the Equator
toward the poles. Local angles are correct only along the Equator. Correct distance is
measured along the Equator.

Robinson
(pseudo-
cylindrical)

Shape distortion is very low within 45° of the origin and along the Equator.Distortion is very low
within 45° of the origin and along the Equator. Generally distorted. Generally, scale is made
true along latitudes 38° N and S. Scale is constant along any given latitude, and for the latitude
of opposite sign.

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Lambert
(planar)

Shape is minimally distorted, less than 2 percent, within 15° from the focal point. Beyond that,
angular distortion is more significant; small shapes are compressed radially from the center
and elongated perpendicularly. Equal-area. True direction radiating from the central point.True
at center. Scale decreases with distance from the center along radii and increases from the
center perpendicular to the radii.

Mollweide

Shape is not distorted at the intersection of the central meridian and latitudes 40° 44' N and S.
Distortion increases outward from these points and becomes severe at the edges of the
projection. Equal-area. Local angles are true only at the intersection of the central meridian and
latitudes 40° 44' N and S. Direction is distorted elsewhere. Scale is true along latitudes 40°44'
N and S. Distortion increases with distance from these lines and becomes severe at the edges
of the projection.

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Orthographic

Minimal distortion near the center; maximal distortion near the edge. The areal scale
decreases with distance from the center. Areal scale is zero at the edge of the
hemisphere.True direction from the central point. The radial scale decreases with distance
from the center and becomes zero on the edges. The scale perpendicular to the radii, along the
parallels of the polar aspect, is accurate.

Albers
(conic)

Shape is true along the standard parallels of the normal aspect (Type 1), or the standard lines
of the transverse and oblique aspects (Types 2 and 3). Distortion is severe near the poles of
the normal aspect or 90° from the central line in the transverse and oblique aspects. There is
no area distortion on any of the projections. Local angles are correct along standard parallels
or standard lines. Direction is distorted elsewhere. Scale is true along the Equator (Type 1), or
the standard lines of the transverse and oblique aspects (Types 2 and 3). Scale distortion is
severe near the poles of the normal aspect or 90° from the central line in the transverse and
oblique aspects.

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3.0 COORDINATE SYSTEM

3.1 INTRODUCTION OF COORDINATE SYSTEM

Coordinate systems enable geographic datasets to use common locations for integration. A
coordinate system is a reference system used to represent the locations of geographic features, imagery,
and observations, such as Global Positioning System (GPS) locations, within a common geographic
framework.

Each coordinate system is defined by the following: Its measurement framework, which is either
geographic (in which spherical coordinates are measured from the earth's center) or planimetric (in which
the earth's coordinates are projected onto a two-dimensional planar surface). Units of measurement
(typically feet or meters for projected coordinate systems or decimal degrees for latitude-longitude).
The definition of the map projection for projected coordinate systems. Other measurement system
properties such as a spheroid of reference, a datum, one or more standard parallels, a central meridian,
and possible shifts in the x- and y-directions. Several hundred geographic coordinate systems and a few
thousand projected coordinate systems are available for use. In addition, you can define a custom
coordinate system. Retrieved from http://resources.esri.com/help/9.3/ArcGISEngine.

3.2 TYPES OF COORDINATE SYSTEM

The following are two common types of coordinate systems used in a geographic information system
(GIS) are geographic coordinate system and projected coordinate system.

3.2.1 Geographic coordinate systems

A geographic coordinate system (GCS) uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define
locations on the earth. A GCS is often incorrectly called a datum, but a datum is only one part of a
GCS. A GCS includes an angular unit of measure, a prime meridian, and a datum (based on
a spheroid). The spheroid defines the size and shape of the earth model, while the datum connects
the spheroid to the earth's surface.

A point is referenced by its longitude and latitude values. Longitude and latitude are angles
measured from the earth's center to a point on the earth's surface. The angles often are measured in
degrees (or in grads). The following illustration shows the world as a globe with longitude and
latitude values:
In the spherical system, horizontal lines, or east–west lines, are lines of equal
latitude, or parallels. Vertical lines, or north–south lines, are lines of equal
longitude, or meridians. These lines encompass the globe and form a
gridded network called a graticule.

The line of latitude midway between the poles is called the equator. It
defines the line of zero latitude. The line of zero longitude is called the prime
meridian. For most GCSs, the prime meridian is the longitude that passes
through Greenwich, England. The origin of the graticule (0,0) is defined by where the equator and
prime meridian intersect.

