Child Development, January/February 2003, Volume 74, Number 1, Pages 238–256

Preschool Emotional Competence: Pathway to Social Competence?

Susanne A. Denham, Kimberly A. Blair, Elizabeth DeMulder, Jennifer Levitas, Katherine Sawyer,
Sharon Auerbach-Major, and Patrick Queenan

Preschoolers’ (N 5 143) patterns of emotional expressiveness, emotion regulation, and emotion knowledge were
assessed. Their contributions to social competence, as evidenced by sociometric likability and teacher ratings,
were evaluated via latent variable modeling, both concurrently and across time. Moderation of key results by
age and sex was also explored. Emotional competence assessed at 3 to 4 years of age contributed to both
concurrent and kindergarten social competence. Even early in the preschool period, contributions of emotional
competence to social competence have long-term implications.

Emotional competence is crucial to children’s ability
to interact and form relationships with others (Parke,
1994; Saarni, 1990). As Saarni (1990) stated, ‘‘We are
talking about how [children] can respond emotion-
ally, yet simultaneously and strategically apply their
knowledge about emotions and their expression to
relationships with others, so that they can negotiate
interpersonal exchanges and regulate their emo-
tional experiences’’ (p. 116). Although these aspects
of emotional competence and others continue to
develop throughout the lifespan, preschool–aged
children already are adept at several component
skills of emotional competence (Dunn, 1994). They
begin to express a variety of vivid, but not
incapacitating, emotions. As well, preschoolers are
becoming able to discern their own and others’
emotional states, and to talk about them fluently.
Finally, they are beginning to ‘‘up-’’or ‘‘down’’-
Susanne A. Denham, Department of Psychology, George Mason
University; Kimberly Blair, Department of Counseling, Psychol-
ogy, and Special Education, Duquesne University; Elizabeth
DeMulder, Initiatives in Educational Transformation, George
Mason University; Jennifer Levitas, Katherine Sawyer, and Sharon
Auerbach-Major, Department of Psychology, George Mason
University; Patrick Queenan, Devereux Foundation.
The National Institutes of Mental Health grant R01MH54019
supported the research discussed here while all authors were at
George Mason University. A preliminary version was presented at
the 1997 meetings of the Society for Research in Child Develop-
ment. The authors thank the many children, as well as nursery
school and daycare directors and teachers, who gave so much
time and goodwill so that we could learn about emotional
competence, as well as Krysti Batt, Cameron Caswell, Sarah
Caverly, Rene Hackney, Teresa Mason, Rebecca Sears, and
Meredith Vickery, who assisted in gathering data presented here.
Wynne Chin was an invaluable source of support with respect to
LVPLS analyses.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Susanne A. Denham, Department of Psychology, George Mason
University, 4400 University Drive, Fairfax VA 22030-4444 (703-993-
4081). Electronic mail may be sent to sdenham@gmu.edu.
regulate emotions, depending on their goals
(Denham, 1998; Saarni, 1990).
Each of the constituent elements of preschoolers’
emotional competence contributes to the crucial task
of social competence from 2 to 5 years: successful
initiation of peer relationships (Howes, 1987; Parker
& Gottman, 1989). During this period, children
become more skilled at interacting and at managing
the emotions so prominent during these initial
forays into the peer arena. The young child who
negotiates this developmental task is in good
position to continue thriving in a social world. In
fact, successful, independent interaction with age-
mates is a central predictor of later mental health
and well-being, beginning during preschool and
continuing through during the grade school years
when peer reputations solidify (Denham & Holt,
1993; Parker & Asher, 1987; Robins & Rutter, 1990).
It is important to specify the ways emotional and
social competence are highly related but still separ-
able constructs. Rose-Krasnor’s (1997) recent theo-
rizing is useful in this regard. At the most abstract
level, she defined the construct of social competence
as effectiveness in interaction, the result of organized
behaviors that meet short- and long-term develop-
mental needs. In the case of preschoolers, socially
competent behaviors would be organized, as already
noted, around the central developmental tasks of
positive engagement and self-regulation during peer
interaction. Within this theoretical view of social
competence, it also is necessary to decide whether to
focus on self or otherFAre we interested in
accessing the child’s success in meeting personal
goals, or their interpersonal connectedness? Our
focus here is on adaptation with peers and in the
school environment, the ongoing social relations and
interactions of children in their social group (Rubin
r 2003 by the Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.
All rights reserved. 0009-3920/2003/7401-0017

