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Formato IEEE
Formato IEEE
LITH-ITN-ED-EX--04/004--SE
Aida Botonjić
2004-01-30
Aida Botonjić
Norrköping 2004-01-30
Datum
Avdelning, Institution
Division, Department
2004-01-30
Institutionen för teknik och naturvetenskap
_ ________________
http://www.ep.liu.se/exjobb/itn/2004/ed/004
Titel
Title
Aida Botonjić
Sammanfattning
Abstract
The objective of this diploma work is to investigate a set of Multiple Input Multiple Output
(MIMO) channel models compatible with the emerging IEEE 802.11n standard. This diploma
work validates also advanced, innovative tools and wireless technologies that are necessary to
facilitate wireless applications while maximizing spectral efficiency and throughput.
MIMO channel models can be used to evaluate new Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
proposals based on multiple antenna technologies.
The purpose of this thesis is to investigate means of channel models and their implementation in
different environments such as: Matlab, C++ and Advanced Design Systems (ADS). The
investigation considers also a comparison between the channel models based on theoretical data
and parameter setup to the channel models based on statistical characteristics obtained from
measured data.
Investigation and comparison of a MIMO channel models consider steering channel matrix H,
spatial correlation coefficients, power delay profiles, fading characteristics and Doppler power
spectrum.
Nyckelord
Keyword
This report summarizes the achievements of the Master Thesis work carried out
between September and December 2003 at Acreo AB in Norrköping, Sweden.
The report constitutes the final element of a Master of Science exam in Electronics
Design Engineering at the University of Linköping at Campus Norrköping.
Special thanks are dedicated to my family, friends and boyfriend who have been a
source of encouragement and inspiration to write this thesis.
Abstract
The objective of this diploma work is to investigate a set of Multiple Input Multiple
Output (MIMO) channel models compatible with the emerging IEEE 802.11n
standard. This diploma work validates also advanced, innovative tools and wireless
technologies that are necessary to facilitate wireless applications while maximizing
spectral efficiency and throughput.
MIMO channel models can be used to evaluate new Wireless Local Area Network
(WLAN) proposals based on multiple antenna technologies.
The purpose of this thesis is to investigate means of channel models and their
implementation in different environments such as: Matlab, C++ and Advanced Design
Systems (ADS). The investigation considers also a comparison between the channel
models based on theoretical data and parameter setup to the channel models based on
statistical characteristics obtained from measured data.
Investigation and comparison of a MIMO channel models consider steering channel
matrix H, spatial correlation coefficients, power delay profiles, fading characteristics
and Doppler power spectrum.
Sammanfattning
Målet med detta examensarbete är att undersöka Multiple Input Multiple Output
(MIMO) kanalmodeller. Dessa modeller skall vara i överensstämmelse med
kommande IEEE 802.11n standarden. Inom examensarbetet omfattas också
avancerade och innovativa verktyg samt trådlös teknik. Trådlös teknik är nödvändig
för att främja trådlösa applikationer samtidigt som man maximerar spektral
effektivitet och genomströmning.
MIMO kanalmodeller kan användas för att utvärdera kommande Wireless Local Area
Network (WLAN) förslag baserat på multiple antennteknik.
8 FUTURE WORK....................................................................................................................... 43
9 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 44
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 46
APPENDIX A PHYSICAL MODELS A-F ................................................................................. 47
MODEL A......................................................................................................................................... 47
MODEL B ......................................................................................................................................... 48
MODEL C ......................................................................................................................................... 49
MODEL D......................................................................................................................................... 50
MODEL E (1/2)................................................................................................................................. 51
MODEL E (2/2)................................................................................................................................. 52
MODEL F (1/2)................................................................................................................................. 53
MODEL F (2/2)................................................................................................................................. 54
APPENDIX B NON-PHYSICAL MODEL................................................................................. 55
ONE-RING MODEL ............................................................................................................................ 55
APPENDIX C POWER DISTRIBUTIONS................................................................................ 56
UNIFORM PAS ................................................................................................................................. 56
TRUNCATED GAUSSIAN PAS........................................................................................................... 57
TRUNCATED LAPLACIAN PAS......................................................................................................... 58
2
Table of Figures
Figure 1. MIMO channel representation ........................................................................... 11
Figure 8. Relationship among the correlation functions and power spectra ..................... 22
Figure 12. Channel model C: a) CDF, b) Spatial correlation of the firs six taps ................ 29
Figure 13. Channel model C: a) Spatial correlation of the six middle taps, b) Spatial
correlation of the last two taps........................................................................................ 29
Figure 14. Channel model C: a) Doppler spectra of the first six taps, b) Doppler spectra of
the middle six taps .......................................................................................................... 30
Figure 15. Channel model C: Doppler spectra of the last two taps..................................... 30
Figure 19. Channel model in ADS with channel matrix H and power delays .................... 35
Figure 20. Impulse response of covariance channel matrix H for channel model F........... 36
Figure 23. MIMO system without knowledge of the channel at the transmitter ................ 39
3
Tables
Terminology............................................................................................................................. 5
4
Terminology
Terminology
Abbreviation Explanation
AC Analog Converter
BS Base Station
CP Cyclic Prefix
DS Delay Spectrum
5
Interleaving A form of data scrambling that spreads bursts of bit errors
evenly over the received data allowing efficient forward error
correction
ML Maximum Likelihood
MS Mobile Station
Rx Receiver
Tx Transmitter
6
1 Introduction
Wireless channel modelling has always been the subject to active research, due to
continual advancements of wireless technologies. Over the past few decades, there
has been rapid development and deployment of cellular phone networks. Recently,
there has been development of the so-called wireless LAN technology, as specified in
HiperLan/2 for the European standard and IEEE 802.11 for the North American
standard. Many of the future wireless services to be provided by the future generation
mobile communication systems are likely to be used in low- mobility environments
with limited temporal or multipath diversity. This is the reason why most of the
communication research that is going on concentrates on realization of indoor
environments. This thesis follows that path of MIMO indoor realization.
The growing demand of increasing the capacity has pushed researches into
investigation of space domains, beamforming, use of space diversity/ “smart
antennas” and spectral multiplexing. For this reason conventional techniques with a
single antenna fails to provide sufficient diversity. Instead multiple antennas give
high-data rates and throughputs. Therefore the solution of using multiple antennas at
both transmitter and receiver in indoor environment is growing in radio
communication systems.
The concept of Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) system is its motivation to
achieve higher throughputs within a given bandwidth thanks to space diversity
schemes. Early theoretical work of a narrowband random MIMO channel was
reported by Telatar [1] and Foschini [2], where they used simple channel model
represented by matrix H with M transmit and N receive antennas.
1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this thesis is to investigate means of MIMO channel models, their
implementation in different environments and a comparison between the channel
models based on theoretical data against measured data.
7
1.2 Limitations
The emphasis of the thesis lies in MIMO channel model. However, transmission
scheme, detection algorithm and decoding method are shortly presented to get a better
overview of the overall channel and communication systems.
For the sake of simplicity, the channel models consider only the effect of local
scatters. The remote scatters are ignored assuming that the path loss will tend to limit
their contribution to the overall channel. In addition, because of local scatters
introduce multipath differences that are small compared to the transmit-receive range,
the focus is laid on microscopic (Rayleigh) fading only. This thesis is also limited to a
frequency-flat fading channel.
1.3 Assumptions
In this thesis, the classification is made between physically based and non-physically
based models, to easily distinguish between different channel models. Following
assumption is not general, the classification is only valid for this thesis work.