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 Latitude and longitude values are traditionally measured either in decimal degrees or in degrees,
minutes, and seconds (DMS). Latitude values are measured relative to the equator and range from –
90° at the South Pole to +90° at the North Pole. Longitude values are measured relative to the prime
meridian. They range from –180° when traveling west to 180° when traveling east. If the prime
meridian is at Greenwich, then Australia, which is south of the equator and east of Greenwich, has
positive longitude values and negative latitude values.

It may be helpful to equate longitude values with x and latitude values with y. Data defined on a
geographic coordinate system is displayed as if a degree is a linear unit of measure. This method is
basically the same as the Plate Carrée projection. A physical location will usually have different
coordinate values in different geographic coordinate systems.

Geographic coordinate system is the location reference system for spatial features on the Earth’s
surface which are not easily to measure. The coordinate system provides a measurement
framework. The geographic coordinate system is defined by longitude and latitude. Both longitude
and latitude are angular measures. Longitude measures the angle east or west from the prime
meridian, and latitude measures the angle north or south of the equatorial plane.

3.2.2 Projected coordinate systems

A projected coordinate system (PCS) is defined on a flat, two-dimensional surface. Unlike a
GCS, a PCS has constant lengths, angles, and areas across the two dimensions. A PCS is always
based on a GCS that is based on a sphere or spheroid. In addition to the GCS, a PCS includes a
map projection, a set of projection parameters that customize the map projection for a particular
location, and a linear unit of measure.

3.3 UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR (UTM)

3.3.1 The history of Universal Transverse Mercator projection

The idea of the Transverse Mercator Projection has its roots in the 18th century, but it did not
come into common usage until after World War II. It has become the most used because it allows
precise measurements in meters to within 1 meter. The UTM system applies the Transverse
Mercator projection to mapping the world, using 60 pre-defined standard zones to supply
parameters. UTM zones are six degrees wide. Each zone exists in a North and South variant.

3.3.2 Universal Transverse Mercator

The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system is a specialized application of the Transverse
Mercator projection. The globe is divided into 60 north and south zones, each spanning 6° of
longitude. Each zone has its own central meridian. Zones 1N and 1S start at 180° W. The limits of
each zone are 84° N and 80° S, with the division between north and south zones occurring at the
equator. The Polar Regions use the Universal Polar Stereographic coordinate system.

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 The origin for each zone
is its central meridian and the
equator. To eliminate
negative coordinates, the
coordinate system alters the
coordinate values at the
origin. The value given to the
central meridian is the false
easting, and the value
assigned to the equator is the
false northing. A false easting
of 500,000 meters is applied.
A north zone has a false
northing of zero, while a
south zone has a false
northing of 10,000,000
meters. Image source from www.beamreach.org

3.3.3 Gauss-Krüger

Also known as Transverse Mercator, this projection is similar to the Mercator except that the
cylinder is longitudinal along a meridian instead of the equator. The result is a conformal projection
that does not maintain true directions. The central meridian is placed on the region to be highlighted.
This centering minimizes distortion of all properties in that region. This projection is best suited for
land masses that stretch north–south. The Gauss–Krüger (GK) coordinate system is based on the
Gauss–Krüger projection. The State Plane Coordinate System uses this projection for all north–
south zones. The UTM and Gauss–Krüger coordinate systems are based on the Transverse
Mercator projection.

Gauss–Krüger divides the world into zones six degrees wide. Each zone has a scale factor of 1.0
and a false easting of 500,000 meters. The central meridian of zone 1 is at 3° E. Some places also
add the zone number times one million to the 500,000 false easting value. GK zone 5 could have a
false easting value of 500,000 or 5,500,000 meters. Three degree Gauss–Krüger zones exist also.
The UTM system is similar. The scale factor is 0.9996, and the central meridian of UTM zone 1 is at
177° W. The false easting value is 500,000 meters, and southern hemisphere zones also have a
false northing of 10,000,000.

3.3.4 Limitation of Transverse Mercator

Data on a spheroid or an ellipsoid cannot be projected beyond 90° from the central meridian. In
fact, the extent on a spheroid or ellipsoid should be limited to 12–15° on both sides of the central
meridian. Beyond that range, data projected to the Transverse Mercator projection may not project
back to the same position. Data on a sphere does not have these limitations.