& Ross, 1988). Finally, at the most detailed level,
Rose-Krasnor’s model of social competence includes
specific social, emotional, and cognitive abilities,
behaviors, and motivations that are primarily in-
dividual. It is at this level that specific components
of emotional competence may contribute to more
general social competence.
The importance of these social competence out-
comes should not be underestimated. Along with
marking successful development and predicting
later well-being, social competence is increasingly
recognized as vital to school readiness (Carlton &
Winsler, 1999). For example, socially competent
kindergartners are more successful than their less
competent counterparts in developing positive atti-
tudes about and adjusting to school, and they get
better grades and achieve more (Birch & Ladd, 1997;
Ladd, 1990; Ladd, Birch, & Buhs, 1999; Ladd,
Kochenderfer, & Coleman, 1996). More specifically,
social-emotional indicators, including positive inter-
actions with teachers, positive representations of self
derived from attachment relationships, emotion
knowledge, emotion regulatory abilities, social skills,
and nonrejected peer status, often uniquely predict
academic success when other pertinent variables,
even earlier academic success, are already taken into
account (e.g., Carlton, 2000; Howes & Smith, 1995;
Izard et al., 2001; Jacobsen & Hofmann, 1997; O’Neil,
Welsh, Parke, Wang, & Strand, 1997; Pianta, 1997,
Pianta, Steinberg, & Rollins, 1995; Shields et al.,
2001). For example, when children enter school with
friends, are well liked, are able to make and sustain
new friendships, and are able to initiate positive
relationships with their teachers, they also feel more
positive about school, participate in school more,
and achieve more than children who are not
described this way. Kindergartners who are victi-
mized by peers or are aggressive, in contrast, have
more school-adjustment problems and are at risk for
a potential cascade of problems, including school
difficulties, delinquency, and drug abuse (Gagnon,
Craig, Tremblay, Zhou, & Vitaro, 1995; Haapasalo &
Tremblay 1994; Kochenderfer & Ladd, 1996; Trem-
blay, Pagani-Kurtz, Masse, Vitaro, & Pihl, 1995).
Because social competence is so important, and
apparently so intertwined with aspects of emotional
competence, we need to better understand its
emotional prerequisites. To maximize social compe-
tence, researchers and others must carefully scruti-
nize how elements of emotional competence work
together to allow preschoolers to mobilize personal
and environmental resources. First, children’s emo-
tional expressiveness is a central aspect of their
emotional competence. For example, positive affect
Preschool Emotional Competence 239
is important in the initiation and regulation of social
exchanges; sharing positive affect may facilitate the
formation of friendships and render one more
likable (Denham, McKinley, Couchoud, & Holt,
1990; Sroufe, Schork, Motti, Lawroski, & LaFreniere,
1984). Conversely, negative affect, especially anger,
can be problematic in social interaction (Denham
et al., 1990; Rubin & Clark, 1983; Rubin & Daniels–
Byrness, 1983). Children who express and experi-
ence relatively more positive than negative emotions
are rated higher by teachers on dimensions such as
friendliness and assertiveness, and lower on dimen-
sions such as aggressiveness and sadness. Such
children also respond more prosocially to peers’
emotions and are seen as more likable by their peers
(Bower, 1985; Denham, 1986; Denham et al., 1990;
Denham, Renwick, & Holt, 1991; Eisenberg, Fabes,
Murphy et al., 1996; Sroufe et al., 1984; Strayer, 1980).
From a functionalist perspective (Campos &
Barrett, 1984), it is easy to envision why children’s
enduring patterns of emotional expressiveness are
such potent intrapersonal supports for, or road-
blocks to, interacting with age-mates. If a child is
often emotionally negative, especially angry, it is no
wonder when his peers flatly assert, as did one of
our 3-year-old participants, ‘‘He hits. He bites. He
kicked me this morning. I don’t like him.’’ But the
happier child’s smile and body language are like
beacons signaling, ‘‘Come join me’’ to adults and
age-mates alike.
Emotion knowledge is the second key component
of young children’s emotional competence. Children
who understand emotions also are more prosocially
responsive to their peers, and rated as more socially
competent by teachers, and more likable by their
peers (Denham, 1986; Denham et al., 1990; Strayer,
1980). Children who can identify the expression on a
peer’s face or comprehend the emotions elicited by
common social situations are more likely to react
prosocially to their peers’ displays of emotion. For
example, if a preschooler sees one peer bickering
with another and correctly deduces that the peer
suddenly experiences sadness or fear, rather than
intensified anger, she may comfort her friend rather
than retreat or enter the fray. Interactions with such
an emotionally knowledgeable age-mate would
likely be viewed as satisfying, rendering that
playmate more likable. Similarly, teachers are likely
to be attuned to the behavioral evidence of such
emotion knowledgeFthe use of emotion language,
the sympathetic reactionFand to evaluate it posi-
tively. Emotion knowledge allows preschoolers to
react appropriately to others, thus bolstering their
relationships. In earlier work, we found links
240 Denham et al.
between emotion knowledge and expressiveness
and prosocial behavior and peer status (Denham,
1986; Denham et al., 1990; Denham & McKinley,
1993).
Emotion regulation is the third vital aspect of
emotional competence. When the intensity, duration,
or other parameters of the experience and expression
of emotion are ‘‘too much’’ or ‘‘too little’’ to meet
goals and expectations of the child or social partners,
emotion regulation is needed. During the preschool
period, emotion regulation becomes both necessary,
because of the increasing complexity of children’s
emotionality and the demands of their social world,
and possible, because of their increased comprehen-
sion and control of their emotionality (Denham,
1998; Lewis, Sullivan, & Vasen, 1987).
Thompson (1994) suggested the following defini-
tion: ‘‘Emotion regulation consists of the extrinsic
and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring,
evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions y to
accomplish one’s goals’’ (pp. 27–28). Given our focus
on emotion regulation’s contribution to evaluations
of preschoolers’ social competence made by poten-
tial social partners, we focused on children’s ability
to overtly modify their emotional reactions: that is,
their coping (Denham, 1998; Gross, 1998; Losoya,
Eisenberg, & Fabes, 1998).
Young preschoolers often need external support
to become skilled at such coping regulation; care-
givers’ support allows their strategies to be maxi-
mally effective (Kopp, 1989). As they become more
autonomous and more capable of cooperation, older
preschoolers can collaborate with caregivers’ efforts
to regulate their emotions. But, failures of emotion
regulation can still be seen throughout the preschool
period, in outbursts of temper and distress that may
impede social interaction (Bridges & Grolnick, 1994;
Cole, Michel, & Teti, 1994).
Maternal and teacher reports of such emotion
regulatory coping are associated with social compe-
tence (e.g., Eisenberg et al., 1995). For example, some
investigators have discovered negative associations
of ineffective emotion regulation and high emotional
negativity with preschoolers’ and older children’s
adult-rated social competence (Eisenberg et al., 1995;
Eisenberg, Fabes, Murphy, et al., 1996, Eisenberg,
Fabes, Guthrie, et al., 1996; Eisenberg, Fabes, et al.,
1997; Eisenberg, Guthrie, et al., 1997). In particular,
sympathetic responsiveness is related to both dysre-
gulation and negativity, and their interaction (Eisen-
berg, Fabes, Murphy, et al., 1996; Murphy, Shepard,
Eisenberg, Fabes, & Guthrie, 1999). Because of earlier
research findings, we focused on lapses of emotion
regulation via emotional venting and the interaction
of such venting and children’s expressed anger. We
reasoned that social competence would be most
evident when venting and expressed anger were
low, both separately and in combination.
Extant research has examined the constituents of
emotional competence piecemeal, one or two at a
time. None that we know have looked at all three
components of emotional competence outlined here,
to assess their unique contributions to multiple
assessments of social competence. We need to better
specify how these critical aspects of emotional
competence contribute, in concert, to social compe-
tence, particularly to make findings useful for
parents and early childhood educators who wish to
foster social competence in their youngsters. Accord-
ingly, our main goal in this study was to examine a
model of the prediction of social competence by
young children’s own emotional competence, to
both replicate and extend our earlier work (see
Figure 1 for the overall hypothesized model).
Enduring patterns of emotional expressiveness,
emotion situation knowledge, and emotion regula-
tory coping (i.e., the absence of dysregulated venting
in response to experienced problem situations, as
well as the absence of dysregulated negative reac-
tions to the emotional expression of peers) were used
to predict indices of social competence. We at-
tempted to gain a full picture of each participant’s
social competence by assessing multiple dimensions,
including likability, oppositionality, isolation, and
sensitive cooperation, from the differing perspec-
tives of peers and teachers, and across periods from
preschool to kindergarten. Both concurrent predic-
tion of social competence at age 3 to 4 and
longitudinal prediction of social competence in
kindergarten were assessed, with age 3 to 4
emotional competence components as predictors.
The longitudinal analyses allow us to make clearer
statements about direction of effect in the emotional
competence and social competence linkage. We
evaluated our model via latent variable partial least
squares (LVPLS) modeling so that we could not only
examine the separate contributions of latent vari-
ables for each aspect of emotional competence, but
also their combined contributions. Finally, we
evaluated a competing model, in which age 3 to 4
social competence predicted aspects of emotional
competence, which in turn predicted kindergarten
social competence; perhaps early capabilities to
interact with teachers and peers concurrently pro-
mote aspects of emotional competence.
We also examined possible age and sex differ-
ences in the contribution of preschoolers’ emotional
competence to their social competence. Thus, we
 Preschool Emotional Competence 241

Emotional
Expressiv.