Assumption for the physically based models is that they rely on some physical
parameters and theoretical results. While non-physical models assume a MIMO
channel, which is described via statistical characteristics obtained from the measured
data.
Further, both physical model and non-physical models assume scatter assumption.
Narrowband assumption with both LOS and NLOS component is made for physical
models, while non-physical model assumes wideband NLOS Rayleigh fading channel.
Note this is not the case in general, this is only assumption made here.
1.4 Method
For the investigation of the MIMO channel models, the web research articles using
the Internet was a major source.
For the implementation of the MIMO channel models, three different tools were
considered, simulation tool and programmable language of Matlab 6.5, programmable
language C++ and simulation tool ADS. Programmable language C++ was used in
order to build the blocks in ADS.
For the comparison of the MIMO channel models based on the theoretical data and
measured data, the simulation tool Matlab 6.5 was used.
8
1.5 Outline
This diploma work is dividend into different sections. The included sections are
following:
Section 2 describes the background behind wireless LAN, IEEE standard and channel
classification. Short description of the OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing) that is used in IEEE 802.11a, and its impact on the MIMO
communication channel development is included too.
Section 3 summarizes the theoretical work done on channel models during last couple
of years. It includes model parameters needed to achieve reasonable and good
channel. The channel models are divided into physical and non-physical models.
Section 3.9 presents simulated MIMO channel properties using Matlab program
written by Laurent Schumacher [3].
Section 5 contains comparison results of measured and theoretical data for the
channel model F and one-ring model.
Section 6 contains second part of theoretical work applicable to steps before and after
channel modelling. That includes transmission scheme, detection algorithm, coding
and decoding method.
9
2 Background information
In the early days of wireless networks, there were not any standards. The products
from one vendor would not work with the products from another vendor. 1997 IEEE
802.11 established it self as the accepted standard for wireless LAN. Up till now the
standard have had a chance to evolve from 802.11b to 802.11a and recently 802.11g.
This thesis assumes use of IEEE 802.11a standard since it is accounted for 5 GHz
high-speed transmissions with OFDM modulation. 802.11a is used in indoor and short
outdoor environments, such as office buildings and campus environments. The
transmission range is around 15-150 m indoor and 300 m outdoor. IEEE 802.11a
achieves as high data rates as 54 Mbps.
In WLAN systems, the signal energy is scattered and reflected from objects in the
environment, components of the signal arriving at the receiver are spread out over a
longer period of time than is desirable. This causes uneven delays in the signal arrival
time.
MIMO systems are designed in such a way to smooth out the delays and make the
signals to arrive in some form of pattern.
In the environment of the WLAN systems, there is always some interference of the
signals. The challenge of the MIMO systems is then to provide a high-performance,
reliable data link that can operate with restricted receiver power levels, severe channel
fading due to multipath reflections and interfering energy from other devices nearby.
In earlier works of communication systems this achievements have not been possible.
The single input single output (SISO) channels dose not provides such a data transfer
reliability. This is one of the reasons why the use of MIMO systems has increased so
rapidly in the recent years.
10
2.2 MIMO Channel Model Classification
MIMO channel describes the connection between the transmitter (Tx) and receiver
(Rx). In following, only 2 antennas at the Tx and 2 antennas at the Rx are considered,
i.e. 2x2 MIMO system.
Figure 1 illustrates a 2x2 MIMO system with the H channel matrix and the scattering
medium around (the graphical picture of scatters is depicted in Figure 3 of Section
3.1). n
h 1,1
s h 1,2 Channel y
Tx h 2,1 ’H ’ Rx
Processin h 2,2 Processin
g g
M-antennas N-antennas
Scattering medium
For the above 2x2 MIMO channel, the input-output relationship can be expressed as
y (t ) = H (t ) * s (t ) + n(t ) (1)
where s(t) is the transmitted signal, y(t) is the received signal, n(t) is additive white
Gaussian noise (AWGN), H(t) is an N by M channel impulse response matrix and (*)
denotes convolution.
The thesis is restricted to the frequency flat fading channel, and therefore the
corresponding input output relationship simplifies to
y = Hs + n (2)
The derivation of the H matrix is the emphasis of this thesis. The channel matrix H
fully describes the propagation channel between all transmit and receive antennas.
Before arriving to channel matrix H there has to be some additional properties
included, such as power delay, spatial correlation functions and impact of fading,
explained later on.
The MIMO channel without noise and with representation of the channel matrix H
can be expressed as:
L
H (τ ) = ∑ H lδ (τ − τ l ) (3)
l =1
where L is the number of taps (time bins) of the channel model, H (τ ) is the MxN
matrix of the channel impulse responses.
11
For a 2x2 MIMO system the channel matrix is
h h12
H (τ ) ∈ C MxN ⇒ H = 11 (4)
h21 h22
The models presented in this diploma work are classified in different ways. But before
explaining model structure, the reader should have some knowledge of different
classifications in the area of channel modeling.
Wideband Models vs. Narrowband Models: the MIMO channel models can be divided
into the wideband models and the narrowband models directly by considering the
bandwidth of the system. The wideband models treat the propagation channel as
frequency selective, which means that different frequency subchannels have different
channel response. On the other hand, the narrowband models assume that the channel
has frequency non-selective fading and therefore the channel has the same response
over the entire system bandwidth.
Field Measurements vs. Scatter Models: to model the MIMO channel, one approach
is to measure the MIMO channel responses through field measurements. Some
important characteristics of the MIMO channel can be obtained by investigating the
recorded data and the MIMO channel model can be modelled to have similar
characteristics. Models based on MIMO channel measurements were reported in [4].
An alternative approach is to postulate a model (usually involving distributed scatters)
that attempts to capture the channel characteristics. Such a model can often illustrate
the essential characteristics of the MIMO channel as long as the constructed scattering
environment is reasonable. It is the environment of scatters that is in detail studied
here.
Non-physical Models vs. Physical Models: the MIMO channel models can be divided
into the non-physical and physical models. The non-physical models describe MIMO
channel via statistical characteristics obtained from the measured data. Another
category is the physical models that are based on parameter setup and theoretical
results. In general, these models choose some crucial physical parameters to describe
the MIMO propagation channels. Some typical parameters include Angel of Arrival
(AoA), Angle of Departure (AoD), carrier frequency, antenna spacing.
12
3 Theory, Part I
In this Section, the summary of literature study is presented. The theory behind the
MIMO channel models is needed to understand MIMO channel properties and Matlab
program [3]. The theory section is also needed to be able to implement MIMO
channel matrix H into ADS (see Section 4) and to be able to compare theoretical
results against measured and collected data (see Section 5).
Tx
S/P FIR filter
(L taps) ⊗ P/S Rx
Radiation
Steering matrix Pattern
⊗ Power delay
profile
⊗ Spatial correlation
RTx
mapping matrix
RRx
Fading characteristics
The main input parameters required for the model are the shape of the power delay
spectrum, the fading characteristics and the spatial correlation functions at the
transmitter and receiver ends, explained further down in this section.
13
Cluster 1
Cluster 2
Arrival Times
LO
Tx Antennas t
Rx Antennas
Cluster 3
In Figure 3, the scatters are represented with arrival times. It can be seen that the
scatters which are closer to Rx have faster arrival time compared to those that are
placed far away. This artefact of motion is further studied in Section 3.8 as Doppler
shift.