A new implementation called Transverse_Mercator_complex has been added to the Projection

Engine which is available in ArcGIS. It accurately projects to and from Transverse Mercator up to
80° from the central meridian. Because of the more complex mathematics involved, performance is
affected.

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 3.3.5 Application of UTM

In effect, the UTM is orient the ‘equator’

north-south (through the poles), thus
providing a north-south oriented swath of
little distortion. By changing slightly the
orientation of the cylinder onto which the
map is projected, successive swaths of
relatively undistorted regions can be
created. This is exactly what the UTM
system does. Each of these swaths is
called a UTM zone and is six degrees of
longitude wide. The first zone begins at the
International Date Line (180°, using the
geographic coordinate system). The zones
are numbered from west to east, so zone 2 begins at 174°W and extends to 168°W. The last zone
(zone 60) begins at 174°E and extends to the International Date Line.

3.4 SPATIAL REFERENCE

A spatial reference is a series of parameters that define the coordinate system and other spatial
properties for each dataset in the geodatabase. It is typical that all datasets for the same area (and in the
same geodatabase) use a common spatial reference definition.

A spatial reference includes the coordinate system, the coordinate precision with which coordinates are
stored (often referred to as the coordinate resolution), processing tolerances (such as the cluster
tolerance) and also the spatial extent covered by the dataset (often referred to as the spatial domain).
Retrieved from http://resources.esri.com/help/9.3/ArcGISEngine.

3.5 STATE PLANE

The state plane system includes different projections for each state, and frequently different
projections for different areas within each state. The State Plane system was developed in the 1930s to
simplify and codify the different coordinate and projection systems for different states within the USA.

Three conformal projections were chosen: the Lambert Conformal Conic for states that are longer in the
east-west direction, such as Washington, Tennessee, and Kentucky, the Transverse Mercator projection
for states that are longer in the north-south direction, such as Illinois and Vermont, and the Oblique
Mercator projection for the panhandle of Alaska, because it is neither predominantly north nor south, but
at an oblique angle.

To maintain an accuracy of 1 part in 10,000, it was necessary to divide many states into multiple zones.
Each zone has its own central meridian and standard parallels to maintain the desired level of accuracy.
The origin is located south of the zone boundary, and false eastings are applied so that all coordinates
within the zone will have positive X and Y values. The boundaries of these zones follow county
boundaries. Smaller states such as Connecticut require only one zone, whereas Alaska is composed of
ten zones and uses all three projections.

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 Washington is divided into 2 zones, a north zone and a south zone. Here are the projection parameters
for each zone:

1st Std. 2nd Std. Central

SPCS FIPS Origin False False
Parallel Parallel Meridian
Zone Zone Zone Projection Latitude Easting Northing
Latitude Latitude Longitude
# # ( D M S) (m) (m)
(D M S) (D M S) (D M S)
Lambert
WA_N 5601 4601 Conformal 47 30 00 48 44 00 -120 50 00 47 00 00 609601.21920 0
Conic
Lambert
WA_S 5626 4602 Conformal 45 50 00 47 20 00 -120 30 00 45 20 00 609601.21920 0
Conic

3.6 DATUM/REFERENCE POINT

[geodesy] The reference specifications of a measurement system, usually a system of coordinate

positions on a surface (a horizontal datum) or heights above or below a surface (a vertical datum).
(Environmental Systems Research Institute)

A datum is a mathematical model of the earth, which serves as the reference or base for calculating the
geographic coordinates of a location.

(Burkard 1984;Moffitt and Bossler 1998)

Below is the concept of datum use. Because of earth irregular in shape, two types of datum coordinate
system are used. Such datum are Earth-centered datum coordinate system (WGS84) for all places on
earth and for more accurate and specific data, local datum coordinate system is developed in this case
(NAD27) which is for North America region. Local datum coordinate system only works in it specific
region only, it will result in serious errors in measurement.

Figure 4 : 2 data is referred to find an accurate geographic coordinate data

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3.7 MEAN SEA LEVEL (MSL)

Mean Sea Level is defined as the zero elevation for a local area. The zero surfaces
referenced by elevation are called a vertical datum. Unfortunately for mapmakers, sea level
is not a simple surface. Since the sea surface conforms to the earth's gravitational field,
Mean Sea Level also has slight hills and valleys that are similar to the land surface but
much smoother. However, zero elevation as defined by Spain is not the same zero
elevation defined by Canada, which is why locally defined vertical datums differ from each
other.