Emotion Age 3 to 4
Knowledge Social
Competence

Emotion
Regulation

Sex × Emotional
Expressiveness

Sex ×
Emotion
Knowledge

Sex ×
Emotion Kindergarten
Regulation Social
Competence

Emotional
Expressiv. × Age ×
Emotion Emotion
Regulation Knowledge

Age ×
Emotion
Regulation

Figure 1. Overall hypothesized model, including cross-time relations for social competence, with main effect contributions of emotional
competence to social competence, as well as contributions moderated by sex, age, and, for the contribution of emotion regulation,
emotional expressiveness.

evaluated moderation of the contribution of ele-
ments of emotional competence by child sex and
age. Regarding gender moderation, the development
of boys’ social competence seems particularly
sensitive to individual differences in emotional
competence (Murphy, 1999; Denham, Mitchell-Cope-
land, Strandberg, Auerbach, & Blair, 1997; Eisenberg,
Fabes, Guthrie, et al., 1996). Also, based on our
supposition that sex of child would moderate those
aspects of emotional competence that differ most in
terms of gender, we were interested especially in
how child sex moderated the contributions of
indices of emotion regulation. However, it could
also be that patterns of expressiveness would
contribute to others’ evaluations of boys’ social
competence differently from those of girls; perhaps
boys are expected to exhibit some level of dominant
negative emotion, so that such expressiveness
patterns would be most notable in evaluations of
girls’ social competence. Along the same lines,
perhaps strengths in emotion knowledge particu-
larly bolster the social competence of boys, whose
pathways to social competence appear less multiply
determined.
As well, based on our supposition that age would
moderate those aspects of emotional competence on
which it exerts effects, we were interested in how it
moderated the contributions of emotion knowledge
and emotion regulation indices. The nascent social
competence of younger, as opposed to older,
preschoolers also might be supported or compro-
mised by unique aspects of emotional competence or
242 Denham et al.
its lack (see Denham, 1998, for age- and gender-
dependent patterns development for emotional
competence). In particular, because both emotion
knowledge and emotion regulation become more
sophisticated with age (with emotional expressive-
ness changing more in quality than quantity;
Denham, 1998), we could expect that the contribu-
tions of these two aspects of emotional competence
might afford the younger preschooler with special
‘‘boosts’’ toward effective social interaction.
Method
Participants
We examined the emotional and social compe-
tence of 143 predominantly Caucasian, middle-
income 3- and 4-year-olds (75 boys) in a multisetting,
multimethod design (age: M 5 46 months, SD 5 4.88
months; range 5 32–59 months) at the time of
observation during preschool. The median annual
income range for these families was $30,000 to
$50,000. Of the total sample, 74% were described as
Caucasian. The modal level of education for mothers
was graduation from college, and 88% of the
children lived in two-parent homes. By the kinder-
garten year, we were able to reconnect with only 104
of these children, but there were no differences on
any study variables measured when children were
age 3 to 4 between children who continued the study
through kindergarten and those who did not.
Procedure
To obtain the data discussed here we both
interviewed and observed children, and adminis-
tered questionnaires to their parents at home and to
teachers in preschool or daycare settings. We thus
sought to view various aspects of the children’s
emotional and social competence at two time points,
during preschool and kindergarten.
Various preschool and daycare centers in the
Washington, D.C., metropolitan area were targeted
based on past liaison relationships and director
willingness to participate. Recruitment was a multi-
tiered process. First, graduate research assistants
and their research advisor met with center directors
and teachers to inform them of the role researchers
were to play in their classrooms during the year, as
well as to build rapport. Second, letters briefly
explaining the research study and encouraging
parents to be involved were sent home to the
families of each child in the appropriate age range.
Third, team members attended parent meetings and
open houses to further personalize the research
efforts. Approximately 25% of families recruited
decided to participate in the study. More than 95% of
those evidencing interest in this family component
continued on to complete participation, including
the elements reported on here. Because of this low
initial interest rate, we compared these families’ with
families from two earlier samples, one of which also
involved heavy family participation (Denham et al.,
1997) and one of which did not involve the burden of
home visits, with a greater than 75% participation
(Denham et al., 1990). T tests comparing the current
sample and these two earlier samples on demo-
graphic and study variables showed virtually no
significant differences in mean levels across the
samples. Thus, we concluded that the low participa-
tion rate for this study did not result in biases. Active
informed consent was obtained from the parents of
all children in the study.
Mothers received a packet of questionnaires
during a home visit in which observations unrelated
to this study were performed. Home visitors
collected the questionnaires in person later, provid-
ing clarification as needed. Children were observed
in their preschool for their expression of emotions
and reactions to peer emotions. Teachers also
completed questionnaires, one of which was ger-
mane to this study, and classmates provided socio-
metric ratings for each participant. Emotional
competence measures were administered when
children were 3 to 4 years old, with social compe-
tence measured both at 3 to 4 years and 5 to 6 years
(i.e., kindergarten).
Measure of Emotional Competence: Preschool, Ages 3 to 4
Previously developed observational methodolo-
gies were used to examine (a) the emotions
expressed by children during free play, and (b) their
reactions to their peers’ emotions during free play.
Semistructured interviews were used to assess
children’s knowledge about their emotions. Care
was taken for assistants familiar to the children (but
not those who observed them in the home) to
administer all measures in the classroom. A pre-
viously developed questionnaire was used for
maternal report of children’s typical styles of
emotion regulation.
Naturalistic observation of emotions in the preschool
Children were observed in their classroom set-
ting, during free play, by coders using laptop