There has been a use of A-F models, presented in [5]. These models are representative
for small environments, such as residential homes and small offices, i.e. indoor
environments. Model F represents larger space either indoor or outdoor. Appendix A
lists the tables of all 6 models (A-F) with its model tap delays, corresponding power,
Azimuth Spread (AS), Angle of Arrival/Departure (AoA/AoD).
14
3.2 Non-physical MIMO channel model
BS MS
A circular disc (with radius R ) of uniformly distributed scatters S is placed around the
mobile unit. The channel parameter h_{NM } connecting transmit element M and
receive element N is geometrically constraint. The base station (BS) is assumed to be
elevated and therefore not obstructed by local scattering, while the mobile station
(MS) is surrounded by scatters. Figure 4 illustrates this scenario where Tx is antenna
element at the BS, Rx is the antenna element at the MS. D is the distance between the
BS and MS. R is the radius of the ring of scatters, ∆ is the AoA at the BS, α is the AS
at BS. Denote the effective scatter on the ring by S(θ) and let θ be the angle between
the scatter and the array at the MS. In the model, it is assumed that S(θ) is uniformly
distributed over all angles and i.i.d. θ. It is further assumed that each ray is reflected
only once and that all rays reach the receiver array with the same power [6]. For this
reason, the channel coefficients are modelled by a zero mean complex Gaussian
random variable.
The path correlation between elements of transmit and receive antenna arrays is
considered and determined by antenna spacing, angle of departure/arrival
(AoD/AoA). When determining the delay power profile the Saleh-Valenzuela’s model
[7] was considered, see Section 3.4. The Doppler effects are not considered. As such,
the model is applicable to situations where during data transmission, the transmission
channels can be assumed stationary in time domain. Appendix B lists one-ring model
15
with 6 clusters and data of Azimuth Spread (AS) and Angle of Arrival/Departure
(AoA/AoD) as a uniform distribution over all angles.
The MIMO channel matrix H for each tap, at one instance of time, in the A-F delay
profile models can be separated into a fixed (constant, LOS) matrix and a variable
Rayleigh matrix. For the case of the one-ring model there is only a part of the
Rayleigh matrix since LOS component is not included.
K 1
H = P HF + H v =
K +1 K +1
(5)
jφ11 1 jφ12 1
e e X 11 X 12
K 10 1
= P +
2
K + 1 1 jφ21 K +1 1 X
e e jφ22
21 X 22
10 2
where XNM (N-th receiving and M-th transmitting antenna) are correlated zero-mean,
unit variance, complex Gaussian random variables as coefficients of the variable
(Rayleigh) matrix Hv , exp(jφNM) are the elements of fixed matrix HF , K is the Rician
K-factor, and P is the power of each tap.
To correlate the XNM elements of the matrix X [5], the Kronecker product of the
transmit and receive correlation matrices is preformed:
where RTx and RRx are the receive and transmit correlation matrices, respectively, and
Hiid is a vector (only here, otherwise it is a matrix) of independent zero mean, unit
variance, complex Gaussian random variables, and
16
3.4 Power Delay profile
When determining the power delay profile (PDP) the Saleh-Valenzuela’s model was
used [7]. This model is based on indoor measurement results where it was found that
received signal rays (due to multipath) arrive in clusters.
The mathematical representation of the received signal amplitude βkl is a Rayleigh-
distributed random variable with a mean-square value that obeys a double exponential
decay law
β kl 2 = β 2 (0,0)e −T / Γ e −τ
l kl /γ
(8)
where β 2 (0,0) represents the average power of the first arrival of the first cluster, Tl
represents the arrival time of the lth cluster, and τkl is the arrival time of the kth arrival
within the lth cluster, relative to Tl. The parameters Γ and γ determine the inter-cluster
signal level rate of decay and the intra-cluster rate of decay, respectively. The rates of
the cluster and ray arrivals can be determined using exponential rate laws
where Λ is the cluster arrival rate and λ is the ray arrival rate.
Figure 5 shows Model D delay profile with clusters outlined by exponential decay
(straight line on a log-scale)., see Appendix A.
Cluster 1
2
2
Cluster 2
dB Cluster 3
0
-50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Delay in nanosec.
Figure 5. Model D, Power Delay Profile
Source: V. Erceg, Indoor MIMO WLAN Channel Models, 2003.
17
3.5 Correlation functions and PAS distribution
Tx
Rx
s
φ s D = 2πd/λ
Dr = D sinφ
d
Using the notations of [9], with standing for the normalised distance between
λ
d
elements, where d is the element spacing and λ the wavelength, and D=2π , one can
λ
easily derive the cross-correlation function between the real and imaginary parts of
the complex baseband signals received at two omni-directional antennas separated by
the distance d.
For ULA [7, 8] the complex correlation coefficient at the linear antenna array is
expressed as field ρf(D) and envelope ρe(D):
2 2
ρ e ( D) = ρ f ( D) = RXX ( D) + jRXY ( D) (11)
where D = 2πd / λ , and RXX and RXY are the cross-correlation functions between the
real parts (equal to the cross-correlation function between the imaginary parts) and
between the real part and imaginary part, respectively, with
18
π
R XX ( D) = ∫ cos( D sin φ ) PAS (φ )dφ (12)
−π
π
and R XY ( D) = ∫ sin( D sin φ ) PAS (φ )dφ (13)
−π
The correlation properties of the fading, and the values of the symmetrical correlation
matrices RTx and RRx, are completely defined by the PAS and its standard deviation.
For the 2 x 2 MIMO channel, transmit and receive correlation matrices are expressed
as:
1 ρ Tx12 * 1 ρ Rx12 *
RTx = and R Rx = (14)
ρ Tx 21 1 ρ Rx 21 1
Further, the spatial correlation properties of a MIMO system uses Kronecker product
of the spatial correlation matrices RTx and RRx to define total correlation
1
R = vec( H ) H vec( H ) = RTx ⊗ R Rx (15)
whose elements are correlation coefficients, where (.)H is the conjugate transpose and
the vec(.) operator rearranges the 2 x 2 matrix H into a column vector of size 4 x 1.
Such a model has been experimentally validated in [12].
where σ is the standard deviation of the PAS (which corresponds to the numerical
value of AS). The Laplacian distribution is shown in Figure 7 [14] (a typical
simulated distribution within a cluster, with AS = 30o).
1
The structure of the Kronecker product depends whether one wants to simulate a downlink
transmission (as presented here) or uplink R = RRx ⊗ RTx
19
Figure 7. Laplacian distribution with AS=30° [14]
The Laplacian function exhibits the sharp peak in the LOS direction and is confined
within [-180°, 180°].
For the case of the physical models, it was found in [13, 14] that the cluster mean
AoA and AoD have a random uniform distribution over all angles [0, 2π]. Due to the
central limit theorem, when the number of scatters becomes large, the channel
coefficient of matrix H is Gaussian distributed.
For the case of the one-ring model, the references [9, 10] show that the AS increases
with decreasing distance between BS and MS, provided that this distance is still much
greater than the radius of the circle within the scatters surrounding the MS are placed,
and that the assumption of scatters distributed around BS holds. Consequently, for a
same element separation distance D, BS elements are less correlated than MS once as
they experience a greater AS [10]. On the other hand, it is shown in [9, 11] that the
height of the MS has also an influence on the AS, as the spreading increases with
decreasing antenna height.
The channel impulse response as a function of time and angle is a separable function,
h, [16, 17]
20
3.7 Fading Multipath Channels
Multipath fading occurs when the transmitted signal reaches the receiver via multiple
paths with different delays and attenuation (or amplification).
Characteristics of a multipath medium is:
• Time spread introduced in the signal that is transmitted through the channel, and
• Time variations in the structure of the medium.