The Mean Sea Level surface is in a state of gravitational equilibrium. It can be regarded as
extending under the continents and is a close approximation of the geoid. By definition, the
geoid describes the irregular shape of the earth and is the true zero surfaces for measuring
elevations. Because the geoid surface cannot be directly observed, heights above or below
the geoid surface can't be directly measured and are inferred by making gravity
measurements and modeling the surface mathematically.

Previously, there was no way to accurately measure the geoid so it was roughly
approximated by MSL. Although for practical purposes, at the coastline the geoid and MSL
surfaces are assumed to be essentially the same, at some spots the geoid can actually
differ from MSL by several meters.

A bench mark is a permanent mark established in a field to use as a reference point. A

bench mark can be a concrete base in which an iron bar is fixed, indicating the exact place
of the reference point. A bench mark can also be a permanent object on the farm, such as
the top of a concrete structure.

In most countries the topographical departments have established a national network of

bench marks with officially registered elevations. All bench mark heights are given in
relationship to the one national datum plane which in general is the mean sea level (MSL).

Figure 5 : show the Bench

Mark and Mean Sea Level.

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4.0 EXAMPLE OF DIFFERENT COORDINATE/ PROJECTION SYSTEM

4.1 CASSINI SOLDNER

According to ArcGIS Resources, Cassini Soldner or also called Cassini, this transverse cylindrical
projection maintains scale along the central meridian and all lines parallel to it and is neither equal area
nor conformal. It is most suited for large–scale mapping of areas predominantly north–south in extent.

In projection method, a transverse cylinder is projected conceptually onto the globe and is tangent
along the central meridian. Cassini Soldner is analogous to the Equirectangular projection in the same
way Transverse Mercator is to the Mercator projection. The name Cassini Soldner refers to the more
accurate ellipsoidal version, developed in the 19th century and used in this software. The point of
tangency is a line, specified as the central meridian. The linear graticules is the equator, central
meridian, and meridians 90° from the central meridian.
The properties of Cassini Soldner varies in shape, area, direction and distance. Shape has no distortion
along the central meridian. Distortion increases with distance from the central meridian but the direction
is generally distorted. For distance, scale distortion increases with distance from the central meridian;
however, scale is accurate along the central meridian and all lines perpendicular to the central
meridian. For area, no distortion along the central meridian. Distortion increases with distance from the
central meridian.
There is limitation in Cassini Soldner. Used primarily for large-scale mapping of areas near the central
meridian. The extent on a spheroid is limited to 5° to either side of the central meridian. Beyond that
range, data projected to Cassini Soldner may not project back to the same position. Transverse
Mercator often is preferred due to the difficulty in measuring scale and direction on Cassini–Soldner.

Normally used for large–scale maps of areas predominantly north–south in extent.

Used for the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain and some German states in the late 19th century. Also
used in Cyprus, former Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Malaysia, and the former Federal Republic of
Germany. The parameter for desktop : False Easting, False Northing, Central Meridian, Scale factor
and Latitude of origin. The parameter for workstation : Longitude of projection center, Latitude of
projection center, False Easting (meters) and False Northing (meters).

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4.2 RECTIFIED SKEWED ORTHOMORPHIC (RSO)

According to ArcGIS Resources, Rectified skewed orthomorphic (RSO). this projection is provided
with two options in ArcInfo Workstation for coordinate systems in Malaya and Borneo and is similar to
the Hotine Oblique Mercator.

For projection method, Oblique cylindrical projection. A line of true scale is drawn at an angle to the
central meridian.Line of contact is a single, oblique, great-circle line. Linear graticules is two meridians
180° apart. Shape is conformal or local shapes are true. Area increases with distance from the central
line. Distance is true along the chosen center line.
The limitation is its use is limited in ArcInfo Workstation to those areas of Borneo and Malaya for which
the projection was developed. In the ArcGIS for Desktop applications, distortion increases rapidly away
from the central line.

Parameters for desktop : False Easting, False Northing, Scale factor, Azimuth, Longitude of center,
Latitude of center, XY Plane Rotation (Rectifying angle) . For workstation : Enter: Brunei (1) or Malaysia
(2). Rectified Skewed Orthomorphic (RSO) used for coordinate systems in Malaya and Borneo.