computers and software designed by Roberts (2002).
Researchers made event-based recordings for 5-min
trials. Participants were each observed for twelve
sessions of two 5-min trials over approximately 6
weeks. Observers obtained twenty-four 5-min ob-
servations for each child (12 with the child as focal,
counting his or her emotions, and 12 with the child
as target, counting his or her reactions to peers’
emotions).
Each participating child was viewed as the focal
child in the first 5-min interval of each session.
During these intervals, the focal child’s happy, sad,
angry, afraid, tender, hurt, other, and neutral emo-
tional displays were recorded. These emotions were
operationally defined by facial, vocal, and motor
indices (see Denham, 1986; Denham et al., 1990). The
average kappa for categorization of emotion dis-
plays, across raters, was .85 (see also Denham et al.,
1997). Each emotion was quantified as its percentage
of total emotion displays. Because afraid, hurt,
tender, and ‘‘other’’ emotions each accounted for
less than 3% of emotion displays, these emotions
were not considered further.
Understanding of emotion. Children’s understand-
ing of emotion (identification of emotions unequi-
vocally appropriate to certain situations, and
inferences of emotions in equivocal situations) was
assessed using puppets with detachable faces that
depicted happy, sad, angry, and afraid expressions.
Because these measures have been described in
detail elsewhere (Denham, 1986; Denham &
Couchoud, 1990a, 1990b; Denham, Zoller, &
Couchoud, 1994), they are summarized as follows:
In the emotional situation identification tasks, the
puppeteer made standard facial and vocal expres-
sions of emotions while enacting an emotion–laden
story. Each child was asked to place on the puppet the
face that depicted the puppet’s feeling in the situation.
The first emotional situation identification task
explored how well children know others’ feelings in
eight common situations that elicited unequivocal
emotional reactions, such as happiness at being given
an ice cream cone or fear at having a nightmare
(Borke, 1971; Denham, 1986). The second emotional
situation identification task measured how well
children identified others’ feelings in situations where
the other feels differently from the child under similar
circumstances. All situations could elicit one of two
emotions, as in feeling happy or afraid to get into a
swimming pool (Denham, 1986; Denham & Cou-
choud, 1990b). Children’s mothers had reported, via a
forced–choice questionnaire, how their children
would feel in 12 such vignettes. For each vignette,
their response determined the emotion expressed by
Preschool Emotional Competence 243
the puppet. That is, the emotion expressed by the
puppet did not match what the mother had reported
the child would feel. Emotion situation items were
summed for the unequivocal emotion situations
aggregate (a 5 .79 for eight items), equivocal emotion
situations pitting positive and negative emotions
(a 5 .84 for six items), and equivocal emotion situa-
tions pitting two negative emotions (a 5 .69 for six
items).
Lapses of emotion regulation: Maternal reports of
coping behavior via venting. Children’s coping beha-
vior when faced with emotionally difficult situations
with peers was assessed with coping items devel-
oped by Eisenberg, Fabes, Nyman, Bernzweig, and
Pinuelas (1994). Mothers indicated on a 7-point
scale, with 1 indicating never and 7 indicating
usually, how often the child would engage in each
of several types of coping behavior when confronted
with an emotionally arousing problem situation. As
already noted, for this study we were interested only
in dysregulated emotion regulationFthat is, coping
via venting emotional expressiveness or behavior.
For this index, item content reflected: instrumental
aggression (e.g., hitting another child to obtain a
goal), emotional intervention (e.g., crying to elicit
help from others), emotional outbursts (e.g., crying
to release frustration), and emotional aggression
(using aggression to release frustration). Cronbach’s
alpha for the four-item summed venting scale
equaled .67.
Lapses of emotion regulation: Naturalistic observation
of coping behavior via negative reactions to peers’
emotions. Our rationale in including the following
index was that others’ emotions, particularly at this
age, can be dysregulating and thus often require
coping efforts. Accordingly, in the second 5-min
interval of each observational period described
earlier, children within approximately 3 ft of the
study child were observed as the focal entity while
the study child was observed for his or her reactions.
Again, the context of these observations was always
free play. Target reactions that denoted dysregulated
coping included: opposite affect match (e.g., happy
when focal is sad), matching negative affect, dis-
playing hurt feelings, and antisocial (e.g., volition-
ally exacerbating focal child’s problem; Denham,
1986; Denham et al., 1990).
For indices of children’s reactions to emotions, the
total for each reaction was divided by the number of
emotions reacted to, to generate a proportion of
occurrence for each. These reactions were then
summed to produce an aggregate parallel to the
maternally reported data on venting coping. Aver-
age kappa for categorization of reactions to peers’
244 Denham et al.
emotion displays, across raters, was .82 (see also
Denham et al., 1997). Cronbach’s alpha for this four-
item rationally derived aggregate equaled .44.
Measures of Social Competence: Preschool (Ages 3 to 4)
and Kindergarten (Ages 5 to 6)
The present study assessed social competence via
three methods, each addressing unique aspects of
this multifaceted construct (Rose-Krasnor, 1997). All
of the children in the class were asked to rate their
peers on a continuum of likability to obtain a
measure of popularity. Teachers also rated each
child’s social competence in the classroom, as
viewed from their perspective. All measures were
administered both in preschool and in kindergarten
years.
Teacher-rated social competence. Teachers and day-
care providers rated children’s social competence in
the classroom via questionnaires. They were unin-
formed of the study’s hypotheses and completed the
questionnaires after they had known children for at
least 2 months. The Social Competence and Behavior
Evaluation Short Form (SCBE) was used (LaFreniere
& Dumas, 1996). On the 30-item version of this well-
validated measure, teachers rate children on 6-point
scales that address different social behaviors asso-
ciated with the child’s capacity to modulate affect.
Three scale scores may be computed from the
teacher ratings on specific items: (a) an angry-
aggressive scale (e.g., often angry, defiant when
reprimanded), (b) an anxious-withdrawn scale (e.g.,
avoids new situations; sad, unhappy, depressed),
and (c) a sensitive-cooperative scale (e.g., comforts
or assists children in difficulty, takes other children’s
viewpoints into account).
As seen in the previous examples, both the angry-
aggressive scale and the anxious-withdrawn scale
contain items that overlap conceptually with our
observed emotion and dysregulated emotion vari-
ables. Thus, because of possible problems of includ-
ing items referring to anger and aggressive venting
in measurement of both emotional and social
competence, we first created a new oppositional
subscale using only items from the angry-aggressive
scale that did not refer directly or solely to anger and
aggression (e.g., the first angry-aggressive item
listed earlier). Our means of limiting items was
derived from our work on emotion language
(Denham, Cook, & Zoller, 1992); wherever an item
contained a word that we would code as an emotion
word, it was deleted. Using this reasoning, we also
created an isolated subscale using only items from the
anxious-withdrawn scale that did not refer directly
or solely to sadness and anxiety (e.g., the second
anxious-withdrawn item referred to earlier).
Cronbach’s alphas for the oppositional subscale
equaled .83 and .78 for preschool and kindergarten,
respectively. Cronbach’s alphas for the isolated
subscale equaled .78 and .77 for preschool and
kindergarten, respectively. Cronbach’s alphas for the
unaltered sensitive-cooperative scale equaled .90
and .82 for preschool and kindergarten, respectively.
Peer-rated social competence. All children in the
classroom with parental consent (study participants
and nonparticipants) were taken out of the class-
room by a familiar adult and presented with a set of
photographs of all of their classmates (Asher,
Singleton, Tinsley, & Hymel, 1979). Children first
named all classmates’ photographs, to assure recog-
nition. Then, using ample vocal and facial emotion
cues to model the task, the researcher placed one
plastic play person in each of three small boxes
marked with sketched drawings. The like-a-lot box
was marked with a smiling face, the kinda like box
was marked with a flat-mouthed face, and the do not
like box was marked with a frowning face. After this
demonstration rating the likability of the plastic play
people, each child was asked to place each of his or
her peers’ pictures into the happy face, neutral face,
or unhappy face boxes, according to how much he or
she liked to play with each peer. At the completion
of picture placement, each child chose a sticker
reward and was asked to make up his or her own
stories with puppets. Concluding with this neutral,
constructive activity ensured that the peer rating had
no negative effect on the child’s social interactions
after returning to the classroom.
Based on the sociometric component of the task,
each child in the study received scores for both the
number of positive ratings and the number of
negative ratings from their classmates. One-year
test–retest reliabilities for these scores were .38 and
.34, respectively, pso.01 (df 5 141). A peer likability
score for each child was computed by subtracting the
number of negative ratings from the number of
positive ratings and dividing by the total number of
ratings (see also Denham & Holt, 1993; Denham
et al., 1990; Denham, et al., 1997; a 5 .75).
In kindergarten, the procedure was changed
slightly. Because of the new cognitive abilities of
their age, children were presented with 1  5 in.
cards with the name of each classmate, one per card.
Children matched these cards to the appropriate
placement on a 1- to 5-point graphic ‘‘smiley face’’
liking scale. Thus, a 5-point Likert rating scale
resulted; we recorded the number of times each
participant child’s name was placed on each of the
 Preschool Emotional Competence 245