Multipath fading is broadly divided into two categories: large (or slow) and small (or
fast) scale fading. Large scale fading refers to mean path loss averaged over several
wavelengths, whereas small scale fading refers to dramatic changes in amplitude and
phase when the receiver moves by as little as half a wavelength.
In the frequency domain, the reciprocal of the multipath spread is a measure of the
coherence bandwidth of the channel. It is the range of the frequencies within which
the signal impairments of the channel done not vary significantly, see Figure 8 c). In
other words, if two signals are sent that are more than fd apart form each other in
frequency, they will experience different channel conditions. Coherence bandwidth is
denoted as
1
fd ≈ (26)
Tm
21
In the time domain, the time variations are evidenced as a Doppler broadening, further
explained in Section 3.8. A slow changing channel (slow fading) has large coherence
time Td or, equivalently, a small Doppler spread, see Figure 8 a). Td denotes the time
period over which the channel’s impulse response is highly correlated.
1
Td ≈ (27)
Bd
where Bd is a Doppler spread of the channel.
Slow fading is desired fading since the channel conditions are stable and predictable
during the time that the symbol is transmitted. Counter to the slow fading there is fast
fading where fading conditions are coming and going faster than the symbols are
being transmitted.
a) b) c)
Figure 8. Relationship among the correlation functions and power spectra
Source: John G. Proakis, Digital Communications, 2001
22
For the physical models A-F following is valid: In order to avoid frequency selective
fading, the transmission rate is set to be less than the coherence bandwidth of the
channel. And in order to reduce the distortion caused by fast fading, it is important to
set the transmission rate to be more than the channel-fading rate.
The simulations results of the fading are only presented for the case of the frequency
non-selective and slow fading, see Section 3.9. In WLAN technology, the OFDM
modulation is used for IEEE 802.11a standard. OFDM avoids frequency selective
fading by breaking the carrier signal into subcarriers with lower bit rates and thereby
longer symbol duration. The simulation results are presented in Section 3.9.
23
3.8 Doppler Spectrum
Assumption in this thesis was made as; both transmitter and receiver are stationary.
Many may think that the impact of Doppler spectrum should not then have any impact
on the channel model. However there are many clusters and their scatter rays in the
channel. Their motion, reflection and diffraction give rise to the time variant nature of
the channel.
The expression of the Doppler spectrum has been derived by Clarke [18]. It is well
known that the Doppler spectrum lies within a [-fD, fD] bandwidth, where fD is the
maximal Doppler shift/spread, defined as
v
fD = (18)
λ
where v stands for the velocity of the movement. (fD should not be confused with fd
which is coherence bandwidth of the channel in frequency domain). Time variations
of the channel are evidenced as a Doppler shift of a spectral line. The metric used to
measure the impairment caused by the time variant nature of channel is how rapidly
the channel fades.
1
−
f 2
P ( f ) ∝ 1 − (19)
f D
This formula (19) applies to all physical models, A-E, as both communication ends
are surrounded by scatters.
The Doppler power spectrum is plotted above in the Figure 9 where f m = f D ± f B (fD
–Doppler spread and fB – spectral broadening).
24
3.8.1 Power Delay Spectrum
The Power Delay Spectrum (PDS) has been widely studied as part of the time-domain
characterization of wireless radio channels. In accordance with [20], the PDS is
accurately modeled by a one-sided exponential decaying function
− σt
D
P(t ) = e t>0 (20)
0 otherwise
where σD represents the delay spectrum (DS). Values of DS have been proposed for
the different environments [12]. For our models, the interesting value is for the indoor
environments, which value lies between 35-100ns [17].
Effects of fluorescent lights on signal fading characteristics for indoor channel were
presented in [21]. The presence of fluorescent lamps creates an environment where
reflections are being introduced, thus creating a fast changing electromagnetic
environment. This is an effect that can yield significant variations of received signal
power. This effect is included in physical models D and E by modulating several taps
in order to artificially introduce an AM modulation by
2
g ( t ) = ∑ Al exp { j (4π (2l + 1) f mt + ϕl )} (21)
l =0
where
The interferer to carrier energy ratio is selected using the following random variable:
I
= X2 (22)
C
where
X ~ G (0.0203,0.0107 2 ) (23)
In equation (23), the first figure is the mean of the Gaussian, and the second is the
variance (the standard deviation squared).
25
Figure 10 shows the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the modelled I/C
(interference-to-carrier ration) in green, and the measured experimental results in
blue. This plot shows good agreement with the measured I/C.
For the models D and E, 3 taps are being modulated by the modulating function g (t )
in accordance with the drawn I/C. The time value of each one of these coefficients is
as follows:
where
The value of α is determined such that the total modulation energy (modulation in
the modulated taps, compared to the entire channel response) matches the drawn
random I/C. The following taps are modulated
26
3.9 MIMO channel properties
3.9.1 Capacity
The capacity of a channel depends completely on the channel realization, noise, and
transmitted signal power. Capacity equation is [1] [2]:
SNR
C EP = log 2 det(Ι M + ΗΗ * ) b/s/Hz (28)
N
The capacity gain is highly dependent on the multipath richness in the radio channel,
since a fully correlated MIMO channel only offers one subchannel, while a
completely decorrelated channel offers multiple subchannels, depending on the
antenna configuration. In this thesis the physical models are assumed partially
correlated/decorrelated channels, since that is the case in practice.
It has been demonstrated that increasing the number of antennas in the both ends
results in a rapid increase in theoretical capacity [12].
27
3.9.2 Simulation results
In this section the simulation results of MIMO channel are presented. For the sake of
simplicity, only simulation graphs of the model case C is included. This simulation
results, of Matlab program [3], have been used to verify the implementation results in
Section 4.
There are 5 types of graphs included to illustrate characteristics of the MIMO
channel. The plots represent impulse response of the channel matrix H, Power Delay
profile (PDP) of the H channel matrix, CDF of the taps, spatial correlation functions
for number of paths and Doppler spectra. In the Section 5 this simulated
characteristics are compared to measured data conducted at Victoria University in
Melbourne, Australia. While here the comparison has been done to the literature
references, either the Rayleigh distribution (CDF) or the desired curve (PDP,
correlation and Doppler spectrum).
The following pages present the plots of 2x2 MIMO channel, model C, using the
Matlab program [3]. The carrier frequency used is 5.25 GHz (fd = 6 Hz) with one
wavelength (λ= 6 cm) spacing at the transmitter and half wavelength spacing at the
receiver. 16 384 blocks of 32 samples have been simulated at 0 speed (note:
Stationary Receiver), and a sample has been stored per block. Dashed red
curves/markers correspond to the reference values, whereas the blue curves/markers
are the outcome of the simulation. In the Doppler plot, the green curve represents the
Welch periodogram [22, p. 256].
The match between reference curves and simulation results using Matlab program [3]
is satisfactory. The achieved tap power distribution in Figure 11 b) fit the PDPs
defined as Rayleigh distribution in [23].
In Figure 12, the spatial correlation coefficient of the simulated impulse response
match the mathematical formulas presented in Section 3.5.