4.3 WORLD GEODETIC SYSTEM 1984 (WGS84)

According to the research, WGS84 is an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed terrestrial reference system

and geodetic datum. WGS84 is based on a consistent set of constants and model parameters that
describe the Earth's size, shape, and gravity and geomagnetic fields. WGS84 is the standard U.S.
Department of Defense definition of a global reference system for geospatial information and is the
reference system for the Global Positioning System (GPS). It is compatible with the International
Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS). The current realization WGS84 (G1674) follows the criteria
outlined in the International Earth Rotation Service (IERS) Technical Note 21 (TN 21).

The responsible organization is the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). NGA plans to
conduct a WGS84 reference frame network adjustment in 2013 to incorporate IERS Conventions 2010
Technical Note 36 (TN 36).

Its Origin, Earth’s center of mass being defined for the whole Earth including oceans and
atmosphere. Z-Axis at the direction of the IERS Reference Pole (IRP). This direction corresponds to
the direction of the BIH Conventional Terrestrial Pole (CTP) (epoch 1984.0) with an uncertainty of
0.005". X-Axis at Intersection of the IERS Reference Meridian (IRM) and the plane passing through
the origin and normal to the Z-axis. The IRM is coincident with the BIH Zero Meridian (epoch 1984.0)
with an uncertainty of 0.005". Y-Axis at Completes a right-handed, Earth-Centered Earth-Fixed
(ECEF) orthogonal coordinate system. Its scale is that of the local Earth frame, in the meaning of a
relativistic theory of gravitation. Aligns with ITRS.

Its orientation given by the Bureau International de l’Heure (BIH) orientation of 1984.0.Time Evolution
is time evolution in orientation will create no residual global rotation with regards to the crust.

17
 4.3.1 WGS 84 Relationships with other Geodetic Systems

One of the principal purposes of a world geodetic system is to allow referencing of local
geodetic systems to a single geocentric system. The number of local geodetic systems, or local
horizontal datums, requiring such referencing is extensive. Counting island and/or astronomic-
based datums, the number exceeds several hundred. To accomplish the conversion, local geodetic
system and WGS coordinates are both required at one or more sites within the local datum area so
that local geodetic system-to-WGS datum shifts can be formed. Doppler stations positioned within
WGS 84 with known local geodetic system coordinates were the basic ingredient in the
development of Local Geodetic System-to-WGS 84 Datum Shifts. A total of 1,591 such Doppler
stations was available for that purpose.

The most accurate approach for obtaining WGS 84 coordinates is to acquire satellite tracking data
at the site of interest and position it directly in WGS 84 using the Satellite Point Positioning
technique. However, it is unrealistic to presume that use of this technique will always be possible. If
direct positioning is not possible, the transformation from WGS 72 to WGS 84 or from local geodetic
system to WGS 84 can be used.

5.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, projection and coordinate systems form the basis for how a GIS can store, analyze, and
display spatial data. Projections and coordinate systems are important knowledge to have, especially if
you deal with many different sets of data that come from different sources.

As for projection, the best model of the earth would be a 3-dimensional solid in the same shape as the
earth. Spherical globes are often used for this purpose. However, globes have several drawbacks such as
globes are large and cumbersome. Besides, they are generally of a scale unsuitable to the purposes for
which most maps are used. Standard measurement equipment (rulers, protractors, planimeters, dot grids,
etc.) cannot be used to measure distance, angle, area, or shape on a sphere, as these tools have been
constructed for use in planar models. The latitude-longitude spherical coordinate system can only be used
to measure angles, not distances or areas.

Coordinate systems enable geographic datasets to use common locations for integration. A coordinate
system is a reference system used to represent the locations of geographic features, imagery, and
observations, such as Global Positioning System (GPS) locations, within a common geographic
framework.

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6.0 REFERENCES

6.1 Website

http://downloads2.esri.com/ESRIpress/images/171/Chapter1.pdf
http://resources.esri.com/help/9.3/ArcGISEngine/dotnet/89b720a5-7339-44b0-8b58-0f5bf2843393.htm
https://courses.washington.edu/gis250/lessons/projection/
The University of Washington Spatial Technology, GIS, and Remote
Sensing Page is supported by the School of Forest Resources
courses.washington.edu/gis250/lessons/projection/

http://resources.arcgis.com - ArcGIS Resources

Source : confluence.qps.nl/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=29855173 - hydrographic and marine

software solutions

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