five way points. Then, a weighted sum (with sadness in the preschool. They showed good levels
weights of 5 to 1 for each way point, from liked most of emotion understanding for their ages. It is not
to liked least) was created for kindergarten peer surprising that mothers reported some emotional
likability. venting. In terms of social competence indices,
teachers rated children at both ages as relatively
sensitive/cooperative, and not very oppositional or
Results
isolated; children were moderately well liked. There
Preliminary Analyses appeared to be adequate variation for correlational
analyses.
First, Kendall nonparametric correlations examin-
Correlational analyses. Associations of manifest
ing the relations between individual demographic
variables for predictors and criteria are shown in
variables (i.e., family income, race, parental educa-
Table 2. These preliminary analyses are followed by
tion, perinatal complications, and child’s past or
reports of associations among latent variables
current use of medications) and the predictor and
calculated by LVPLS.
criterion variables were conducted. Because the
Taking relations among predictors first, aspects of
number of significant results was less than the
emotional expressiveness were related as expected,
number expected by chance, none of these demo-
as were elements of emotion understanding. The
graphic variables were used as covariates in later
two indices of emotion regulation were, however,
analyses.
unrelated. Next, examining relations between sets of
Descriptive statistics. The group of participants as
predictors, previously noted associations between
a whole appeared positive in terms of both emo-
emotional expressiveness and understanding of
tional and social competence (see Table 1). The
emotion were replicated (Denham, 1986), and
children’s emotional profiles showed a predomi-
observed regulation was related to emotional ex-
nance of happiness, with some anger and little
pressiveness (happiness and anger).
Moving onto correlations among criteria, associa-
tions among the SCBE scales and sociometric
Table 1
likability were mostly significant both at ages 3 to
Descriptions of Measures
4 and in kindergarten. Cross-time correlations for
Measure M SD Possible two of the four indices also were significant, albeit
range small in magnitudeFprobably due to differences in
ratersFacross the 2-year period.
Emotional competence
Expressiveness
We next examined correlations between predictors
Happy displays .79 .16 0–1 and criteria. Emotional expressiveness patterns were
Sad displays .05 .12 ‘‘ largely unrelated to the social competence evalua-
Angry displays .11 .11 ‘‘ tions of important others. In contrast, ability to
Understanding understand equivocal negative emotional situations
Emotion knowledge: unequivocal 14.24 2.40 0–16 was related to teachers’ evaluations of social
Emotion knowledge: Equivocal 10.41 2.53 0–12 competence during kindergarten. Thus, one type of
Positive vs. negative emotion understanding was related in an interpre-
Emotion knowledge: equivocal 9.75 2.63 0–12 table way to later social competence evaluations.
Negative vs. negative
Regarding emotion regulation, 3-year-olds who were
Emotion regulation: maternal report
depicted by mothers as resorting to dysregulated
Emotional venting 15.06 3.70 4–28
Emotion regulation: observed
venting were seen by teachers as more oppositional
Emotional venting .10 .11 0–1 and by peers as less likable at age 3 to 4. The same
3- to 4-year-old social competence associations held true for observed emotion regula-
SCBE oppositional 14.71 7.95 10–42 tion. The same observational index predicted con-
SCBE isolated 16.05 7.61 10–42 current teachers’ ratings of oppositionality, as well as
SCBE sensitive-cooperative 42.10 9.48 10–60 lower peer ratings of likability.
Sociometric likability aggregate .33 .37 1–1
Kindergarten social competence
SCBE oppositional 11.44 6.16 10–42 Evaluation of Longitudinal Models
SCBE isolated 15.16 6.19 10–42
To continue exploring the links between aspects
SCBE sensitive-cooperative 44.87 7.63 10–60
of emotional competence and social competence, we
Sociometric likability aggregate 3.41 0.44 1–5
sought to best summarize the patterns of covariation
 246
Denham et al.
Table 2
Intercorrelations Among Elements of Longitudinal Model

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Emotional competence
Expressiveness
1. Happy y
2. Sad .64nnn y
3. Angry .53nnn .16 y
Understanding
4. Emotion knowledge: unequivocal .31nn .26nn .07 y
5. Emotion knowledge: equivocal, pos./neg. .18 .20n .01 .58nnn y
6. Emotion knowledge: equivocal, neg./neg. .20n .19n .02 .60nnn .63nnn y
Emotion regulation: maternal report
7. Venting .02 .01 .01 .04 .04 .05 y
Emotion regulation: observed
8. Venting .31nnn .05 .49nnn .00 .01 .01 .06 y
3 to 4 year-old social competence
9. SCBE oppositional .05 .02 .16 .11 .03 .08 .20n .30nn y
10. SCBE isolated .15 .00 .21n .07 .06 .15 .03 .11 .16 y
11. SCBE sensitive-cooperative .01 .03 .04 .11 .04 .14 .18 .19 .58nnn .42nnn y
12. Sociometric likability .16 .13 .05 .04 .03 .07 .22n .29 nn
.18 .25n .20n y
Kindergarten social competence
13. SCBE oppositional .09 .05 .11 .14 .16 .22n .19 .11 .33nnn .14 .17 .18 y
14. SCBE isolated .12 .01 .12 .05 .04 .11 .08 .05 .12 .15 .18 .10 .28nn y
15. SCBE sensitive-cooperative .09 .16 .08 .14 .11 .21n .18 .02 .28nn .14 .23n .10 .48nnn .33
16. Sociometric likability .12 .11 .08 .12 .06 .08 .08 .14 .17 .01 .13 .13 .12 .12 .29nnn
n
po.05.
nn
po.01.
nnn
po.001. (two-tailed)