In Figure 13 and 14, the red vertical lines are drawn at ± f d . The upper blue line is set
at the maximum of Doppler spectrum, and lower blue line lies 10 dB below. Ideally,
the Doppler spectrum should meet the crossing of the red and blue lines. This would
be the case, if the jitter would be removed from the sampled spectra presented in [24].
a) b)
Figure 11. Channel model C: a) Impulse response, b) PDP
28
a) b)
Figure 12. Channel model C: a) CDF, b) Spatial correlation of the firs six taps
a) b)
Figure 13. Channel model C: a) Spatial correlation of the six middle taps, b) Spatial
correlation of the last two taps
29
a) b)
Figure 14. Channel model C: a) Doppler spectra of the first six taps, b) Doppler spectra of the
middle six taps
Figure 15. Channel model C: Doppler spectra of the last two taps
30
4 Implementation results
In this section the implementation results of MIMO channel model are presented.
These results only consider implementation of physical models A-F.
4.1 Background
Seen from Acreo’s point of view, there are two possible implementation tools: Matlab
6.5 and Advanced Design Systems (ADS). Both have its advantages and
disadvantages.
It is obvious that the easiest method to implement the channel model is to use Matlab
6.5, since the program written by L. Schumacher [3], is for Matlab. However, all other
work done on algorithms, transmission schemes and detection methods here at Acreo
is done in ADS. So, for Acreo it would be best to even have the channel model
implemented in ADS. For this solution there are three alternatives. The first
alternative is to use a Matlab program written by L. Schumacher [3] and translate it
into the C++ programmable language. The second alternative is to implement a
Matlab block which links between Matlab 6.5 and ADS. The third alternative is to use
the Matlab 6.5 that generates channel matrix H and save it as an ASCII file. This
ASCII file can then be read from ADS and used as a covariance channel matrix H.
Matlab 6.5 Converter was used to translate the whole Matlab program [3] written by
L. Schumacher, which consisted of approx. 20 files each 1-2 A4 pages long, into C++
code. The translation went without any problems since behind Matlab code lies a C
language. The Matlab converter even linked the files and their functions together. To
be able to use C++ in ADS, the requirement is to build a specific structure of C++ and
use a “Make files” during the compilation. ADS Ptolemy manual was used and the
structure of C++ got a new appearance, see Figure 16.
After modifying the C++ codes, it was realized that calling the functions and their
parameters is not as smooth as in Matlab. In the Matlab program there is a main
function, which calls other functions together with their multiple parameters of 2-D
and even 3-D matrices. This main function generates the 4-D channel matrix H that is
needed. However, to be able to generate the channel matrix H, the calculations of
fading matrices and spatial correlation needs to be done. The call of these could not
be done successfully in C++. This appeared to be very time consuming, instead some
other alternatives were studied, explained further down.
31
Ptolemy example of C++ code
//////////Initialisation///////////////////////
setup { //Parameter conversion
} // end of setup
code {
//Initialisation of size variables
//Parameters assessment
//Large-scale fading
//Set-up of the iteration process
} //end of code
/////////Main loop//////////////////////////////
go { //Beginning of simulation
//Defines H channel matrix
}//end of go
////////End of simulation//////////////////////
wrapup {
} //end of wrapup
}//end of defstar
32
4.3 ADS schematic with ‘Matlab’ block
Following presents schematics from ADS for the second implementation alternative.
The implementation method described here is to link Matlab 6.5 together with ADS
using pre-defined ADS block. This means to have the Matlab program written by L.
Schumacher [3], as it is and use ADS block which links the Matlab 6.5 with the ADS
and generates desired channel matrix H, see Figure 17.
This implementation method had a big disadvantage. That is, the simulation took long
time, 30h. Even the generation of the matrices is not as smooth as in Matlab. In
comparison to Matlab where one could work with as big matrices as wonted, in ADS
this was not possible. ADS is limited to 3-D matrices. This means that generation of
the channel matrix H, which is of size 4-D, has been carried out with errors. The
schematics in Figure 17 generated H matrix without a imaginary part. This of course
does not give a right image of the channel matrix H which is a complex matrix.
Luckily an updated version of ADS is coming after New Years Eve 2003 and
improvements have been made on the simulation speed when using Matlab together
with ADS. Also, a generation of bigger matrices than 3-D is going to be possible. This
schematic was left as it was and some other alternatives were explored, described
further down.
Figure 17 depicts ADS schematic. In the schematic, the Matlab block opens,
internally from ADS, a Matlab program written by L. Schumacher [3], and performs
all calculations using Matlab. Then it generates a desired output, in this case channel
matrix H, to ADS. The complex channel matrix H is stored in a block called
‘NumericSink’. This block can show only data on the screen or it can plot desired
form of graphs, such as linear, Smith-chart, and so on.
Each ADS schematic requires a controller called ‘DF’ in to order perform
simulations. This block indicates the simulation setup. In reality this schematic
consists of 14 inputs. But here are only 4 input parameters illustrated, for the sake of
simplicity.
Controller
33
4.4 ADS schematic with ‘ReadFile’ block
Figure 18 depicts channel model implemented with delays and matrix H multiplied
together with incoming data, arbitrary bits. Before using this schematic the generation
of matrix H must be done in the Matlab 6.5 using the Matlab program written by L.
Schumacher [3]. The channel matrix H is then stored into the ASCII file. This ASCII
file is read from ADS using a ‘ReadFile’ block. Channel matrix H is then multiplied
first with arbitrary bits and then with the power delay in order to separate data in time.
Arbitrary bits
ReadFile
Channel H Delay
34
4.5 Channel model implemented in ADS
The number of delays depends on number of taps a channel model has. When
multiplication is performed, the channel is summed and used as an input to the
antenna array at the receiver.
Channel H
Figure 19. Channel model in ADS with channel matrix H and power delays
35
5 Comparison results
In this section the comparison results between the measured data conducted at
Victoria University in Melbourne by Jason Gao and Michael Falukner and theoretical
data generated by the Matlab program written by L. Schumacher [3] are presented.
When investigating and comparing the physical models against one-ring model the
conclusion is drawn that the best suitable model for measured data is a case F model
since model F includes 6 clusters, same as for one-ring model.
The following graphs consider only one-ring model compared against the F model.
The MIMO channel impulse responses are generated using Matlab 6.5. The Fourier
transform is used to transform the simulated impulse responses into the frequency
domain, see Figure 20 and 21.
Figure 20 represents impulse response simulated for case F channel model. The
impulse response is an averaged sum for absolute magnitude of channel matrix H (10-
3
= – 40 dB).
Figure 21 illustrates impulse response for the one-ring model. The graph represents
impulse response that is accounted for hardware-induced errors, such as insertion loss
and leakage in the switches and cabling.
It can be seenImpulse
that theresponse of h11 for the one-ring model
magnitude Impulse response
is much of h12
lower than for the
model F. This may be due to the interference of people moving around in the
corridors at the time when the data was collected. But also since impulse response for
model F is averaged over time while one-ring model is measured for a certain time
period.
Figure 20. Impulse response of covariance channel matrix H for channel model F
36
Figure 21. Impulse response and phase of one-ring model
It is known from theoretical study [25] that the lower the spatial correlation within the
indoor environment, the greater the achieved capacity. The spatial power correlation
coefficient for the one-ring is not treated at the BS since antennas separated with 1.5λ
is decorrelated. Model F assumes partly correlated Tx and Rx antennas because of 0.5
– 1 λ antenna separation. Antenna spacing on the order of 0.4λ – 0.6 λ is adequate for
independent fading [26], see also Section 6.4.
Table 3 represents the spatial correlation coefficients for the channel model F and
one-ring model at the MS antennas. Numbers in brackets are theoretical results for the
channel model F while numbers without brackets are estimated correlation
coefficients for the one-ring model. It can be seen that deviation is marginal.