in a structural model, in which the three aspects of
emotional competence (along with moderators of sex
and age, and the interaction of emotional expres-
siveness and emotion regulation) predicted social
competence concurrently and at each subsequent
year.
We conducted LVPLS analysis (Falk & Miller,
1992; Lohmöller, 1989). We chose this method, which
is becoming more widely known, because it allows
us to explore hypothesized relations among con-
structs without some of the restrictions of LISREL
structural modeling techniques. In particular, LVPLS
is appropriate for use with relatively small groups of
participants, although it does require a reasonable
latent variable: participant ratio. Given the correla-
tion matrix of interest here, a special advantage is
that the prediction of latent variables is based on
shared variance of the manifest variables. Individual
variable residuals and the unreliability associated
with measurement error are minimized. Because of
its limited assumptions, however, LVPLS yields only
approximate estimates of invariant structural para-
meters.
Measurement model. LVPLS allows specification of
a measurement model as well as a structural model.
Using multiple measures (manifest variables), con-
structs (latent variables) are created, with the
variance shared by the measures taken as a single
index of the latent variable. That is, scores for the
composite latent variables are computed from
principal components weights, derived from ana-
lyses of the manifest variables. Thus, a smaller set of
theoretical variables is created, whose relations can
be investigated without sacrificing information from
the larger group of manifest variables.
For our study, 11 latent variables were created,
including emotional expressiveness, emotion under-
standing, emotion regulation (i.e., dysregulated
coping indices negatively weighted), and social
competence at each age (see Table 3). Before analysis,
we centered all manifest variables because this
procedure helps avoid computational errors by
lowering the correlations between the interaction
terms and their individual components. Without
such a procedure, multicollinearity could lead to an
inability for the LVPLS procedure to accurately
estimate the underlying interaction construct.
Chin, Marcolin, and Newsted (1996) outlined a
method to include moderator variables in LVPLS
models via multiplicative-term manifest variables
(e.g., Sex  Emotional Expressiveness), as also seen
in Table 3. This advantageous method allowed us to
examine moderation as part of the full model, before
decomposition into separate regression equations,
Preschool Emotional Competence 247
with proportionally smaller ns, for each level of the
moderator.
Examination of the latent to manifest variable
loadings in Table 3 reveals none with an absolute
value less than .4, one benchmark for noting a
manifest variable with very little in common with
other measures of a particular construct (before these
final results, however, we did have to eliminate the
variables for Age  Emotion Regulation reported by
mother and Expressed Anger  Emotion Regulation
observed because of low loadings). Twenty-four of
29 retained manifest variables (excluding Age 
Emotion Regulation observed, and Expressed Anger
 Emotion Regulation reported by mother, both of
which were single indicators of their respective
latent variable) loaded significantly on their latent
variables, with the remaining three loading at the
borderline significant level.
Finally, to assess how accurate the path estimates
were to the ‘‘true’’ effects, composite reliabilities
based on latent variables’ communalities were
calculated (Werts, Linn, & Jöreskog, 1974). These
reliabilities ranged from .46 to .75. Given the small
number of items (i.e., manifest variables) per latent
variable, these reliabilities were acceptable according
to Nunnally’s (1967) guidelines; that is, those that
didn’t meet or exceed a .70 criterion appeared to do
so because of a small number of items (i.e., if number
of items for each scale were multiplied by a factor of
1 to 3, resulting in 4 to 12 items, the .70 criterion
would be met).
Correlations among latent variables. Associations
among latent variables are shown in Table 4. One-
tailed probability levels were used because direc-
tions of associations were hypothesized. Emotional
expressiveness was related to emotion knowledge
and emotion regulation. Every predictor was related
to social competence at one age (if not both), except
for Age  Emotion Knowledge. Finally, despite the
manifest variables’ low cross-time associations (see
Table 2), there was a highly significant correlation
between ages 3 to 4 and kindergarten social
competence.
Overview of structural path model. We estimated
the latent variables as an exact linear combination of
their indicators with the goal of maximizing ex-
plained variance for both indicators and latent
variables, using PLSGraph software (Chin, 2001).
Figure 2 depicts the final structural model, in which
path coefficients can be interpreted as standardized
beta weights, each estimated after all other paths’
effects have been controlled. To assess whether the
paths for interaction and main effects were signifi-
cant, a jackknife resampling procedure (Efron &
248 Denham et al.

Table 3
Latent Variable Loading for Manifest Variables in Longitudinal Model

Variable Loading t value Composite reliability

(communality)
Age 3 to 4
Emotional expressiveness
Observed happiness .946 23.94nnn .57
Observed sadness .493 3.72nnn
Observed anger .754 8.86nnn
Emotion knowledge
Emotion knowledge: unequivocal .875 16.50nnn .73
Emotion knowledge: equivocal .815 7.12nnn
Positive/negative
Equivocal situation knowledge .874 33.59nnn
Negative/negative
Emotion regulation strategies
Maternal report: venting .438 2.27n .52
Observed venting .926 22.75nnn
Social competence
SCBE oppositional .832 1.66n .46
SCBE isolated .437 1.43+
SCBE sensitive-cooperative .805 1.66n
Sociometric likability .563 1.69n
Sex  Emotional Expressiveness interactions
Sex  Happiness .972 2.54nn .58
Sex  Sadness .673 1.91n
Sex  Anger .589 3.26nnn
Sex  Emotion Knowledge interactions
Sex  Unequivocal Situation Knowledge .824 12.04nnn .70
Sex  Equivocal Situation Knowledge .797 7.12nnn
Positive/negative
Sex  Equivocal Situation Knowledge .882 27.74nnn
Negative/negative
Sex  Emotion Regulation Strategies
Sex  Maternal Report: Venting .670 2.54nn .49
Sex  Observed Venting .731 2.22n
Age  Emotion Knowledge interactions
Age  Unequivocal Situation Knowledge .761 1.53+ .75
Age  Equivocal Situation Knowledge .845 1.54+
Positive/negative
Age  Equivocal Situation Knowledge .973 1.76n
Negative/negative
Age  Emotion Regulation Strategies
Age  Observed Venting 1.00 .00 F
Emotional Expressiveness  Emotion Regulation Strategies
Anger  Maternal Report: Venting 1.00 .00 F
Kindergarten
Social competence
SCBE oppositional .777 12.21nnn .46
SCBE isolated .414 1.84n
SCBE sensitive-cooperative .819 22.31nnn
Sociometric likability .627 8.81nnn
n
po.05.
nn
po.01.
nnn
po.001.
+
po.10. (one-tailed)
 Preschool Emotional Competence 249

Table 4
Correlations Among Latent Variables

Latent variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Emotional expressiveness y
2. Emotion knowledge .22nn y
3. Emotion regulation .38nnn .00 y
4. Sex  Emotionality .94nnn .22n .30nn y
5. Sex  Emotion Knowledge .20 n
.95nnn
.02 .23nn y
6. Sex  Emotion Regulation .26nn .02 .90nnn .23nn .02 y
7. Emotional Expressiveness  Emotion Regulation .11 .02 .07 .07 .02 .07 y
8. Age  Emotion Regulation .02 .07 .31nnn .02 .04 .32nnn .09 y
9. Age  Emotion Knowledge .03 .00 .08 .07 .05 .07 .02 .14+ y
10. Age 3 to 4 social competence .09 .13+ .39nnn .06 .12 .39nnn .13+ .16n .06 y
11. Kindergarten social competence .17 n
.23nn .20n .16n .23nn .21n .14+ .08 .02 .38nnn
n
po.05.
nn
po.01.
nnn
po.001.
+
po.10. (one-tailed)

Gong, 1983) was performed. In this procedure, the
partial least squares parameters of a series of
random subsamples of the total sample were
iteratively tested, until significance could be esti-
mated based on their convergent findings.
Given these procedures, the final model in Figure
2, in which nonsignificant hypothesized paths were
deleted, can be summarized by noting that emotion
regulation predicted age 3 to 4 social competence.
Emotional expressiveness, emotion knowledge,
Age  Emotion Regulation, and age 3 to 4 social
competence predicted kindergarten social compe-
tence. Emotional Expressiveness  Emotion Regula-
tion and Age  Emotion Regulation predicted social
competence at both ages. Finally, emotional expres-
siveness predicted both emotion knowledge and
emotion regulationFmore positive children were
both more knowledgeable about emotions and more
able to regulate them.
The overall model can also be evaluated. Two
indices are available to specify whether the model
accounts for meaningful variance in the latent
variables. First is the coefficient root mean square
of the covariance (RMS COV[E,U]) between the
manifest variable residuals and the latent variable
residualsFthe proportion unaccounted for by the
model (Falk & Miller, 1992). This coefficient is 0 in a
perfect model, and values over .20 indicate poor fit.
The path model in our study yielded a RMS
COV(E,U) value of .10, indicating good to excellent
fit between model and data. Second, the significance
of R2s for each of the endogenous latent variables
(i.e., emotion knowledge, emotion regulation, and
social competence at both ages) were tested and
found to be significant at the po.01 level or better.
Finally, it is important to specify the nature of the
significant moderation pathways. To do so, we
constructed sets of separate regression equations
for boys and girls, younger and older children (split
at the median age at study inception, 46 months),
and low and high negatively expressive children for
each pertinent predictor. Thus, emotion regulation
predicted age 3 to 4 social competence more strongly
for girls than for boys, bs 5 .376 and .255, pso.01 and
.05, respectively. Emotion regulation also predicted
age 3 to 4 social competence more strongly for
younger than for older children, bs 5 .335 and .293,
pso.01 and .05, respectively. Emotion knowledge
predicted social competence more strongly for
children who were younger, as opposed to older, at
the study’s inception, bs 5 .229 and .085, pso.05 and
ns, respectively, for age 3 to 4 social competence, and
bs 5 .251 and .209, pso.05 and .10, respectively, for
kindergarten social competence. Finally, emotion
regulation predicted age 3 to 4 social competence
more strongly for low-negative children than for
high-negative children, bs 5 .365 and .253, pso.01
and .05, respectively. Conversely, emotion regulation
predicted kindergarten social competence more
strongly for high-negative children than for low-
negative children, bs 5 .220 and .097, pso.05 and ns,
respectively.
Alternative model. An alternate model was tested,
examining direct paths from age 3 to 4 social
competence to concurrent emotional competence,
and from age 3 to 4 emotional competence to
kindergarten social competence (see Figure 3; be-
cause age 3 to 4 social competence was seen as a
predictor of emotional competence in this model,
links between age 3 to 4 social competence and
250 Denham et al.