The Doppler power spectrum in the one-ring model is not included due to stationary
realization of MS and BS antennas. It follows that the comparison results does not
consider Doppler power spectrum.
The reader should notice that since the data presented here considers different
scenarios, the power correlation coefficients and impulse response vary. The data for
one-ring model is collected for smaller rooms and for a 12m long corridor. Model F
considers much bigger space than the space where one-ring model was measured.
There may be several reasons why the simulated and measured results do not match
perfectly: insufficient amount of statistics, Wide Sense Stationary (WSS) assumption
not 100% fulfilled, … This needs further investigations.
37
6 Theory, Part II
This section presents the second part of literature study. It is explained how the
channel ‘H’ is transmitted and received and how the algorithms for detection should
be developed.
Focus of MIMO systems is to combine the signals at the receiver in such a way that
the quality, bit error rate BER and data rate, is dramatically improved. To achieve
these improvements, both transmitter and receiver must be designed in a special way.
The transmission of the channel H at the transmitter and algorithms for detection and
decoding at the receiver are discussed in this section.
The wireless channel constitutes a hostile propagation medium, which suffers from
fading (caused by destructive addition of multipath components) and interference
from other users. Diversity is a powerful technique to combat fading and interference.
Spatial diversity has become very popular in recent years since it can be provided
without loss in spectral efficiency, see section 6.4. Because of its popularity and
spectral efficiency, here is only transmission of spatial multiplexing considered.
Spatial
Demulti- Tx1 Rx1 Spatial
plexing Multi-
plexing
Tx 2 Rx2
38
6.2 Transmitter
There are two alternatives for the transmitting channel. The first alternative is that the
transmitter has partial or full knowledge of the channel and uses this knowledge to
increase diversity gain. The second alternative is that the transmitter has no
knowledge of the channel and uses a coding technique to achieve diversity. In both
categories it is presumed that the receiver has knowledge of the channel in order to
separate data from the multiple spatial channels. This information is obtained by
sending training or pilot symbols to estimate the channel.
For the first alternative, the transmitter has to gain knowledge of the channel. There
are two possibilities, (1) knowledge of the channel at the receiver is turned around and
used at the transmitter (no feedback is necessary) or (2) knowledge of the channel at
the receiver is fed back to the transmitter using a handshaking protocol.
Receiver OFDM-Modulator
FFT &
Remove
CP
Antenna Soft Space- Depuncture
selection V-BLAST decision Frequency &
FFT & Interleaver Decoder(V)
Remove
CP
OFDM-Demodulator
Figure 23. MIMO system without knowledge of the channel at the transmitter
Source: Intel Technology Journal, High-Throughput Wireless LAN Air Interface
Interleaving and coding at the transmitter can be used to reduce the carrier-to-noise
(C/N) ration requirement for accurate detection. Coding provides redundancy by
sending multiple copies of the signal on orthogonal symbol paths. Interleaving
provides robustness to the link by spreading errors out in time, avoiding large
amounts of contiguous data loss that would cut a wireless link.
As illustrated in Figure 23, assuming N subcarriers (or tones) the individual data
streams are passed through OFDM modulator, which performs an IFFT on blocks of
length N followed by a parallel to serial conversion. A cyclic prefix (CP) containing a
39
copy of the parallel to serial converted output of the N-point IFFT is then prepended.
The resulting OFDM symbols are launched simultaneously from the individual
transmitting antennas. The CP is essentially a guard interval which serves to eliminate
interference between OFDM symbols and turns linear convolution into circular
convolution such that the channel is diagonalized by the FFT. In the receiver the
individual signals are passed through OFDM demodulator which first discard the CP
and then perform an N-point FFT. The outputs of the OFDM demodulator are finally
separated and decoded.
Transmitting and receiving diversity are both similar and different in many ways.
While receiving diversity needs merely multiple antennas which fade independently,
and is independent of coding/modulation schemes, transmitting diversity needs
special modulation/coding schemes in order to be effective. Also, receive diversity
provides array gain, whereas transmitting diversity does not provide array gain when
the channel is unknown in the transmitter.
6.3 Receiver
In the following a detection and decoding algorithm at the receiver are presented. The
receiver components are illustrated in the above Figure 23.
For a more in depth treatment of the V-BLAST algorithm the interested reader is
referred to [27, 28].
The optimum decoding method is maximum likelihood (ML) where the decoder
compares all possible combinations of symbols which could have been transmitted
with what is observed.
The ML decoder yields the best performance in terms of error rate. However, this
decoder also has the highest computational complexity which moreover exhibits
exponential growth in the number of transmit antennas. For 2x2 MIMO system ML
decoder works very well.
40
Received signal is expressed as:
r = H ⋅s + n (29)
Impact of antenna selection at both transmitter and receiver is also essential in the
sense of correlation function. For increasing antenna spacing, it follows that
correlation function will decrease its spread.
41
7 Conclusion
This thesis investigates two types of channel models, physically based models and
non-physically based models. Six types (A-F) of physical models for different
scenarios are presented based on physical parameters using Matlab program written
by L. Schumacher [3]. One type of non-physical model, one-ring model, is presented
obtained from measured data conducted at Victoria University by Jason Gao and
Michael Falukner.
Conclusion of implementation of the physically based channel model is that the ADS
tool gives more variations than the Matlab 6.5 does. In ADS the channel can be much
easier integrated into the whole communication chain. Additional properties can be
integrated independently leaving user with the choice to affect or not to affect the
channel model and its characteristics.
Conclusion of the comparison between the physical model F and non-physical model
one–ring model is: both channels follow Rayleigh distribution very well and the
deviation in spatial correlation coefficients is marginal. The impulse response initiates
that the statistical data has lower magnitude than the case F model of channel matrix
H due to the fact that impulse response for model F is an average value while for one-
ring model it is measured under a certain period of time. The interference of people
walking in corridors/rooms causes also a visible interference in one-ring model.
Looking at the results of Uniform, Gaussian and Laplacian PAS one can notice that
correlation coefficient decreases with increasing angular spread (AS) and with
decreasing angle of incidence of the signals, from broadside to end [29].
The main motivation for using OFDM in a MIMO channel due to the fact that OFDM
modulation turns a frequency-selective MIMO channel into a set of parallel
frequency-flat MIMO channels. This significantly reduces receiver complexity in
wireless broadband systems.
In order to gain full advantage of spatial multiplexing the Signal to Noise Ration
(SNR) should be reasonably good.
42
8 Future work
The simulations of the fading, for the physical models, have been done for the case of
frequency non-selective and slow fading. There should be some simulations for
frequency selective and fast fading also to indicate upper and lower limits,
respectively, for signaling rate to avoid the worst fading effects.
The one-ring model, that was investigated here, postulate a scattering environment
and derive a MIMO channel mode involving scattering parameters. Still, an accurate
description of the cross correlation between pairs of channel coefficients is one of the
important modeling aims and should be further investigated and maybe corrected.
The non-physical MIMO channel model (one-ring model) assumes NLOS scenario.
However, in some circumstances, the LOS exists and therefore the model should even
reflect impact of LOS component.
Until now, no outdoor MIMO channel models have been reported based on the
MIMO channel measurements. The outdoor scenarios are very different from the
indoor scenarios. For instance, in the indoor scenarios, the Doppler shift is small
while the outdoor scenarios may have relatively large Doppler shift.
43
9 References
45
10 Bibliography
Agilent Technologies, Agilent Ptolemy Simulation, Agilent Technologies, USA, May 2003.
A. Hemani, Channel Estimation, Phase Tracking and Equalization – Algorithm design report,
SocTRix WG3, 2003.