R 2emotion knowledge = .048, F (1, 141) = 7.11**. R 2emotion regulation = .145, F (1, 141) = 23.90 ***. R 2age 3 to 4 social competence = .214, F (9, 133) = 36.21 ***.

R 2kindergarten social competence = .214, F (9, 94) = 27.13 *** ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

Emotional
Expressiv.

B = .218,
Emotion t = 2.64** B = .313, t = 2.26*
Age 3 to 4
Knowledge B = .321, t = 11.50*** Social
Competence
Emotion
Regulation
B = .398,
t = 7.60***
B = .233, t = 2.05*
B = .401, t = 3.19***
B = -.065, t = -285**

B = .152, t = 3.45**

Sex × Age × Kindergarten

Emotion Emotion Social
Regulation Knowledge Competence
B = .188, B = -.053, t = -1.51+
t = 1.64*

Emotional
Expressiv.
×Emotion
Regulation
B = -.211, t = -2.62** Age × B = -.216, t = -1.75*
Emotion
Regulation

Figure 2. Longitudinal model of age 3 to 4 emotional competence predicting age 3 to 4 and kindergarten social competence, and age 3 to 4
social competence predicting kindergarten social competence, with only significant pathways shown.
n
po.05. nnpo.01. nnnpo.001. +po.10. (one-tailed)

moderator latent variables were not included in the
model). Overall, the RMS COV(E,U) value was again
.10, indicating good to excellent fit between model
and data In this alternative model, social compe-
tence predicted all three latent variables for emo-
tional competence, but only the R2s for emotion
knowledge and emotion regulation were significant,
as in the main model, suggesting that their inter-
relation was as important, if not more so, as the
pathways from age 3 to 4 social competence. Two,
instead of three, moderation paths to kindergarten
social competence were significant in this model.
Overall, the main difference in the two models
appeared to be that the total R2 for emotion
regulation was enhanced by its prediction by age 3
to 4 social competence.
Discussion
We were encouraged by our effort to identify the
aspects of emotional competence that contribute to a
key developmental task of the preschool period-
successful interaction with peers. Simultaneous
consideration of multiple indicators for three hy-
pothesized constituents of emotional competence
was a step forward in specifying which elements
contribute to social competence, both concurrently
 Preschool Emotional Competence 251

R 2emotional expressiveness = .014, F (1, 141) = 2.00, ns. R 2emotion knowledge = .057, F (1, 141) = 8.52 **. R 2emotion regulation = .286, F (1, 141) = 56.48***.

R 2kindergarten social competence = .214, F (9, 94) = 28.24 ***. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

Emotional
Expressiv.

B = .123, B = .137,
t = 5.72*** t = 2.70**

Emotion
Knowledge B = .130,
t = 3.45***
B =.132, t = 2.01*

Emotion
B = .080, t = 2.24* Regulation

Emotional
Expressiv. ×
Emotion
B = .142, t = 5.59*** Regulation
Age 3 to 4
Social B = -.175, t = 2.45*
Competence
B = -.263, t = 3.06 *** Kindergarten
Social
Competence
Age ×
Emotion B = -.209, t =
Regulation = 2.10*

Figure 3. Competing model, showing age 3 to 4 social competence predicting age 3 to 4 emotional competence and kindergarten social
competence, with only significant pathways shown.
n
po.05. nnpo.01. nnnpo.001. +po.10. (one-tailed)

and across time. Emotional competence at ages 3 to 4 We have argued elsewhere (e.g., Denham, 1986) that
made contributions to both age 3 to 4 and kinder- ‘‘feeling good’’ in many situations not only ‘‘greases
garten social competence, suggesting that the abil- the cogs’’ of ongoing social interaction, but also
ities of emotional competence acquired by ages 3 to 4 makes it easier for a child to enter the peer world in
become stable, with continuing import. The patterns the first place. Furthermore, the enduring patterns of
of these latent variables’ contributions differ de- clear emotional well-being signaled by a happy child
pending on whether each is especially important for are likely to make a positive impression on a
preschoolers in general, boys or girls, or relatively preschool teacher, and happier playmates probably
younger and older preschoolers. Thus, these find- don’t ‘‘make waves’’ in the sometimes-choppy sea of
ings enhance our basic understanding of the preschool interactions; they are just easier for the
affective foundations of young children’s social other children to like. However, we need to know
competence and could allow for targeted prevention more about how happiness works within interaction.
efforts with older and younger preschoolers, boys Thus, we should examine whether peer entry, peer
and girls. provocation, higher level sociodramatic play, amity
The first of three emotional competence latent with friends, and other hallmarks of ongoing pre-
variables involved emotional expressiveness. This school social interaction are fostered by children’s
latent variable indexed predominantly happy, not observed happiness (e.g., Gottman & Mettetal, 1986;
sad or angry, emotions displayed during interaction. Marcus, 1987). Furthermore, not all happy displays
252 Denham et al.
are created equal. For example, Arsenio and col-
leagues (e.g., Arsenio & Lover, 1997) have made it
clear that happiness shown during preschool conflict
is likely to be a sign of ‘‘happy victimizing,’’ and
definitely not well received by others.
As well, anger has been reported elsewhere as a
detriment to young children’s social competence
(Denham et al., 1990; Denham & McKinley, 1993).
Chronically angry children are less likely to meet
another’s positive overtures in kind, but more likely
to respond hostilely. Those who more often show
sadness seem to puzzle their peers, who may
ultimately shun them. These children’s demeanor
makes them more difficult, both by omission and
commission, to play with. In fact, dealing with
negative emotions, either intra- or interpersonally,
makes effective interaction much more difficult
across the lifespan; in contrast, more positive indi-
viduals are like ‘‘interaction magnets’’ (Carstenson &
Turk, 1998; Dua, 1993; Marcus, 1987).
So, it is easy to see how a predominance of happy
displays as opposed to angry or sad displays could
lead to others’ positive evaluations of one’s social
competence. Children who showed this pattern of
enduring emotional expressiveness with their play-
mates as early as ages 3 to 4 probably built up
positive reputations with teachers and peers alike,
and probably encountered more social competence-
building experiences than their less happy, sadder,
more angry counterparts. It was a bit surprising that
emotional expressiveness did not predict age 3 to 4
social competence directly. One explanation could be
that variations in emotional expressiveness do not
yet affect others’ evaluationsFteachers may expect
some level of negative emotionality, and peers who
are just beginning to make appraisals of others’
likability may not yet focus on their emotional
expressiveness per se.
Turning to the emotion knowledge latent variable,
for the total sample (but particularly for those less
than 46 months old at the study’s inception),
emotion knowledge assessed at ages 3 to 4 predicted
social competence, both contemporaneously and in
kindergarten. Older preschoolers (i.e., older than 46
months) typically showed less variation on our
measure of emotion understanding; perhaps young-
er children’s use of such knowledge more uniquely
supported their socially competent behavior or
particularly stood out to raters. Emotion knowledge
as assessed here could give preschoolers information
in critical peer situations, such as group entry and
provocation, by helping to promote conflict resolu-
tion and other positive peer behavior (Dunn, 1995;
Dunn & Herrera, 1997; Edwards, Manstead, &
MacDonald, 1984; Goldman, Corsini, & de Urioste,
1980; Hughes Dunn, & White, 1998).
Last, the latent variable of emotion regulation
may be seen as a second-order outcome of emotional
expressiveness, given its link with emotional ex-
pressivenessFperhaps a child knows that he or she
feels angry, what made him or her angry, how he or
she is experiencing and expressing it, and figures out
what to do. Given this interpretation, it may be no
surprise that indices of lapses in emotion regulation
predicted age 3 to 4 social competence even more
potently than emotional expressiveness patterns.
How one responds to one’s experience of emotion
may enhance or hinder social relations more than
one’s enduring patterns of expressed emotions. We
found that children who were less likely to vent their
emotions, especially girls and younger participants,
were evaluated as more socially competent at either
ages 3 to 4 or in kindergarten. These children
showed restrained emotion in response to proble-
matic situationsFthey were relatively unlikely to
cry or behave aggressively. Uncontrolled negativity
may have been especially conducive to raters’
negative evaluations because it contradicted stereo-
typical views of girls’ social competence and
reinforced notions of the immaturity of children
who are ‘‘young in grade.’’
Girls especially may be expected to adhere to the
nuances of ‘‘nice’’ behavior toward others, so that
their emotional regulation may be an especially
important part of the emotional competence that
predicts concurrent social competence. For example,
Fagot (1984) found that teachers of young preschool-
ers (i.e., 2 to 3 years old) reacted particularly
negatively when girls showed behaviors in two
categories that included demanding attention; ex-
pressing verbal aggression; taking objects; crying
and whining; and hitting, pushing, or shoving. Thus,
when a girl or a preschooler who is young in
grade behaves less positively, this negativity may be
more salient than the negative behavior of
boys or more mature children, because girls are
expected to be nice and older children’s negative
behavior may be less overt (Abramovitch, Corter, &
Lando, 1979; Crick, Casas, & Mosher, 1997). In
particular, this set of findings highlights the con-
tinuing need to shed light on girls’ social worlds
across time during the preschool period. For
example, the precursors and emergence of girls’
relational aggression in preschool and kindergarten
warrant study.
As well, abilities to refrain from dysregulated
venting particularly benefited children who were
more negatively emotional; their age 3 to 4 social

competence, but not that of less negatively emo-
tional children, was predicted by emotion regula-
tion. This pattern of moderation fits well with that
also found by Eisenberg and colleagues (Eisenberg,
Fabes, Guthrie, et al., 1996; Eisenberg, Fabes,
Murphy, et al., 1996; Eisenberg, Fabes, et al., 1997).
It makes sense that emotion regulation should aid
those who most need to regulate!
However, emotion regulation at ages 3 to 4
predicted kindergarten social competence slightly
better for children low in negative emotions. It could
be that children who experience fewer intensely
negative emotions, and avoid unrestrained outbursts
when they do feel negative, also are more able, by
kindergarten, to use more constructive emotion-
regulation strategies, such as active problem solving,
cognitive restructuring, and avoidance. This long-
itudinal linkage for low-emotional children needs
further study.
It is also noteworthy that emotional expressive-
ness patterns predicted both emotion knowledge
and emotion regulation at ages 3 to 4. Firm
establishment of a linkage between being emotion-
ally positive and emotion knowledge, already noted
in Denham (1986), suggests that it may be profitable
to promote children’s positivity so they feel comfor-
table and able to learn about their emotional world.
As noted earlier, the association of emotional
expressiveness and emotion regulation also makes
intuitive senseFchildren who experience and dis-
play more negative emotion probably have more to
regulate, but this undertaking may be overwhelm-
ing, leading to venting in less experienced 3- and 4-
year-olds.
Finally, we did attempt to assess the adequacy of a
model in which age 3 to 4 social competence
predicted concurrent indices of emotional compe-
tence, which then predicted kindergarten social
competence. It is perhaps not surprising that, due
to the ubiquitous possibility of bidirectional influ-
ences in any concurrent correlations, age 3 to 4 social
competence did predict indices of emotional com-
petence measured at the same period, and the model
fit well. However, evaluation of the overall model
suggested that the main information gleaned was
the prediction of emotion regulation by age 3 to 4
social competence. This finding hints at the possibil-
ity that the burden of others’ evaluationsFwhether
those of teachers who consider a child difficult and
let this appraisal leak into their interactions, or those
of peers who decide that a dysregulated child is too
much trouble to play withFmay add to the child’s
difficulties in regulation. Better evaluation of alter-
native models awaits research in which social
Preschool Emotional Competence 253
competence and emotional competence are each
evaluated at more than two time points.
Because of the ever-present nature of emotion at
the core of social interaction and well-being, dis-
cerning the nature of linkages from emotional to
social competence is a vital task for developmental-
ists (Sroufe et al., 1984). In the present study, lack of
positive affect, inability to regulate affect and cope
behaviorally, and stunted abilities to use emotion
understanding were clear risk factors for the
children who participated in our project (see also
Denham, Blair, Schmidt, & DeMulder, 2002). To flesh
out our knowledge to make a difference in children’s
lives both contemporaneously and predictively, we
need even more details such as those uncovered
here, and we need to overcome some of the
limitations of our current workFfor example, we
need information of the sort gathered here for other
cultural and ethnic groups to generalize our findings
and make them more useful.
However, some specific suggestions can be made
for preschool and daycare teachers and parents to
aid their charges in attaining particular aspects of
emotional competence that have long-term utility.
For example, teaching about feelings may be
especially helpful for children 4 years old and under.
All preschoolers, but especially those who are more
emotional, might benefit from learning means to
avoid dysregulated coping, to respond to peers’
emotions prosocially instead of antisocially.
In sum, we have focused on the separate and joint
prediction of indices of social competence via
emotional expressiveness, emotion knowledge, and
emotion regulation. We have begun delineating
boundary conditions for these relations (e.g., age,
sex, and level of expressiveness) that ultimately may
have important applied implications.
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