D. Gesbert, M. Shafi, D. Shiu, P. J. Smith, and A. Naguib, From Theory to Practice: An Overview of
MIMO Space-Time Coded Wireless Systems, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Comm., vol. 21, no. 3,
April 2003.
H. Suzuki, A statistical model for urban radio propagation, IEEE Transaction on Communications,
vol. COM-25, no. 7, pp. 673-680, July 1977.
John G. Proakis, Digital Communications, McGraw-Hill Higher Education, USA, 2001, 4th edition.
Kai Yu and Björn Ottersten, Models for MIMO Propagation Channels, A Review, Wiley Journal on
Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing, KTH Stockholm, Sweden, IR-S3-SB-0223, 2002.
Q. Li, M. Ho, J. Lung, and D. Cheung, On the tap angular spread and Kronecker structure of the
WLAN channel model, IEEE 802.11-03/584r0, July 2003.
P.J. Smith, M. Shafi, Waterfilling methods for MIMO systems, in Proc. 3rd Australian Communication
Theory Workshop, Canberra, Australia, 2002, AusCTW 2002.
The MatlabTM curriculum series, The student edition of MatlabTM MS-DOS personal computers,
Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA, 1992.
46
Appendix A Physical models A-F
Model A
Tap
1
index
Excess
delay 0
[ns]
Power
0
[dB]
AoA
AoA 45
[°]
AS AS
40
(receiver) [°]
AoD
AoD 45
[°]
AS AS
40
(transmitter) [°]
47
Model B
Tap
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
index
Excess
delay 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
[ns]
Power
Cluster 1 0 -5.4 -10.8 -16.2 -21.7
[dB]
AoA
AoA 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.3
[°]
AS AS
14.4 14.4 14.4 14.4 14.4
(receiver) [°]
AoD
AoD 225.1 225.1 225.1 225.1 225.1
[°]
AS AS
14.4 14.4 14.4 14.4 14.4
(transmitter) [°]
Power
Cluster 2 -3.2 -6.3 -9.4 -12.5 -15.6 -18.7 -21.8
[dB]
AoA
AoA 118.4 118.4 118.4 118.4 118.4 118.4 118.4
[°]
AS
AS 25.2 25.2 25.2 25.2 25.2 25.2 25.2
[°]
AoD
AoD 106.5 106.5 106.5 106.5 106.5 106.5 106.5
[°]
AS
AS 25.4 25.4 25.4 25.4 25.4 25.4 25.4
[°]
48
Model C
Tap
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
index
Excess
delay 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 110 140 170 200
[ns]
Power
Cluster 1 0 -2.1 -4.3 -6.5 -8.6 -10.8 -13.0 -15.2 -17.3 -19.5
[dB]
AoA AoA
290.3 290.3 290.3 290.3 290.3 290.3 290.3 290.3 290.3 290.3
[°]
AS AS
24.6 24.6 24.6 24.6 24.6 24.6 24.6 24.6 24.6 24.6
(receiver) [°]
AoD
AoD 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5
[°]
AS AS
24.7 24.7 24.7 24.7 24.7 24.7 24.7 24.7 24.7 24.7
(transmitter) [°]
Power
Cluster 2 -5.0 -7.2 -9.3 -11.5 -13.7 -15.8 -18.0 -20.2
[dB]
AoA
AoA 332.3 332.3 332.3 332.3 332.3 332.3 332.3 332.3
[°]
AS
AS 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4
[°]
AoD
AoD 56.4 56.4 56.4 56.4 56.4 56.4 56.4 56.4
[°]
AS
AS 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5
[°]
49
Model D
Tap
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
index
Excess
delay 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 110 140 170 200 240 290 340 390
[ns]
Power
Cluster 1 0 -0.9 -1.7 -2.6 -3.5 -4.3 -5.2 -6.1 -6.9 -7.8 -9.0 -11.1 -13.7 -16.3 -19.3 -23.2
[dB]
AoA AoA
158.9 158.9 158.9 158.9 158.9 158.9 158.9 158.9 158.9 158.9 158.9 158.9 158.9 158.9 158.9 158.9
[°]
AS AS
27.7 27.7 27.7 27.7 27.7 27.7 27.7 27.7 27.7 27.7 27.7 27.7 27.7 27.7 27.7 27.7
(receiver) [°]
AoD
AoD 332.1 332.1 332.1 332.1 332.1 332.1 332.1 332.1 332.1 332.1 332.1 332.1 332.1 332.1 332.1 332.1
[°]
AS AS
27.4 27.4 27.4 27.4 27.4 27.4 27.4 27.4 27.4 27.4 27.4 27.4 27.4 27.4 27.4 27.4
(transmitter) [°]
Power
Cluster 2 -6.6 -9.5 -12.1 -14.7 -17.4 -21.9 -25.5
[dB]
AoA
AoA 320.2 320.2 320.2 320.2 320.2 320.2 320.2
[°]
AS
AS 31.4 31.4 31.4 31.4 31.4 31.4 31.4
[°]
AoD
AoD 49.3 49.3 49.3 49.3 49.3 49.3 49.3
[°]
AS
AS 32.1 32.1 32.1 32.1 32.1 32.1 32.1
[°]
Power
Cluster 3 -18.8 -23.2 -25.2 -26.7
[dB]
AoA
AoA 276.1 276.1 276.1 276.1
[°]
AS
AS 37.4 37.4 37.4 37.4
[°]
AoD
AoD 275.9 275.9 275.9 275.9
[°]
AS
AS 36.8 36.8 36.8 36.8
[°]
50
Model E (1/2)
Tap
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
index
Excess
delay 0 10 20 30 50 80 110 140 180 230 280 330 380 430 490 560 640 730
[ns]
Power
Cluster 1 -2.6 -3.0 -3.5 -3.9 -4.5 -5.6 -6.9 -8.2 -9.8 -11.7 -13.9 -16.1 -18.3 -20.5 -22.9
[dB]
AoA AoA
163.7 163.7 163.7 163.7 163.7 163.7 163.7 163.7 163.7 163.7 163.7 163.7 163.7 163.7 163.7
[°]
AS AS
35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8 35.8
(receive) [°]
AoD
AoD 105.6 105.6 105.6 105.6 105.6 105.6 105.6 105.6 105.6 105.6 105.6 105.6 105.6 105.6 105.6
[°]
AS AS
36.1 36.1 36.1 36.1 36.1 36.1 36.1 36.1 36.1 36.1 36.1 36.1 36.1 36.1 36.1
(transmit) [°]
Power
Cluster 2 -1.8 -3.2 -4.5 -5.8 -7.1 -9.9 -10.3 -14.3 -14.7 -18.7 -19.9 -22.4
[dB]
AoA
AoA 251.8 251.8 251.8 251.8 251.8 251.8 251.8 251.8 251.8 251.8 251.8 251.8
[°]
AS
AS 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6
[°]
AoD
AoD 293.1 293.1 293.1 293.1 293.1 293.1 293.1 293.1 293.1 293.1 293.1 293.1
[°]
AS
AS 42.5 42.5 42.5 42.5 42.5 42.5 42.5 42.5 42.5 42.5 42.5 42.5
[°]
51
Model E (2/2)
Power
Cluster 3 -7.9 -9.6 -14.2 -13.8 -18.6 -18.1 -22.8
[dB]
AoA
AoA 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0
[°]
AS
AS 37.4 37.4 37.4 37.4 37.4 37.4 37.4
[°]
AoD
AoD 61.9 61.9 61.9 61.9 61.9 61.9 61.9
[°]
AS
AS 38.0 38.0 38.0 38.0 38.0 38.0 38.0
[°]
Power
Cluster 4 -20.6 -20.5 -20.7 -24.6
[dB]
AoA
AoA 182.0 182.0 182.0 182.0
[°]
AS
AS 40.3 40.3 40.3 40.3
[°]
AoD
AoD 275.7 275.7 275.7 275.7
[°]
AS
AS 38.7 38.7 38.7 38.7
[°]
52
Model F (1/2)
Tap
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
index
Excess
delay 0 10 20 30 50 80 110 140 180 230 280 330 400 490 600 730 880 1050
[ns]
Power
Cluster 1 -3.3 -3.6 -3.9 -4.2 -4.6 -5.3 -6.2 -7.1 -8.2 -9.5 -11.0 -12.5 -14.3 -16.7 -19.9
[dB]
AoA
AoA 315.1 315.1 315.1 315.1 315.1 315.1 315.1 315.1 315.1 315.1 315.1 315.1 315.1 315.1 315.1
[°]
AS AS
48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0
(receive) [°]
AoD
AoD 56.2 56.2 56.2 56.2 56.2 56.2 56.2 56.2 56.2 56.2 56.2 56.2 56.2 56.2 56.2
[°]
AS AS
41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6 41.6
(transmit) [°]
Power
Cluster 2 -1.8 -2.8 -3.5 -4.4 -5.3 -7.4 -7.0 -10.3 -10.4 -13.8 -15.7 -19.9
[dB]
AoA
AoA 180.4 180.4 180.4 180.4 180.4 180.4 180.4 180.4 180.4 180.4 180.4 180.4
[°]
AS
AS 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0 55.0
[°]
AoD
AoD 183.7 183.7 183.7 183.7 183.7 183.7 183.7 183.7 183.7 183.7 183.7 183.7
[°]
AS
AS 55.2 55.2 55.2 55.2 55.2 55.2 55.2 55.2 55.2 55.2 55.2 55.2
[°]
Power
Cluster 3 -5.7 -6.7 -10.4 -9.6 -14.1 -12.7 -18.5
[dB]
AoA
AoA 74.7 74.7 74.7 74.7 74.7 74.7 74.7
[°]
AS
AS 42.0 42.0 42.0 42.0 42.0 42.0 42.0
[°]
AoD
AoD 153.0 153.0 153.0 153.0 153.0 153.0 153.0
[°]
AS
AS 47.4 47.4 47.4 47.4 47.4 47.4 47.4
[°]
53
Model F (2/2)
Power
Cluster 4 -8.8 -13.3 -18.7
[dB]
AoA
AoA 251.5 251.5 251.5
[°]
AS
AS 28.6 28.6 28.6
[°]
AoD
AoD 112.5 112.5 112.5
[°]
AS
AS 27.2 27.2 27.2
[°]
Power
Cluster 5 -12.9 -14.2
[dB]
AoA
AoA 68.5 68.5
[°]
AS
AS 30.7 30.7
[°]
AoD
AoD 291.0 291.0
[°]
AS
AS 33.0 33.0
[°]
Power
Cluster 6 -16.3 -21.2
[dB]
AoA
AoA 246.2 246.2
[°]
AS
AS 38.2 38.2
[°]
AoD
AoD 62.3 62.3
[°]
AS
AS 38.0 38.0
[°]
54
Appendix B Non-physical model
One-ring model Tap
n
index
Cluster 4
Tap
n
index AoA
AoA 45.51
Cluster 1 [°]
AS
AoA AS 31.82
AoA 44.89 [°]
[°]
AS AS AoD
0.82 AoD 314.90
(receive) [°] [°]
AoD AS
AoD 346.07 AS 38.06
[°] [°]
AS AS Cluster 5
26.42
(transmit) [°]
AoA
Cluster 2 AoA 30.65
[°]
AoA AS
AoA 61.14 AS 14.22
[°] [°]
AS
AS 39.63 AoD
[°] AoD 305.93
[°]
AoD
AoD 289.25 AS
[°] AS 0.21
AS [°]
AS 16.81
[°] Cluster 6
Cluster 3
AoA
AoA AoA 27.15
AoA 48.17 [°]
[°]
AS AS
AS 9.13 AS 33.39
[°] [°]
AoD
AoD 294.77 AoD
[°] AoD 302.40
AS [°]
AS 15.01
[°] AS
AS 1.08
[°]
55
Appendix C Power distributions
Uniform PAS
The first step is to normalise the PAS such that it can be regarded as a probability distribution.
The constants QU,k are derived such that PASU (φ) fulfils the requirements of a probability
distribution function:
π N c φ 0 mk + ∆φ k
∫π PAS U (φ ) dφ = ∑ ∫QU ,k dφ = 1
− k =1 φ 0 mk − ∆φ
where ∆φ stands for the half-domain definition of the PAS (domain assumed symmetric).
Nc
Derivation of probability distribution leads then to 2 ∑Q
k =1
U ,k ∆φ k = 1
The cross-correlation function for real-real and imaginary-imaginary parts are derived in the
same way:
R XX ( D) = RYY ( D) = E[ x x] = E[ y y ]
where Jm is the Bessel function of the first kind and mth order.
R XY ( D) = − RYX ( D) = E[ x y ] = − E[ y x]
π Nc ∞ J ( 2 m +1) ( D)
R XY ,U ( D) = ∫ sin( D sin φ ) PAS (φ )dφ = 4∑ QU ,k ∑ sin[(2m − 1)φ 0,k ] sin[(2m + 1)∆φ k ]
−π k =1 m =0 2m + 1
From these resolutions, both field ρf(D) and envelope ρe(D) correlation coefficient are defined
2 2
as: ρ e ( D ) = ρ f ( D ) = R XX ( D ) + jR XY ( D)
56
Truncated Gaussian PAS
∆φ
erf k
− jmσ G ,k 2
Nc ∞ σ 2
G ,k
R XX ,G ( D) = J 0 ( D) + ∑ QG ,k ∑ J 2 m ( D) cos(2mφ 0,k ) exp(−2σ 2 G ,k m 2 )ℜ
k =1 m =1 ∆φ
− erf − − jmσ G ,k 2
k
σ G ,k 2
∆φ 1
erf k
− jσ G ,k 2 (m + )
Nc ∞ σ 2 2
1
R XY ,G ( D) = ∑ QG ,k ∑ J ( 2 m +1) ( D) sin[(2m − 1)φ 0,k ] exp − 2σ 2 G ,k (m + ) 2 ℜ
G , k
k =1 m =1 2 ∆ φ 1
− erf − − jσ G , k 2 ( m + )
k
σ 2 2
G ,k
57
Truncated Laplacian PAS
2 φ −φ0 , k
Nc
QL ,k − ε [φ − (φ 0,k − ∆φ k )]
PAS L (φ ) = ∑ e σ 2 L ,k
k =1 σ L ,k 2π − ε [φ − (φ 0,k + ∆φ k )]
2 ∆φ 2
− exp − k
QL , k ∞ J ( 2 m+1) ( D ) σ L ,k σ L ,k
Nc
R XY ,L ( D ) = 4∑ ∑ sin [(2m + 1)φ0,k ]
σ
2
2 m=0 (2m + 1) sin[(2m + 1)∆φ ] + 2 cos[(2m + 1)∆φ ]
2 + ( 2m + 1) 2
k =1 L ,k
σ k
σ L ,k k
L ,k
58